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Whitewashing in film

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White actor Mickey Rooney wore yellowface to portray a Japanese landlord in the 1961 film Breakfast at Tiffany's.

Whitewashing is a casting practice in the film industry of the United States in which white actors are cast in historically non-white character roles. The film industry has a history of frequently casting white actors for roles involving people of color, including African Americans, Asians, Hispanics, and any other Non-white, non-Hispanic culture, including Native Americans. The practice started at the beginning of the film industry, which was based in New York and New Jersey.

Activist Guy Aoki said African Americans "have long felt the full brunt of the 'whitewashing' of roles" and that Asians have experienced it as well.[1] Native Americans have also been subjected to this, seeing their historic leaders and warriors portrayed by whites.[2]

History

In the early 20th century, white actors caricatured different races by wearing blackface or yellowface, commonly exaggerating the perceived stereotypes of other races. For example, white actor Warner Oland played the Chinese detective Charlie Chan in Charlie Chan Carries On (1931) and subsequent films. Because of the lack of characters of color in the film industry, these roles were well received at the time by minorities.[3] Films became more racially integrated by the mid 20th-century, and blackface mostly disappeared from the film industry. The film Othello (1965) was an exception, as the white actor Laurence Olivier was cast as "the Moor." He wore blackface as the title character.

The practice of "yellowface" extended into the 1960s. For instance, Mickey Rooney played a Japanese[4] landlord in Breakfast at Tiffany's (1961).[3] Professor David A. Schlossman said of Asian characters in particular, "Many of the Asian roles portrayed by White actors also contributed to the pantheon of racial stereotypes in US national discourse."[5] At the start of the 21st century, minorities were still under-represented in the film industry at different stages. While historically black roles are now generally cast with black actors, the practice of whitewashing applied to other minorities.[3]

The BBC said in 2015, "The practice of casting white actors in non-white roles is still prevalent in Hollywood – despite widespread condemnation and protest." A report in 2013 showed that 94% of film executives were white and that non-white people were under-represented as filmmakers and actors. The BBC explored two reasons for the casting practice: institutional racism and producers believing that well-known white actors attract more audiences and maximize profits. Thomas Rothman, the chairman of Sony Pictures said, "I guess there's a certain institutional force and memory that exists out there... I think the industry's improving but I certainly agree with those who say we haven't come far enough fast enough."[1]

Jeffery Mio, author of Multicultural Psychology: Understanding Our Diverse Communities, hypothesizes that the film industry, mostly white, hires people of similar backgrounds. Mio said of the rationale that only the most qualified actors are cast, "That’s the argument that directors and casting directors make, but a lot of times ethnic actors will tell us that when they say we're just choosing the best actor, they mean we're choosing our friends, or people we're used to."[1] Craig Detweiler, professor of film history at Pepperdine University, said, "There are a shortage [sic] of African American, Asian and Latino stars. For all Hollywood's progressive politics, its casting decisions look remarkably retrograde."[6] In 2010, TheWrap ascribed the lack of racial diversity to institutional racism and a lack of bankable actors of color and that whitewashing in films like Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time and The Last Airbender aggravated the issue.[6]

On casting white actors to maximize profits, David White, National Executive Director of the actors' union SAG-AFTRA said popular black actors such as Will Smith, Denzel Washington, and David Oyelowo refuted the casting rationale.[1] Assistant professor of telecommunications Andrew J. Weaver said, "There is an assumption in Hollywood that whites would avoid movies with majority black casts, or any race cast for that matter. You see this whitewashing of films – even films that have minority characters written into them are being cast with whites."[7] Film professor Mitchell W. Block said studios adhered to casting norms as a matter of practicing business to appeal to investors and producers.[8] Director Ridley Scott said without the casting of big-name actors, his 2014 Biblical epic film Exodus: Gods and Kings would never have been made, saying, "I can't mount a film of this budget... and say that my lead actor is Mohammad so-and-so from such-and-such... I'm just not going to get financed."[8][9][10] USA Today noted with films like Breakfast at Tiffany's (1961), A Mighty Heart (2007), and Pan (2015), "White actors continue to be top of mind for plum roles, despite the under-representation of people of color at the acting, directing and producing levels."[8]

Media watchdog groups have sought more authentic representations on screen, taking issue with casting decisions such as actor Johnny Depp as a Native American in The Lone Ranger (2013).[1] With films from the United States showing in more global markets, the groups argue for roles that represent the diversity of audiences, who are seeking more authenticity. SAG-AFTRA's David White demurred on groups' opposition to casting white actors in non-white roles, "The laws insist that one’s race not be part of the qualifications for a job," but he recognized that there was a lack of diversity in roles available.[1] Law professor John Tehranian said, "Of course, there is nothing inherently wrong with race-blind casting, as long as it works both ways. But in reality, it never has; one rarely sees, for example, an African American, Latino, or Asian actor cast as a white character."[11][12]

List of films

Below is a list of films that have had their casting criticized as whitewashing:

Film Year Description
21 2008 The film about card counting features white actors Jim Sturgess, Jacob Pitts, and Kevin Spacey in the lead roles. The film is based on the true story where a group of Asian-American students and their teacher applied card counting to win significantly in gambling.[3][13][14][15][16] Jeff Ma said that the controversy was "overblown" and that the important aspect is that a talented actor would portray him.[17] Ma, who is Chinese American, told USA Today, "I would have been a lot more insulted if they had chosen someone who was Japanese or Korean, just to have an Asian playing me."[18]
30 Days of Night 2007 In the vampire horror film, white actor Josh Hartnett plays Sheriff Eben Oleson in an Alaskan town. The originating comic book mini-series featured the character as Sheriff Eben Olemaun, who is of Inuit descent.[13][14][15]
Aloha 2015 The romantic comedy-drama features an all-white cast and is set in the state of Hawaii, which is over 70% nonwhite. One of the actors, Emma Stone, portrayed the character Allison Ng; the character is stated as having a father of half Chinese and half Native Hawaiian descent, and a mother of Swedish descent.[19][20][21]
Anna and the King of Siam 1946 In the historical drama film, white actor Rex Harrison plays the Siamese king Mongkut.[22]
Apache 1954 In the Western film, white actor Burt Lancaster stars as an Apache warrior.[19][13][15]
Argo 2012 In the political thriller film based on a true story, white actor Ben Affleck plays Tony Mendez, a CIA technical operations officer who is of half Mexican descent.[13][14][21] Tony Mendez himself said he did not think of himself as Hispanic.[23] White actress Clea DuVall plays hostage Cora Lijek, who is half Japanese. [24]
Batman Begins 2005 In the superhero film featuring Batman, white actor Liam Neeson plays Ra's al Ghul, who is traditionally depicted in Batman comics to be of Arab descent.[25]
A Beautiful Mind 2001 In the biographical film about John Nash, white actor Jennifer Connelly plays Nash's wife Alicia, who was born in El Salvador.[3][13][14][26]
The Beguiled 2017 The drama film set in the American South during the Civil War was based on a 1966 novel that featured the mixed-race teenager Edwina and the black enslaved maid Mattie. Edwina was recast as a white teacher (played by Kirsten Dunst), and Mattie was cut out of the film. Director Sofia Coppola explained the removal, "I didn't want to brush over such an important topic in a light way. Young girls watch my films and this was not the depiction of an African-American character I would want to show them."[27]
The Big Wedding 2013 In this comedy film, white actor Ben Barnes plays a Colombian character and wears brownface makeup for the part.[28]
Breakfast at Tiffany's 1961 In the romantic comedy film, white actor Mickey Rooney plays Holly Golightly's Asian landlord.[3][13][15][29][30]
Charlie Chan Carries On 1931 White actor Warner Oland plays Chinese detective Charlie Chan in this film, as well as others featuring the character.[3]
The Conqueror 1956 In the epic film, white actor John Wayne plays the title character Genghis Khan of Mongol descent.[3][13][15][29][30]
Death Note 2017 The English-language adaptation of the Japanese manga relocates the story to Seattle and renamed the protagonist Light Turner. USA Today reported that the film received backlash for whitewashing in casting white actors when Asian American actors could have been cast.[31]
Doctor Strange 2016 In this superhero film, white actress Tilda Swinton plays the Ancient One, who in the comics is a man from Kamar-Taj, a fictional kingdom in the Himalayas.[32][33][34][35]
Dragon Seed 1944 In the war drama film, white actor Katharine Hepburn plays the Chinese protagonist Jade.[13][15][36]
Dragonball Evolution 2009 In the film based on the Japanese manga Dragon Ball, white actor Justin Chatwin plays the main character Goku.[13][15]
Drive 2011 In the crime film, white actor Carey Mulligan plays Irene, who is depicted as Latin in the original novel.[13][14]
Earthsea 2004 In this television miniseries adaptation of the "Earthsea" novels, most characters, including the main character Ged, are portrayed as white. In the original novels by Ursula K. Le Guin, Ged's skin is dark red-brown and the majority of people of the world are nonwhite; Le Guin has criticized this casting.[37][38]
Edge of Tomorrow 2014 In the science fiction film, white actor Tom Cruise plays William Cage, a whitewashed version of the novel's Japanese protagonist Keiji Kiriya.[36][39]
Exodus: Gods and Kings 2014 In the Biblical epic film, white actors Christian Bale, Joel Edgerton, Sigourney Weaver, and Aaron Paul play Biblical figures who are of Middle Eastern descent.[19][40][41] Director Ridley Scott said about his casting, "I can’t mount a film of this budget, where I have to rely on tax rebates in Spain, and say that my lead actor is Mohammad so-and-so from such-and-such. I'm just not going to get it financed. So the question doesn't even come up."[9]
Fiesta 1947 In the musical drama film, white actor Esther Williams plays the Mexican woman Maria Morales.[15]
Ghost in the Shell 2017 The US live-action adaptation of the Japanese franchise featured several white actors, including Scarlett Johansson, Pilou Asbæk, and Michael Pitt, in the roles of animated characters believed to be Japanese. Pavan Shamdasani of Asia Times said, "The original is about as Asian as things get: Japanese cult manga, ground-breaking anime, Hong Kong-inspired locations, Eastern philosophy-based story. Most of that's been downright ignored with its big-screen adaptation, and Scarlett Johansson's casting as the dark-haired, obviously originally Asian lead sent netizens into a rage."[42] Mamoru Oshii, director of the animated series, stated that the inspiration for the world of the film is not specifically Asian, nor is the ethnicity of the "shell" of the main character, specifically Japanese.[43][44]
Gods of Egypt 2016 In the fantasy film, the principal cast of the Egyptian characters is mostly portrayed by white actors.[45]
The Good Earth 1937 In the drama film about Chinese farmers, white actors Paul Muni and Luise Rainer play Chinese characters.[19][13][15]
The Great Wall 2016 In this film set in the Northern Song Dynasty of ancient China, Matt Damon stars in the lead role of William Garin.[46][47][48] Director Zhang Yimou defended the casting choice, stating that Damon is not playing a role that was originally conceived for a Chinese actor.[49] Two examples of critics providing differing opinions on the film: Pavan Shamdasani of Asia Times said, "His 'white man saves China' shtick brought together the wide spectrum of film critics, respected historians and the internet's most thin-skinned trolls, in an outpouring of sheer outrage against blatant Hollywood whitewashing."[42] Ann Hornaday, chief film critic for the Washington Post, writes that "early concerns about Damon playing a 'white savior' in the film turn out to be unfounded: his character, a mercenary soldier, is heroic, but also clearly a foil for the superior principles and courage of his Chinese allies."[50]
The Greatest Story Ever Told 1965 In the Biblical epic film, white actors play Biblical figures who are of Middle Eastern descent. White actor Max von Sydow plays Jesus Christ.[41]
The House of the Spirits 1993 In the period drama set in Chile, white actors Meryl Streep, Glenn Close, Jeremy Irons, and Winona Ryder play characters of Latin descent.[5]
Hud 1963 In the drama film, white actor Patricia Neal plays Alma, a housekeeper at a ranch, where in the original novel, Horseman, Pass By, the character was a black housekeeper named Halmea. The director said of casting a white actor for the character, "We would have loved to keep her black for the movie. She has moral strength, she's benevolent, she's tough-minded, and she's secure in herself. So we would have loved to say to the world, 'Look, here's a hell of a woman, and she's black,' but in those days you simply couldn't do it, and not because the talent wasn't there—there were at least a half-dozen powerhouse black actresses who could have played that role. But the times weren't ready for it yet, and it was, of course, further complicated by the attempted rape."[51]
The Human Stain 2003 In the drama film, white actor Anthony Hopkins plays Coleman Silk, a former professor who is African-American and has been passing as a white Jewish person.[40][52]
The Hunger Games 2012 In the science fiction adventure film, white actor Jennifer Lawrence stars as Katniss Everdeen,[13][14][40][52] who author Suzanne Collins described to have the typical look of her district: olive skin, straight black hair, and grey eyes. Nicola Balkind in Fan Phenomena: The Hunger Games said that readers perceived Katniss and her people to be nonwhite; the film's casting call for Katniss specified a Caucasian appearance.[53] Collins said Katniss as well as Gale "were not particularly intended to be biracial" as readers thought, "It is a time period where hundreds of years have passed from now. There’s been a lot of ethnic mixing."[54]

Deidre Anne Evans Garriott, Whitney Elaine Jones, and Julie Elizabeth Tyler said about the casting call, "Calling for a Caucasian actress clearly excludes other capable actresses and privileges whiteness in Hollywood... This casting choice over an actress who may look more like the Katniss Collins describes—and who may or may not self-identify as Caucasian—may challenge traditional ideas of beauty, and how Western society associates beauty with heroism."[55]

Imitation of Life 1959 In the romantic drama film, Hispanic actor Susan Kohner plays Sarah Jane, a mixed ethnicity woman who can pass as white.[15][40]
The King and I 1956 In the musical film, white actor Yul Brynner plays the Thai king Mongkut.[5][36]
King David 1985 In the Biblical epic film, white actors play Biblical figures who are of Middle Eastern descent. White actor Richard Gere plays the Biblical figure David.[41]
The King of Fighters 2010 In the martial arts action film based on the video game series, white actor Sean Faris stars as the Japanese Kyo Kusanagi.[56]
King of Kings 1961 In the Biblical epic film, white actors play Biblical figures who are of Middle Eastern descent. White actor Jeffrey Hunter plays Jesus Christ.[41]
The King of Kings 1927 In the Biblical epic film, white actors play Biblical figures who are of Middle Eastern descent. White actor H.B. Warner plays Jesus Christ.[41]
Kubo and the Two Strings 2016 In this stop-motion animated fantasy film, several white actors voice the main cast who are Japanese characters. The titular character Kubo is voiced by Irish actor Art Parkinson.[57]
The Last Airbender 2010 In the fantasy adventure film based on the TV series Avatar: The Last Airbender, white actors play characters that are depicted as Asian and Inuit in the TV series. On the other hand, the actors portraying the antagonist Fire Nation characters are mainly Middle Eastern and Indians.[3][13][14][15][30][36]
The Last Temptation of Christ 1988 In the Biblical epic film, white actors play Biblical figures who are of Middle Eastern descent, including white actor Willem Dafoe as Jesus Christ.[41]
Lawrence of Arabia 1962 In the historical epic film, white actor Alec Guinness plays the Arab Prince Faisal.[22]
The Lone Ranger 2013 In the Western film, white actor Johnny Depp plays the Comanche sidekick Tonto.[3][14] Depp has claimed on several occasions that he has some Cherokee or Comanche ancestry.[58]
Lost Boundaries 1949 In the drama film based on a true story, white actors play members of a family that is partly African-American but passes as white.[59]
A Majority of One 1961 In the comedy film, white actor Alec Guinness plays a Japanese businessman.[22]
The Martian 2015 In the science fiction film based on the 2011 novel, white actor Mackenzie Davis plays Mission Control satellite planner Mindy Park.[60] Author Andy Weir said he perceived Mindy Park as Korean but said he did not explicitly write her as Korean.[61]
A Mighty Heart 2007 In the drama film based on the memoir of the same name, white actor Angelina Jolie plays Mariane Pearl, a French-born woman born to a Dutch-Jewish father and Cuban mother of Afro-Chinese descent.[13][15][16][21][40][52][62]
Noah 2014 The Biblical epic film features an all-white cast.[63] White actor Russell Crowe plays the Biblical figure Noah.[40][41] However, "fittingly for a Biblical story", two of the characters are played by Jewish actors (Jennifer Connelly and Logan Lerman).[64] Screenwriter Ari Handel said, "From the beginning, we were concerned about casting, the issue of race. What we realized is that this story is functioning at the level of myth, and as a mythical story, the race of the individuals doesn’t matter. They’re supposed to be stand-ins for all people... You either try to put everything in there, which just calls attention to it, or you just say, 'Let's make that not a factor, because we’re trying to deal with everyman.'"[65] Handel said the race of Noah's family was cast based on the foremost casting of Russell Crowe and that he avoided casting other races for people outside the family as not to show "racial differences between who lived and who died" and as a result make "a terrible, terrible statement".[66]
Not Without My Daughter 1991 In the drama film, white actor Alfred Molina plays Sayed Bozorg "Moody" Mahmoody, an Iranian physician.[11]
Othello 1965 In the film based on William Shakespeare's tragedy play Othello (c. 1603), white actor Laurence Olivier plays in blackface the character Othello, who is of Moorish descent.[19][3][13][15][21][40][52]
The Outsider 1961 In the biographical film, white actor Tony Curtis plays Ira Hayes, a U.S. Marine of Native American descent.[13][15]
Pan 2015 In the fantasy film, white actor Rooney Mara plays Tiger Lily, a character of Native American descent.[3]
The Party 1968 In the comedy film, white actor Peter Sellers plays an Indian actor.[13][30]
A Passage to India 1984 In the historical drama film, white actor Alec Guinness plays the Indian character Professor Godbole.[22]
The Passion of the Christ 2004 In the Biblical epic film, white actors play Biblical figures of Middle Eastern descent, including white actor Jim Caviezel playing Jesus Christ.[41]
Pay It Forward 2000 In the drama film based on a true story, white actor Kevin Spacey plays teacher Eugene Simonet. In real life, the teacher is Reuben St. Clair, who is of African American descent.[3][14][52]
Pinky 1949 In the race drama film, white actor Jeanne Crain plays a partly African-American character who can pass as white.[59][62]
Power Rangers 2017 In the superhero film based on the television series, white actress Elizabeth Banks plays Rita Repulsa, a role previously played by actresses of color Machiko Soga, Carla Perez, and Julia Cortez.[67][68]
Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time 2010 In the fantasy adventure film, white actor Jake Gyllenhaal plays the title character of Persian descent.[3][13][29][30]
Remo Williams: The Adventure Begins 1985 In the action-adventure film, white actor Joel Grey plays a Korean martial arts master who trains Remo Williams.[15]
Scarface 1983 In the crime film, white actor Al Pacino plays Tony Montana, who is of Cuban descent.[69] In fact most of the Cuban-American characters in the film were portrayed by non-Cuban actors.[70]
The Sheik 1921 In the romantic drama film, white actor Rudolph Valentino plays the Sheik, a character of Arab descent.[11]
Short Circuit 1986 In the science fiction film, white actor Fisher Stevens plays an Indian character.[15]
Short Circuit 2 1988 In the science fiction film, white actor Fisher Stevens plays an Indian character.[71]
Show Boat 1951 In the romantic drama film, white actor Ava Gardner plays Julie, a character of mixed ethnicity. An actor of mixed ethnicity, Lena Horne, was originally cast to play Julie before the studio required a casting change.[5][59][62]
The Social Network 2010 In the drama film, biracial actor Max Minghella plays the ConnectU co-founder Divya Narendra, who is of Indian descent.[3][72] Director David Fincher said, "we had read an enormous, probably a hundred, Indian actors who came in to read for Divya and I saw footage of the actual Divya Narendra who I've met now and he's kind of like Warren Beatty. There's nothing, aside from being incredibly tan, there's almost nothing that seems particularly ethnic about him.... and we couldn't find somebody with that sort of smoothness. I looked and I looked and I looked. We went to London, Paris, Montreal, we cast from everywhere and finally in the end I just felt that Max had the most, kind of, I just wanted to make sure that Divya was an equal. He was the most important third wheel in this triumverate."[73] Actor Aziz Ansari commented, "These days, Indian people, real Indian people, pop up way more in film and television, but fake Indians are still around more than you think. I loved 'The Social Network,' but I have a hard time understanding why the Indian-American Harvard student Divya Narendra was played by Max Minghella, a half-Chinese, half-Italian British actor."[71]
The Son of the Sheik 1926 In the adventure drama film, white actor Rudolph Valentino plays the main character, who is of Arab descent.[11]
Speed Racer 2008 In the film, caucasian actors play the characters that are originally asian in the Japanese manga and anime adaptation. Similarly, the names of the characters, all originally Japanese, are changed in favor of its western regionalization. However, the characyer of Taejo Togokahn, played by Korean performer Rain, was created for the film as an homage.[74]
Star Trek Into Darkness 2013 In the science fiction film, white actor Benedict Cumberbatch plays the villain Khan Noonien Singh, who is of Indian descent. In his previous cinematic and television appearances (Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan and "Space Seed"), the character is portrayed by Mexican actor of European descent Ricardo Montalbán.[14][75]
Starship Troopers 1997 In the science fiction film, white actor Casper Van Dien plays John Rico. In the original book, the character was Juan Rico of Filipino descent.[15]
Stonewall 2015 The film about the Stonewall riots depicts a white male fictional protagonist, which members of the LGBT community contested as whitewashing that excluded the key involvement of transgender and lesbian women of color. Director Roland Emmerich, himself gay, said, "I didn't make this movie only for gay people, I made it also for straight people. I kind of found out, in the testing process, that actually, for straight people, [Danny] is a very easy in. Danny's very straight-acting. He gets mistreated because of that. [Straight audiences] can feel for him." He said he and screenwriter Jon Robin Baitz consulted historians and veterans and said, "There were only a couple of transgender women in the Stonewall ever. They were like a minority."[76]
Stuck 2007 In the thriller film based on a true story, white actor Mena Suvari plays Brandi Boski, who is based on Chante Jawan Mallardin who is of African American descent.[13][16][40][52]
The Teahouse of the August Moon 1956 In the comedy film, white actor Marlon Brando plays the Japanese character Sakini.[5][13][15][29]
The Ten Commandments 1956 In the Biblical epic film, white actors play Biblical figures of Middle Eastern descent. White actors Charlton Heston and Yul Brynner play Moses and Ramesses II, respectively.[19]
The Thief of Bagdad 1924 In the swashbuckler film, white actor Douglas Fairbanks plays the main character of Arab descent.[11]
Touch of Evil 1958 In the crime noir, white actor Charlton Heston plays Miguel Vargas, a DEA agent of Mexican descent.[13]
Wanted 2008 In the action film, white actress Angelina Jolie plays Fox, who is African-American in the comics and modeled on actress Halle Berry.[77]
Warm Bodies 2013 In the zombie comedy film, white actress Analeigh Tipton plays Nora, who is depicted in the book as half-Ethiopian.[13][40]
West Side Story 1961 In the romantic musical film, white actress Natalie Wood plays Maria, who is of Puerto Rican descent.[5][13]
Whiskey Tango Foxtrot 2016 In the comedy-drama film based on a memoir and set in Afghanistan, white actors Christopher Abbott and Alfred Molina portray Afghan characters.[78] Tina Fey, who produced and starred in the film, said, "I had a lot of say. If your next question is, why is Chris Abbott not Afghan? — I did beg [the casting directors], 'Guys, my preference would be a native speaker.' They pleaded their case that Chris [was] their choice." Fey added, "Tricky thing is, Afghans [can be] Caucasians."[79][80]
The Wind and the Lion 1975 In the historical film, white actor Sean Connery plays Mulai Ahmed er Raisuni, a leader of Berber insurrectionists.[11]
World Trade Center 2006 In the disaster drama film based on the September 11 attacks, white actor William Mapother plays Marine Sergeant Jason Thomas, who in real life is of African American descent.[62][81]
The Year of Living Dangerously 1982 In the drama film, white female actor Linda Hunt plays a male Chinese-Australian dwarf.[15]

Notes

See also

References

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  4. ^ Weiler, A.H. (October 6, 1961). "The Screen: Breakfast at Tiffany's: Audrey Hepburn Stars in Music Hall Comedy". New York Times. Retrieved September 24, 2011.
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  26. ^ Alcoff, Linda Martín (2012). "Alien and Alienated". In Yancy, George (ed.). Reframing the Practice of Philosophy: Bodies of Color, Bodies of Knowledge. SUNY Press. p. 32. ISBN 978-1-4384-4003-3.
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Bibliography

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