Jump to content

Chester

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Azallen (talk | contribs) at 09:46, 7 October 2008 (Removed 24 hour old active edit and replaced with under construction). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Template:Two other uses

Chester
Chester's commercial centre
PopulationExpression error: "77,040[1]" must be numeric
OS grid referenceSJ405665
• London196 miles (315 km) SE
District
Shire county
Region
CountryEngland
Sovereign stateUnited Kingdom
Post townCHESTER
Postcode districtCH1
Dialling code01244
PoliceCheshire
FireCheshire
AmbulanceNorth West
UK Parliament
List of places
UK
England
Cheshire

Chester is the county town of Cheshire, England. Lying on the River Dee, close to the border with Wales, it is home to 77,040 inhabitants,[1] and is the largest and most populous settlement of the wider local government district of the City of Chester, which had a population of 118,210 according to the 2001 Census.[2] Chester was granted city status in 1541.

Chester was founded as a "castrum" or Roman fort with the name Deva Victrix in the year 79 by the Roman Legio II Adiutrix. Chester's four main roads, Eastgate, Northgate, Watergate and Bridge, follow routes laid out at this time - almost 2000 years ago. One of the three main Roman army bases, Deva later became a major settlement in the Roman province of Britannia. After the Romans left in the 5th century, the Saxons fortified the town against the Danes and would give Chester its name. The patron saint of Chester, Werburgh, is buried in Chester Cathedral.

Chester was one of the last towns in England to fall to the Normans in the Norman conquest of England. William the Conqueror ordered a castle built to dominate the town and the nearby Welsh border. In 1071 he created Hugh d'Avranches, the 1st Earl of Chester.

Chester has the reputation of being the "English medieval city par excellence", but many of its buildings are from the Victorian era.[3] It has the most complete city walls in Britain,[4] and most sections of the walls are listed Grade I. The Industrial Revolution brought railways, canals and new roads to the city, which saw substantial expansion and development to the city - Chester Town Hall and the Grosvenor Museum are examples of Victorian architecture from this period.

History

Main article: History of Chester

Roman

Main article: Deva Victrix
Model of how Deva Victrix would probably have looked.

The Romans founded Chester as Deva Victrix in AD 70s in the land of the Celtic Cornovii, according to ancient cartographer Ptolemy,[5] as a fortress during the Roman expansion north.[6] It was named Deva either after the goddess of the Dee,[7] or directly from the British name for the river.[8] The 'victrix' part of the name was taken from the title of the Legio XX Valeria Victrix who were based at Deva.[9] A civilian settlement grew around the settlement, probably starting as a group of traders and their families who were profiting from trade with the fortress.[10] The fortress was 20% larger than other fortresses in Britannia built around the same time at York (Eboracum) and Caerleon (Isca Augusta);[11] this has led to the suggestion that the fortress may have been intended to become the capital of the Roman province of Britannia Superior rather than London (Londinium).[12] The civilian amphitheatre which was built in 1st century could sit between 8,000 and 10,000 people,[13] is the largest known military amphitheatre in Britain,[14] and is also a Scheduled Monument.[15] The Minerva Shrine in the Roman quarry is the only rock cut Roman shrine still in situ in Britain.[16] The fortress was garrisoned by the legion until at least the late 4th century.[17] Although the army would have abandoned the fortress by 410 when the Romans retreated from Britannia[18], the civilians settlement continued (likely with some Roman veterans staying behind with their local wives and children) and its occupants probably continued to use the fortress and its defences as protection from raiders in the Irish Sea.[17]

Medieval

Deverdoeu was still one of two Welsh language names for Chester in the late 12th century; its other and more enduring Welsh name was 'Caerlleon', literally "the fortress-city of the legions", a name identical with that of the Roman fortress at the other end of the Welsh Marches at Caerleon in Monmouthshire, namely Isca Augusta. The colloquial modern Welsh name is the shortened form, Caer. The early Old English speaking Anglo Saxon settlers used a name which had the same meaning, Legacæstir, which was current until the 11th century, when – in a further parallel with Welsh usage – the first element fell out of use and the simplex name Chester emerged. From the 14th century to the 18th the city's prominent position in north-western England meant that it was commonly also known as Westchester.[19]

Industrial history

Chester played a significant part in the Industrial Revolution which began in the North-West of England in the latter part of the 18th century. The city village of Newtown, located north east of the city and bounded by the Shropshire Union Canal was at the very heart of this industry. The large Chester Cattle Market and the two Chester railway stations, Chester General and Chester Northgate Station, meant that Newtown with its cattle market and canal, and Hoole with its railways were responsible for providing the vast majority of workers and in turn, the vast amount of Chester's wealth production throughout the Industrial Revolution.

Archaeology

Between 14 May 2007 and 6 July 2007, excavations were carried out in Grosvenor Park. The main aim being to find Cholmondeley's lost Mansion, which was demolished in 1867.

A number of finds have come to light including:

  • Plaster work from the mansion ceiling.
  • Civil War musket balls
  • Clay Tobacco Pipes (17th - 18th century)
  • Clay Tobacco Pipe waster clay from manufacture
  • A base of a small Roman Statue of Venus
  • A Roman votive offering in the form of a lead axe head.[20][21][22]

Relationships with Wales

Associated with its proximity to Wales, Chester has a history of anti-Welsh sentiment (at least in repute), as discussed in this recent exchange in parliament between the local MP Christine Russell and Welsh MP David Jones:[23]

Russell: [...] I freely admit that cross-border relationships have not always been harmonious in the past. For instance, a local byelaw in Chester states that a Welsh person found within the city walls after sunset can be taken out with a crossbow.
Jones: Is it not true that the Chester town hall clock tower does not have a face facing Wales because the people of Chester would not give the time of day to the Welsh?
Russell: That is absolutely true. However, there is a close inter-relationship and synergy between north-east Wales and west Cheshire today, except on the odd occasion when there is a local derby between Chester and Wrexham—it might not be quite as harmonious then. [...]

(The byelaw referred to no longer offers legal protection against prosecution for murder.)[24]

Governance

Chester is an unparished area within the District of Chester, though a small area around Chester Castle is the civil parish of Chester Castle. It is intended that this district will be replaced in April 2009 by a new unitary authority called Cheshire West and Chester which will replace and unify the boroughs of Ellesmere Port and Neston, Vale Royal as well as Chester District.[25]

Twin towns

Chester is twinned with the French town of Sens, Loerrach in Germany, Lakewood, Colorado in the United States and Senigallia, Italy.

Geography

Chester lies at the southern end of a 2-mile (3.2 km) Triassic sandstone ridge that rises to a height of 42 m within a natural S-bend in the River Dee (before the course was altered in the 18th century). The bedrock, which is also known as the Chester Pebble Beds, is noticeable because of the many small stones trapped within its strata. Retreating glacial sheet ice also deposited quantities of sand and marl across the area where boulder clay was absent.

The eastern and northern part of Chester consisted of heathland and forest. The western side towards the Dee Estuary was marsh and wetland habitats.

Divisions and suburbs

Bache, Blacon, Boughton, Curzon Park, Great Boughton, Handbridge, Hoole, Huntington, Lache, Mollington, Newton, Newtown, Saltney, Saughall, Upton, Vicars Cross, Westminster Park

Demography

There are 77,040 living within the Greater Chester urban area (65% of the total of Chester District). This population is forecast to grow by 5% in the period 2005 to 2021.[1] The resident population for Chester District in the 2001 Census was 118,210. This represents 17.5% of the Cheshire County total (1.8% of the North West population).[2]

Economy

File:Gros hotel.JPG
Grosvenor Family Owned Chester Grosvenor Hotel
Shops in Chester

The city has a shopping centre that contains its unique 'Rows' or galleries (basically two levels of shops) which date from medieval times. The city is heavily populated by chain stores both in the centre and on retail parks to the west, and also features an indoor market, a department store (Browns of Chester, now absorbed by the Debenhams chain), and two main indoor shopping centres: The Grosvenor Mall and the Forum (a reference to the City's Roman past). The Forum, which houses stores and the Chester Market, will be demolished in the Northgate Development scheme to make way for new shopping streets, a new indoor market, an enlarged library, a car park and bus station, and a performing arts centre.

Chester's main industries are now the service industries, comprising retail, tourism and financial services. Chester's main employer is Bank of America, formerly MBNA Europe. There is also a large Shell oil refinery (in Ellesmere Port), several large financial firms including HBOS plc and M&S Money. Just over the Welsh border to the west near the village of Broughton there is an Airbus UK factory (formerly British Aerospace), where the wings of Airbus aircraft, including the Airbus A380 are manufactured,[26] and there are food processing plants to the north and west. The Iceland frozen food company is based in nearby Deeside.

Chester has its own university, the University of Chester, and a major hospital, the Countess of Chester Hospital, named after Diana, Princess of Wales and Countess of Chester.

Landmarks and tourist attractions

See also Grade I listed buildings in Chester

The more unusual landmarks in the city are the city walls, the rows and the black-and-white architecture. The walls encircle the bounds of the medieval city and constitute the most complete city walls in Britain,[4] the full circuit measuring nearly 2 miles (3 km).[27] The only break in the circuit is in the southwest section in front of County Hall.[28] A footpath runs along the top of the walls, crossing roads by bridges over Eastgate, Northgate, St Martin's Gate, Watergate, Bridgegate, Newgate, and the Wolf Gate, and passing a series of structures, namely Phoenix Tower (or King Charles' Tower), Morgan's Mount, the Goblin Tower (or Pemberton's Parlour), and Bonewaldesthorne's Tower with a spur leading to the Water Tower, and Thimbleby's Tower.[29] On Eastgate is Eastgate Clock which is said to be the most photographed clock in England after Big Ben.[30]

The rows are unique in Britain.[31] They consist of buildings with shops or dwellings on the lowest two storeys. The shops or dwellings on the ground floor are often lower than the street and are entered by steps, which sometimes lead to a crypt-like vault. Those on the first floor are entered behind a continuous walkway, often with a sloping shelf between the walkway and the railings overlooking the street.[32] Much of the architecture of central Chester looks medieval and some of it is. But by far the greatest part of it, including most of the black-and-white buildings, is Victorian, a result of what Pevsner termed the "black-and-white revival".[33]

The most prominent buildings in the city centre are the town hall and the cathedral. The town hall was opened in 1869. It is in Gothic Revival style and has a tower and a short spire.[34] The cathedral was formerly the church of St Werburgh's Abbey. Its architecture dates back to the Norman era, with additions made most centuries since. A series of major restorations took place in the 19th century and in 1975 a separate bell tower was opened. The elaborately carved canopies of the choirstalls are considered to be one of the finest in the country. Also in the cathedral is the shrine of St Werburgh. To the north of the cathedral are the former monastic buildings.[35] The oldest church in the city is St John's, which is outside the city walls and was at one time the cathedral church. The church was shortened after the dissolution of the monasteries and ruins of the former east end remain outside the church. Much of the interior is in Norman style and this is considered to be the best example of 11th–12th century church architecture in Cheshire.[36] At the intersection of the former Roman roads is Chester Cross, to the north of which is the small church of St Peter’s which is in use as an ecumenical centre.[37] Other churches are now redundant and have other uses; St Michael’s in Bridge Street is a heritage centre,[38] St Mary-on-the-Hill is an educational centre,[39] and Holy Trinity now acts as the Guildhall.[40] Other notable buildings include the preserved shot tower, the highest structure in Chester.[41]

Roman remains can still be found in the city, particularly in the basements of some of the buildings and in the lower parts of the northern section of the city walls.[42] The most important Roman feature is the amphitheatre just outside the walls which is undergoing archaeological investigation.[43] Roman artifacts are on display in the Roman Gardens which run parallel to the city walls from Newgate to the River Dee, where there's also a reconstructed hypocaust system. [44] An original hypocaust system can be seen in the basement of the Spudulike restaurant on Bridge Street, which is open to the public. [45]

Of the medieval city the most important surviving structure is Chester Castle, particularly the Agricola Tower. Much of the rest of the castle has been replaced by the neoclassical county court and its entrance, the Propyleum.[46] To the south of the city runs the River Dee, with its 11th century weir. The river is crossed by the Old Dee Bridge, dating from the 13th century, the Grosvenor Bridge of 1832, and Queen's Park suspension bridge (for pedestrians).[47] To the southwest of the city the River Dee curves towards the north. The area between the river and the city walls here is known as the Roodee, and contains Chester Racecourse which holds a series of horse races and other events.[48] The Shropshire Union Canal runs to the north of the city and a branch leads from it to the River Dee.[49]

The major museum in Chester is the Grosvenor Museum which includes a collection of Roman tombstones and an art gallery. Associated with the museum is 20 Castle Street in which rooms are furnished in different historical styles.[50] The Dewa Roman Experience has hands-on exhibits and a reconstructed Roman street. And one of the blocks in the forecourt of the castle houses the Cheshire Military Museum. [51]

The major public park in Chester is Grosvenor Park.[52] On the south side of the River Dee, in Handbridge, is Edgar's Field, another public park,[53] which contains Minerva's Shrine, a Roman shrine to the goddess Minerva.[54] A war memorial to those who died in the world wars is in the town hall and it contains the names of all Chester servicemen who died in the First World War.[55]

Chester Visitor Centre, opposite the Roman Amphitheatre, issues a leaflet giving details of tourist attractions. Those not covered above include cruises on the River Dee and on the Shropshire Union Canal, and guided tours on an open-air bus.[56] The river cruises start from a riverside area known as the Groves, which contains seating and a bandstand.[57] A series of festivals is organised in the city, including mystery plays, a summer music festival and a literature festival.[58] Chester City Council has produced a series of leaflets for self-guided walks.[59] Tourist Information Centres are at the town hall and at Chester Visitor Centre.[60]

Present day

The Falcon Inn after restoration
File:The Cross.JPG
The Cross as seen from The Rows
The weir on the River Dee, Chester, England (2002)
Curzon Park as seen from the famous Grosvenor Bridge spanning the River Dee.

A considerable amount of land in Chester is owned by the Duke of Westminster who owns an estate – Eaton Hall – near the village of Eccleston. He also has vast London properties in Mayfair. Indeed, the clock tower which houses Big Ben was copied on the Duke's estate home of Eaton Hall and can be seen from the road from Aldford to Chester today.

Grosvenor is the Duke's family name, which explains such features in the City such as the Grosvenor Bridge, the Grosvenor Hotel, and Grosvenor Park. Much of Chester's architecture dates from the Victorian era, many of the buildings being modelled on the Jacobean half-timbered style and designed by John Douglas, who was employed by the Duke as his principal architect. He had a trademark of twisted chimney stacks, many of which can be seen on the buildings in the city centre.

Douglas designed amongst other buildings the Grosvenor Hotel and the City Baths. In 1911, Douglas' protégé and city architect James Strong designed the then active fire station on the west side of Northgate Street. Another feature of all buildings belonging to the estate of Westminster is the 'Grey Diamonds' – a weaving pattern of grey bricks in the red brickwork laid out in a diamond formation.

Towards the end of WWII, a lack of affordable housing meant many problems for Chester. As a result, vast open fields on the edge of the city were transformed into residential areas. Large areas of open fields on the outskirts of the city were turned into residential areas in the 1950s and early 1960s producing, for instance, the suburb of Blacon. In 1964, a bypass was built through and around the town centre to combat traffic congestion.

These new developments caused local concern as the physicality and therefore the feel of the city was being dramatically altered. In 1968, a report by Donald Insall[61] in collaboration with authorities and government recommended that historic buildings be preserved in Chester. Consequently, the buildings were used in new and different ways instead of being flattened.[62]

In 1969 the City Conservation Area was designated. Over the next 20 years the emphasis was placed on saving historic buildings, such as The Falcon Inn, Dutch Houses and Kings Buildings.

On January 13, 2002, Chester was granted Fairtrade City status. This status was renewed by the Fairtrade Foundation on August 20, 2003.

Renaissance

In 2007 Chester Council announced a 10-year plan to see Chester become a "must see European destination". At a cost of £1.3 billion it has been nicknamed Chester Renaissance.[63]

There are four major developments in Chester.

The Northgate Development project began in 2007. At a cost of £400 million, Chester City Council and developers ING hope to create a new quarter for Chester. The development will see the demolition of the market hall, bus station, theatre and NCP car park, and the local Northgate Arena leisure centre. In its place will be a new multi-storey car park, bus exchange, performing arts centre, homes, retail space, a flagship department store and a hotel.[64]

Culture

Arts and sport

In 2007, Chester's cultural sector was going through a major transformation. The Gateway Theatre had closed as part of the Northgate Development and so too had the Odeon cinema. The site was earmarked for redevelopment, with the closed Odeon cinema being the subject of a proposal to re-open it as part of an arts complex with a cinema at its heart; or its owners, Brook Leisure, may pursue planning permission to turn it into a nightclub.[65] Numerous public houses and wine bars, some of which date from medieval times, populate the city. Chester also has some nightclubs, which are soon going to be added to by the development of two new clubs in the next eighteen months. Also to the east side of the city are the UK's largest zoological gardens, Chester Zoo. Chester has its own film society.

Chester City FC in action

Chester City football club play in the Coca-Cola League 2, the fourth tier of English football and the lowest fully professional division. They were elected to the Football League in 1931, and have played at their Deva Stadium, straddling the England–Wales border, since 1992. Notable former players include Ian Rush (who also managed the club), Cyrille Regis, Arthur Albiston, Earl Barrett, Lee Dixon, Steve Harkness, Roberto Martinez and Stan Pearson.

The city also has a national basketball team, the newly named, BiG Storage Cheshire Jets Champions, who play in the city's Northgate Arena leisure centre; and a wheelchair basketball team, Celtic Warriors, formerly known as the Chester Wheelchair Jets.[66] Chester also has a successful hockey club, Chester HC, who play at the County Officers' Club on Plas Newton Lane, and also an American Football team, the Chester Romans, who are part of the British American Football League.

Chester Racecourse hosts several flat race meetings from the spring to the autumn. The races take place within view of the City walls and attract tens of thousands of visitors. The May meeting includes several nationally significant races such as the Chester Vase, which is recognised as a trial for the Epsom Derby.

Chester Rugby Club is also not without its local fame, winning the Cheshire Cup several times.

The River Dee is also home to several rowing clubs, notably Grosvenor Rowing Club and Royal Chester Rowing Club, as well as two school clubs, The King's School Chester Rowing Club and Queen's Park High Rowing Club. The weir is regularly used by a number of local canoe and kayak clubs. Each July the Chester Raft Race is held on the River Dee in aid of charity. Chester Golf Club can also be found near the banks of the Dee.

Music

Chester has a brass band that was formed in 1853. It was known as the Blue Coat Band and today as The City of Chester Band.[67] It is a thriving 3rd section brass band with an active training band and its members still wear a blue-jacketed uniform with an image of the Eastgate clock on the breast pocket.

Pop Band Mansun are probably the most famous Britpop band to come from Chester.

Media

Chester's newspapers are the daily Chester Evening Leader, and the weekly Chester Chronicle. It also has various free publications, such as the newspapers Chronicle Midweek and Chester Standard. Dee 106.3 is the city's own radio station, with Wrexham's Marcher Sound and BBC Radio Merseyside also broadcasting locally. Chester is the city where Channel 4's soap-opera Hollyoaks is set (although most filming takes place around Liverpool).

Transport

Canals

File:Canal3.JPG
Canal at the foot of the city walls

From about 1794, when canal building in England finished, through to the late 1950s, when the canal-side flour mills were closed, narrowboats carried produce and supplies to and from North Wales (coal, slate, gypsum or lead ore), finished lead (for roofing, water pipes and sewerage) from the leadworks in Edgerton Street (Newtown). Grain from Cheshire was stored in granaries on the banks of the canal at Newtown and Boughton, and salt for preserving food arrived from Northwich.

The Chester Canal flowed into the river Dee, providing access to the sea and other ports such as Liverpool, and along with the railways and the port facilities at Crane Wharf, by the Chester racecourse, Chester made an important contribution to the commercial development of the north-west region.

The original Chester Canal was constructed to run from the River Dee near Sealand Road, to Nantwich in south Cheshire, and opened in 1774. In 1805 the Wirral section of the Ellesmere Canal was opened, which ran from Netherpool (now known as Ellesmere Port) to meet the Chester Canal at Chester canal basin. Later those two canal branches became part of the Shropshire Union Canal network. This canal, which runs alongside the walls of Chester, is navigable and remains in use today.

Railways

The City Of Chester once had two major railway stations within a few hundred yards of each other. One, The main Chester General railway station is located to the North East of the city centre, and has an impressive Italianate frontage. Built in 1848, the interior is dilapidated, having lost a roof in the 1972 Chester General rail crash. Extensive renovations took place in September 2007 to improve pedestrian access, and parking. The town was the scene of an early disaster when a new bridge over the Dee collapsed under a local train. It had been built by Robert Stephenson for the Chester and Holyhead Railway in late 1847, and was made of cast iron beams trussed together. Five people were killed when the train fell into the river, and there was a national scandal about the design of the bridge. The Dee bridge disaster led to demolition of many new bridges of similar design.[citation needed]

Trains go from here along the North Wales Coast Line, as well as to London Euston, Liverpool, Crewe, Manchester Piccadilly, Wrexham General and Shrewsbury.

OpenStreetMap of central Chester

The other station, Chester Northgate ended its days in 1969 and was closed because of the Beeching Axe of railway economic 'modernisation' in the mid-1960s.[68] As a consequence, the station was demolished and is now the site of the Northgate Arena leisure centre.

Trams

Chester had an extensive tram network during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It covered an area as far west as Saltney, on the Welsh border, to Chester General station, Tarvin Road and Great Boughton in the northwest. The network featured the narrowest gauge trams (3' 6") in mainland Britain, due to an act of Parliament which deemed that they must be the least obstructive possible.[citation needed]

The tramway was established in 1871 by Chester Tramways Corporation. It was horse-drawn until its electrification by overhead cables in 1903. The tramway was closed, like most others in the UK, in February 1930. The only remains are small areas of uncovered track inside the bus depot, and a few tram-wire supports attached to buildings on Eastgate/Foregate Street.

Roads

The city is a hub for major roads, including the M53 motorway towards the Wirral Peninsula and Liverpool and the M56 motorway towards Manchester. The A55 road runs along the North Wales coast to Holyhead and the A483 links the city to nearby Wrexham and Swansea to the far south.

Bus transport in the city is provided by First Group and Arriva, the council owned and operated ChesterBus (formerly Chester City Transport) having been sold to First Group in mid-2007. There are plans to build a new bus exchange in the city as well as a new coach station.

Notable people

Randolph Caldecott (1846–86), artist and book illustrator, was born in Bridge Street, Chester,[69] David Roberts (1859–1928) the engineer who invented the caterpillar track, grew up in Great Boughton,[70] the conductor Sir Adrian Boult (1889–1983), was born in Liverpool Road,[71] and the grammarian and lexicographer A. S. Hornby (1898–1978) was also born in the city.[72]

Actors born in Chester include Basil Radford (1897–1952),[73] Hugh Lloyd (born 1923),[74] Ronald Pickup (born 1940), and [75] Daniel Craig (born 1968).[76] L. T. C. Rolt (1910–74), engineering historian was born in Chester,[77] as was Anthony Thwaite (born 1930), poet and writer.[78] Beatrice Tinsley (née Hill) (1941–1981), astronomer and cosmologist, professor of astronomy at Yale University was also born in the city but was brought up in New Zealand.[79]

Others born in Chester include Russ Abbot (born 1947) (birth name Russell A. Roberts), musician, comedian and actor,[80] Jeff Green (born 1964), comedian,[81] Helen Willetts (born 1972), former badminton international and weather forecaster,[82] and Emily Booth (born 1976), actress and writer.[83]

The international rugby union footballers and brothers Pat Sanderson (born 1977),[84] and Alex Sanderson (born 1979),[85] were born in the city. Soccer players born in Chester include the English internationals Danny Murphy (born 1977),[86] Michael Owen (born 1979),[87] and other professional footballers include Andy Dorman (born 1982),[88] and Tom Heaton (born 1986).[89]

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^ a b c "Demographics" (PDF). Cheshire County Council. Retrieved 27 September. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  2. ^ a b "2001 Census: Census Area Statistics Chester (Local Authority)". Office for National Statistics. Retrieved 2008-09-27. Also: "Chester in context". Chester City Council. Retrieved 27 September. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  3. ^ Pevsner and Hubbard, pp. 130–131.
  4. ^ a b Morriss, p. 43.
  5. ^ Ptolemy (1992), Book II Chapter 2
  6. ^ Mason (2001), p. 42.
  7. ^ Salway, P. (1993) The Oxford Illustrated History of Roman Britain. ISBN: CN 1634
  8. ^ C.P. Lewis, A.T. Thacker (Editors) (2003). "A History of the County of Chester: Volume 5 part 1". British-history.ac.uk. Retrieved 2008-03-10. {{cite web}}: |author= has generic name (help)
  9. ^ Mason (2001), p. 128.
  10. ^ Mason (2001), p. 101.
  11. ^ Carrington (2002), p. 33-35.
  12. ^ Carrington (2002), p. 46.
  13. ^ Spicer, Graham (2007-01-09). "Revealed: New discoveries at Chester's Roman amphitheatre". 24hourmuseum.org.uk. Retrieved 2008-03-11.
  14. ^ Carrington (2002), p. 54-56.
  15. ^ "Chester Amphitheatre". Pastscape.org.uk. Retrieved 2008-03-10.
  16. ^ "Roman shrine to Minerva". Images of England. Retrieved 2008-03-15.
  17. ^ a b Lewis, C.P. (2003). "Roman Chester". A History of the County of Chester: Volume 5 part 1: The City of Chester: General History and Topography. British-History.ac.uk: 9–15. Retrieved 2008-03-15. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  18. ^ Mason (2001), p. 209-210.
  19. ^ op. cit. (What reference does this "op. cit." refer to?)
  20. ^ The Past Uncovered. Chester Archaeology Newsletter. February 2007. ISSN 1364-324x
  21. ^ The Past Uncovered. Chester Archaeology Newsletter. June 2007. ISSN 1364-324x
  22. ^ "Archaeology in the park" (PDF). Chester City Council. Retrieved 15 April. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  23. ^ "Commons Hansard, 6 Feb 2007 : Column 203WH". Retrieved 22 May. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  24. ^ "Ever been drunk driving a steam engine?". BBC News. Tuesday, 17 January 2006. Retrieved 21 November. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  25. ^ "Local Government and Public Involvement in Health Bill". United Kingdom Parliament. Retrieved 9 August. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  26. ^ "A380 wings roll off production line at Airbus Broughton". BBC News. Monday, 5 April 2004. Retrieved 22 August. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  27. ^ Bilsborough, p. 9.
  28. ^ "Chester Walls South West Section". Chester City Council. Retrieved 2008-04-15.
  29. ^ Pevsner and Hubbard, pp. 154–156.
  30. ^ "Information Sheet: Eastgate Clock". Chester City Council. Retrieved 2008-04-16.
  31. ^ Bilsborough, p. 17.
  32. ^ Morriss, pp. 13–14
  33. ^ Pevsner and Hubbard, pp. 38–39, 130–131.
  34. ^ Pevsner and Hubbard, p. 158.
  35. ^ Pevsner and Hubbard, pp. 135–147
  36. ^ "Images of England: Church of St John the Baptist, Chester". English Heritage. Retrieved 2008-04-15.
  37. ^ "St. Peter's Ecumenical Centre". Parish of Chester. Retrieved 2008-04-15.
  38. ^ "Images of England: Heritage centre". English Heritage. Retrieved 2008-04-15.
  39. ^ "Images of England: St Mary's Centre". English Heritage. Retrieved 2008-04-15.
  40. ^ Pevsner and Hubbard, pp. 152–153
  41. ^ "Chester Lead Works" (PDF). Chester City Council. Retrieved 2008-04-16.
  42. ^ Pevsner and Hubbard, pp. 133–134
  43. ^ "Amphitheatre Project". Chester City Council. Retrieved 2008-04-16.
  44. ^ "Roman Gardens". Chester City Council. Retrieved 2008-04-17.
  45. ^ "English Heritage Spud-U-Like entry". The Civic Trust. Retrieved 2008-08-18.
  46. ^ "Information Sheet: Chester Castle". Chester City Council. Retrieved 2008-04-15.
  47. ^ Pevsner and Hubbard, pp. 159–160
  48. ^ "Chester Racecourse". Chester Racecourse. Retrieved 2008-04-16.
  49. ^ "Canal Towpath Trail" (PDF). Chester City Council. Retrieved 2008-04-16.
  50. ^ "The Grosvenor Museum". Chester City Council. Retrieved 2008-04-16.
  51. ^ "Cheshire Military Museum". University of Chester. Retrieved 2008-04-16.
  52. ^ "Grosvenor Park". Chester City Council. Retrieved 2008-04-16.
  53. ^ "Discover Edgar's Field". Chester City Council. Retrieved 2008-04-16.
  54. ^ "Minerva's Shrine". Chester City Council. Retrieved 2008-04-16.
  55. ^ "War Memorial, Town Hall, Chester, Cheshire". Carl's Cam. Retrieved 2008-04-16.
  56. ^ "Chester Attractions" (PDF). Chester Visitor Centre. Retrieved 2008-04-16.
  57. ^ "Recreation and Leisure". Chester City Council. Retrieved 2008-04-17.
  58. ^ "Festivals and Events". Chester City Council. Retrieved 2008-04-16.
  59. ^ "Heritage Trails". Chester City Council. Retrieved 2008-04-17.
  60. ^ "Tourist Information Centre". Chester City Council. Retrieved 2008-04-17.
  61. ^ "Donald Insall Associates, official website". Retrieved 21 November. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  62. ^ "Chester Travel Guide and Travel Information". Lonely Planet.
  63. ^ "Chester Renaissance". Retrieved 10 July. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  64. ^ "Northgate Development News". Retrieved 10 July. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  65. ^ "Russell confident of winning Odeon fight". Chester Chronicle. 10 August 2007. Retrieved 10 August. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  66. ^ "Chester Wheelchair Jets website". Retrieved 10 July. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  67. ^ "City of Chester Band website". Retrieved 10 July. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  68. ^ Richard Beeching's report "The Reshaping of British Railways" was published in 1965.
  69. ^ Hamilton, James (2004) 'Caldecott , Randolph (1846-86)', Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press [1], Retrieved on 20 April 2008.
  70. ^ "David Roberts". Spock.com. Retrieved 2008-04-23.
  71. ^ Kennedy, Michael (2004) 'Boult, Sir Adrian Cedric (1889-1983)', Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press [2], Retrieved on 20 April 2008
  72. ^ Cowie, A. P. (2004) 'Hornby, Albert Sidney (1898-1978)', Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press [3], Retrieved on 20 April 2008.
  73. ^ "Basil Radford". The Internet Movie Database. Retrieved 2008-04-23.
  74. ^ "Hugh Lloyd". The Internet Movie Database. Retrieved 2008-04-23.
  75. ^ "Ronald Pickup". The Internet Movie Database. Retrieved 2008-04-23.
  76. ^ "Craig, Daniel". British Film Institute. Retrieved 2008-04-20.
  77. ^ Buchanan, R. Angus (2004) 'Rolt, (Lionel) Thomas Caswall (1910-1974)', Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press [4], Retrieved on 23 April 2008.
  78. ^ "Anthony Thwaite". British Council. Retrieved 2008-04-23.
  79. ^ "Beatrice Tinsley: Queen of the Cosmos". NZEdge.com. Retrieved 2008-04-23.
  80. ^ "Biography for Russ Abbot". The Internet Movie Database. Retrieved 2008-04-20.
  81. ^ "Your questions for Jeff Green". BBC. Retrieved 2008-04-20.
  82. ^ "Helen Willetts". BBC. Retrieved 2008-04-23.
  83. ^ "Emily Booth". The Internet Movie Database. Retrieved 2008-04-20.
  84. ^ "Pat Sanderson England Profile". England Rugby. Retrieved 2008-04-23.
  85. ^ "Biography for Alex Sanderson". The Internet Movie Database. Retrieved 2008-04-23.
  86. ^ "Murphy". Football Database. Retrieved 2008-04-23.
  87. ^ "Michael Owen". TheFA.com. Retrieved 2008-04-23.
  88. ^ "Andy Dorman". Football.co.uk. Retrieved 2008-04-20.
  89. ^ "Tom Heaton". Manchester United F.C. Retrieved 2008-04-20.

Bibliography

Further reading

  • Emery, G (1998). Chester inside out. Chester, United Kingdom: Gordon Emery. ISBN 1872265928.
  • Emery, G (1999). Curious Chester: Portrait of an English city over two thousand years. Chester, United Kingdom: Gordon Emery. ISBN 1872265944. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Emery, G (2002). Chester electric lighting station: From steam and hydro–The illuminating story of Chester streetlighting and Britain's first rural electricity supply. Chester, United Kingdom: Gordon Emery. ISBN 1872265480.
  • Emery, G (2003). The Chester guide: England's walled city, Roman remains, museums, attractions, River Dee, shopping on the medieval rows, cathedral, access. Chester, United Kingdom: Gordon Emery. ISBN 1872265898.
  • Emery, G (1999). The old Chester canal: A History and Guide. Chester, United Kingdom: Gordon Emery. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Lewis, P.R. (2007). Disaster on the Dee: Robert Stephenson's Nemesis of 1847. Stroud, United Kingdom: Tempus Publishing. ISBN 9780752442662.
  • Marshall, A. E. (1966). Myths and Legends of Chester. Chester, United Kingdom: Chester blind welfare society. ISBN 095117830X.
  • Morton, H. V. (1930). In Search of England. London: Methuen.
  • Place, G.W. (1994). The Rise and Fall of Parkgate, Passenger Port for Ireland, 1686-1815 (Chetham Society). Lancaster, United Kingdom: Carnegie Publishing Limited. ISBN 1859360238.
  • Wall, B. Tales of Chester. Shropshire, United Kingdom: S. B. Publications. ISBN 1857700066.
  • Wilding, R. (1997). Miller of Dee:The story of Chester mills and millers, their trades, and wares, the weir, the water engine, and the salmon. Chester, United Kingdom: Gordon Emery. ISBN 1872265952.
  • Wilding, R. (2003). Death in Chester: Roman Gravestones, Catheroral Burials, Martyrs, Witches, the Plague, Horrible Hangings, Grvesome Deaths and Ghostly Goings-on. Chester, United Kingdom: Gordon Emery. ISBN 1872265448.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Chester.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chester&oldid=243619128"