Indian Navy

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The Indian Navy (Bharatiya Nau Sena) is the naval branch of the Armed Forces of India. With 55,000 men and women, including 5,000 naval aviation personnel and 2,000 Marine Commandos (MARCOS), it is the world's fifth largest navy.[1] The Indian Navy currently operates more than 150 vessels, including one aircraft carrier. The government of India is implementing an expansion and modernisation programme. During the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict, the Indian Navy played an important role in providing assistance to the citizens of India, and also to citizens of friendly neighbouring countries. India uses its Navy to enhance its international relations through joint exercises and port visits. The Indian Navy is increasing its capabilities to be a true blue water Navy, as explained in its doctrine for the collective good of nations.

Role

The Indian Navy's role is envisaged in the maritime doctrine as

Through the use of appropriate maritime forces:-

(a) In conjunction with other Armed Forces of the union, act to deter or defeat any threats or aggression against the territory, people or maritime interests of India, both in war and peace;

(b) Project influence in our maritime area of interest, to further the nation’s political, economic and security objectives;

(c) In cooperation with the Coast Guard, ensure good order and stability in our maritime zones of responsibility.

(d) Provide maritime assistance (including disaster relief) in our maritime neighbourhood.

History of the Indian Navy

Main article: History of the Indian Navy

India has a maritime history dating back around 4,500 years to the Indus Valley Civilization. Many powerful Navies of the Maurya, Chola, Vijayanagara, Kalinga, Maratha and Moghul empires ruled the oceans, in and around India for many centuries.[2] Two notable naval chiefs Kanhoji Angre and Kunjali Marakkar were considered one of India's finest warriors, since they were able to defeat the British and the Portuguese Navies. The British Indian Navy was established by the British while India was a colony. When India became a republic on 26 January 1950, it became known as the Indian Navy, and its vessels as Indian Naval Ships (INS).

The first involvement of the Navy in any conflict came during the Liberation of Goa in 1961 with the success of Operation Vijay. After fired upon by Portugese troops on commercial vessels and fishing boats passing near Anjadip island, decision was taken to militarily intervene to liberate Goa. The Indian Naval ships provided fire support to the naval and army landing troops. During the operation INS Delhi sank one Portugese Naval ship. The Portuguese frigate Afonso de Albuquerque was also sunk after a brief fight.[3]

The Navy has been involved in two wars with Pakistan. While its activity in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 largely involved patrolling of the coast, India's Navy played a significant role in the bombing of Karachi harbour in the 1971 war. The name given to the attack was Operation Trident, which was launched on December 4. Owing to its success, it has been celebrated as Navy Day ever since. The attack was followed by Operation Python before the crux of the war shifted to the east.
To show solidarity with Pakistan, the U.S sends a nuclear carrier task force led by USS Enterprise into the Bay of Bengal. A task force led by INS Vikrant was stationed to counter the USS Enterprise task force. The submarines of the Soviet Union were trailing the U.S Navy task force. Confrontation did not happen as the U.S task force moved towards South East Asia, away from the Indian ocean.[4]

INS Rajput was instrumental in sinking Pakistan Navy's premier submarine PNS Ghazi which posed a significant threat in the Bay of Bengal, while INS Nirghat and INS Nipat sank a destroyer each and INS Veer accounted for a minesweeper. The naval aircraft, Sea Hawks and Alizés, operating from INS Vikrant were also instrumental in sinking many gunboats and merchant Navy vessels. There was one major casualty, the frigate Khukri (sunk by Hangor) with another vessel INS Kirpan damaged in the western sector. Ultimately, however, the naval blockades of Karachi Port[1][2] and the complete blockade of East Pakistan ports were successful in routing the enemy, who were cut off from all reinforcements, supplies and chances of evacuation.[3] These decisives actions by the Indian Navy proved to be a decisive factor in India's stunning victory in the war.

INS Vikrant took part in the 1971 war and played a crucial role in securing the shores of East Pakistan (present day Bangladesh.
Type of Vessel Indian Navy losses Pakistan Navy losses
Destroyers 0 2, PNS Khaibar and Shahjahan*(damaged)
Frigates 1, INS Khukri** 0
Submarines 0 1, PNS Ghazi
Minesweeper 0 1, PNS Muhafiz
Navy Aircraft 1, (Alize) 0
Patrol boats and Gunboats 0 7 Gunboats and 3 patrol boats
Merchant Navy and others 0 11 (including one US ammunition ship)
*PNS Shahjahan was presumably damaged beyond repair.
**The second frigate INS Kirpan was damaged although it remained in service later on after salvaging it.

It was also instrumental in overthrowing the coup attempt by PLOTE mercenaries in Maldives by pouring troops there in 1988. The campaign led by the Indian Navy was known as Operation Cactus. The Indian Navy participated in the U.N peace keeping operation Operation Restore Hope, off the coast of Somalia from Dec 1992 to Oct 2003. The Indian Navy also played a significant role in the Kargil war, by moving the Eastern and Western fleet into the northern Arabian sea and preventing an escalation of the war.[5][6] The Indian Navy aviators and commandos participated in the Kargil war.[7] The Indian Navy also participated in Operation Parakram.

During the tsunami crisis, the Indian Navy deployed 27 ships, 19 helicopters, 6 naval aircraft and over 5000 Indian Navy personnel in disaster relief operations.[8] In 2006 the Indian Navy successfully evacuated 2280 persons including Indian, 436 Sri Lankan and 69 Nepali and 7 Lebanese citizens from war torn Lebanon. This operation is named as Operation Sukoon meaning Peace and tranquility.[9][10]

Personnel

File:RD-Navy.jpg
The Indian Navy's marching contingent during Republic Day Parade.

Each of the three Naval Commands has a active Flag Officer Commanding in Chief. The commander of the Navy is the Chief of Naval staff (CNS). The current CNS is Admiral Sureesh Mehta. The CNS is assisted by several other high ranking officers. Below is the list of various ranks of officers within the Indian Navy in descending order:

The Indian Navy does not have Admiral of the Fleet. Admiral, the Chief of Naval Staff is the senior most rank in Indian Navy

Structure of the Indian Navy

INS Tarangini is the only sail training ship in the Indian Navy and is an icon of India's rich maritime history.

The Indian Navy is organised into three regional commands:

Another command, a joint Navy, Army and Air force command was set up in Andaman and Nicobar Islands in 2001 as a strategic area of defence.

Recently the Indian Navy received a huge boost when INS Kadamba was commissioned at Karwar, 100 Km from Goa. This is the third operational naval base after Mumbai and Vishakapatnam and the first to be controlled exclusively by the Indian Navy. It is being described by naval pundits as the largest such base in the area, Called 'Project Seabird'.[11] It is a multi-billion dollar plan to create an exclusive naval port with full facilities. Another base is being planned for the eastern shores, near Vishakapatnam at a cost of US$ 350 million.[12] The Indian Navy is setting up a monitoring station in Madagascar,[13] and to patrol the coast of Mozambique to monitor and prevent terrorist activities.[14]

The Indian Navy is divided into the following broad categories:

  • Administration
  • Logistics and Material
  • Training
  • The Fleets
  • The Naval Aviation
  • The Submarine Arm

Marine Commando Force

The Marine Commando Force (MCF) known as MARCOS is a special forces unit that was raised by the Indian Navy in 1987. Modelled after the US Navy SEALs and the Royal Marines it was created to handle reconnaissance, raids and Counter-terrorism in a maritime environment. The MARCOS played a key role in defeating a coup attempt by PLOTE mercenaries as part of Operation Cactus in Maldives by retaking the ship and rescuing the hostages whom included the Maldives Minister for education. At present the MARCOS is deployed in Jammu and Kashmir to prevent infiltration through the Jhelum and Wullar lake and also provides protection to people and tourists in and around Dal Lake, a famous tourist hot spot.[15]

Sea based nuclear deterrence

The Indian Navy's nuclear deterrence capability is based on Sukanya class ships armed with the Dhanush ballistic missiles that has a range of 350 Km. This will continue until the commissioning of indigenously developed Advanced Technology Vessel into the navy by 2010. This nuclear submarine will be armed with the Sagarika missile.[16]

Fleet reviews

The President of India is entitled to inspect his fleet, as he is the supreme commander of the Indian armed forces. The Presidents fleet reviews took place nine times and the recent one was in the year 12 feb 2006. The President of India Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam took the review.[17] The first President's fleet review by India was hosted by Dr Rajendra Prasad on October 10 1953. The Indian Navy also conducted an International fleet review named Bridges of Friendship in the year 2001 in which many ships of friendly Navies from all around the world participated.[18][19] Once in two years the world Navies meet at A&N Island and the event is named as MILAN (Get together). The Prime minister Dr.Manmohan Singh was shown the capabilities of the Indian Navy in a specially organised show and after the event he was impressed by the capabilities of the Indian Navy.[20]

Major Exercises

The Indian Navy conducts naval exercises with friendly navies strengthening bilateral relationships with other navies and nations. Some such exercises take place annually like the Exercise VARUNA with the French Navy, KONKAN with Royal Navy, INDRA with Russian Navy, MALABAR with the U.S Navy, SIMBEX with Singapore Navy. Similar exercises will be conducted with the German Navy as decided recently by India and Germany.

The Indian Navy also conducted exercise with the Chinese PLAN in 2003 and with various other navies. Also the Indian naval ships made port calls in Israel, Turkey, Egypt, Libya, Greece, Oman, Thailand, Indonesia, Australia, New Zealand, Tongo, South Africa,[21] Kenya[22] and other countries in 2005-2006.

Expedition and Adventure

File:Indian navy Mt.Suitilla.jpg
Member of Indian Naval Team scaling Mt.Suitilla.

The Indian Navy sail training ship INS Tarangini made a circumnavigation voyage on 23 Jan 2003 to build friendship with various nations of the world and returned on May 2004. The theme of the voyage was "Bridging friendship across the oceans". During this voyage INS Tarangini visited 36 ports in 18 nations.[23]

Lt. Cdr. M.S. Kohli leads first successful Indian Naval expedition to the highest peak in the world, Mount Everest in 1965. Indian Naval ensign was again flown in May 19, 2004 on Mount Everest by a team from the Indian Navy. Another team also succeeded in scaling the peak, and became the first all Navy team in the world that has achieved this success. Also it became the only Navy to put a submariner in Mt.Everest.[24]

An expediton to the Arctic pole was successfully carried out by a team from the Indian Navy which comprised of 11 members. The first trip was to Iceland where they attempted a peak before the journey to the Arctic pole.[25] Then the team flew to Kulsuk in east Greenland and then to the Angmassalik area using boats of the Inuit community and negotiating the ice choked fjord of the North Atlantic. They crossed the Arctic Circle, reaching seventy degrees North on skis. The team scaled an unamed peak of height 11,000 feet and named it as Indian peak.[26]

An Indian Navy team will conduct an expedition to the South Pole in December 2006 as part of Mission Dakshin Dhruv 2006. In this expedition the expedition team will ski a large distance to reach the south pole.[27] The Indian Naval ensign was first flown in Antarctica, in the year 1981.[28] The Indian Navy also conducts many other type of expeditions and adventure sports reflecting the spirit, courage, strength and determination of its men and women.

Information Technology

The Indian Navy is relying more on Information Technology to face the challenges in the 21st century. The Indian Navy is implementing a new strategy to move from a platform centric force to a network centric force, by linking all shore based installations and ships using high speed data networks and satellites.[29] This will help in increased operational awareness. The network is called as Navy Enterprise Wide Network (NEWN). The Indian Navy has also provided training to all its personnel in Information Technology (IT) at the Naval Institute of Computer Applications (NICA) located in Mumbai. Information Technology is also used to provide better training, like the usage of simulators and for better management of the force.[30]

Ships and Weapon systems

Aircraft carrier INS Viraat during Exercise Malabar 2005.
Destroyer INS Mumbai.

Ships

Main article: Ships of the Indian Navy

The names of all commissioned ships in the Indian Navy start with INS, meaning 'Indian Naval Ship'. The fleet of the Indian Navy is a mix of indigenously built and foreign vessels and is expanding with new inductions. India is expanding the indigenous ship building capabilities in a very big way. Today India is indigenously building destroyers, frigates and corvettes. The Navy currently operates the Delhi and Rajput class destroyers. The frigates in the service include the latest Talwar class and Brahmaputra class frigates. Also Godavari class and Leander class frigates. The Indian Navy is acquiring from abroad, the Gorshkov class Aircraft carriers, improved Talwar class frigates and the Scorpene class submarines. The Carrier INS Viraat, will be retired by the end of 2012 after the induction of Indigenous Aircraft Carrier. INS Dunagiri, INS Magar and INS Trishul was involved in accidents at sea. One covette INS Prahar was sunk after colliding with a merchant vessel.[31]

File:140933534 6595d3dd92 o.jpg
A Sindhughosh (Kilo) Class Submarine returning to the base, after a sortie.

Submarines and AUVs

Main article: Submarines of the Indian Navy

The Indian Navy currently maintains a fleet of 16 diesel powered submarines. These are primarily of Russian and German origin. India signed a deal for 6 Scorpene submarines with MESMA. These submarines would begin to join the Indian Navy from 2010-11 onwards.[32]

Nuclear Powered Submarines

In January 1988 India leased for three years an ex-Soviet Charlie class nuclear powered guided missile submarine with eight Ametist (SS-N-7 Starbright) anti-shipping missile launchers. In the Indian Navy, the ship was christened INS Chakra, and the submarine was manned by an Indian crew. Upon expiration of the ship leasing term in 1991, the submarine was returned to Russia and joined the Pacific Fleet of the Russian Navy.

India has been working since 1985 to develop an indigenously constructed nuclear-powered submarine, one that is based on the Soviet Charlie II-class design, detailed drawings of which are said to have been obtained from the Soviet Union in 1989.The secretive Advanced Technology Vessel (ATV) project to provide nuclear propulsion for Indian submarines has been one of the ill-managed projects of India. The 190 MW pressurized water reactor (PWR) is reported to be fitted into the submarine's hull. The Prototype Testing Centre (PTC) at the (Indira Gandhi Centre For Atomic Research, Kalpakkam, will be used to test the submarine's turbines and propellers. A similar facility is operational at Vishakapatnam to test the main turbines and gear box.

India plans to have as many as five nuclear submarines capable of carrying missiles with nuclear warheads. The Indian nuclear powered attack submarine design is said to have a 4,000-ton displacement and a single-shaft nuclear power plant of Indian origin. Once the vessel is completed, it may be equipped with Danush/Sagarika cruise missiles and advanced Indian made sonar systems. However, according to some analysts the most probable missile for the Indian submarine would be the BrahMos anti-ship cruise missile. But others point out that with a 300 Km range, the BrahMos would not be adequately long ranged, for a strategic asset requiring long reach. According to defense sources the ATV program is scheduled to be launched in 2007 and to be commissioned sometime between 2008 to 2010. The other four will be delivered sometime between 2010 to 2025. Each unit will cost one Billion U.S dollars. This submarines will have a displacement of 9,000 lbs. India may lease two Akula submarines from Russia.

Autonomous Underwater Vehicle

The National Institute of Oceanography has developed the Autonomous Underwater Vehicle (Underwater Robot) that has applications in the field of Oceanographic research. Also an Autonomous Surface Vehicle (ASV) has been developed.[33]

Aircraft

File:SeaKing42B 02.JPG
The naval air-arm is an important component of the Indian Navy. Shown here Sea King assigned to the Indian naval destroyer INS Mumbai.
IJT HAL HJT-36
Main article: Aircraft of the Indian Navy

The Indian Navy Air arm consists of Sea Harrier jets that operate from the Aircraft carrier INS Viraat. Recently the Harriers were modernised for BVR capability. The Kamov-31 provide the AEW cover for the fleet. In the anti submarine role the Sea king, [[Ka-28] and the indigenously-built HAL Dhruv are used. The MARCOS use Sea King and HAL Dhruv helicopters while conducting operations. Reconnaissance operations are carried out by Tupolev 142, Ilyushin 38, Dornier Do 228 and also by HAL Chetak helicopter. The UAV arm consists of around 30 UAVs like Heron and Searcher-IIs that are operated from ships and shore for better surveillance. Indian Navy also maintains a four aircraft aerobatic display team, the Sagar Pawan. The Sagar Pawan team will be replacing the present Kiran HJT-16 with the HJT-36.

The Indian Air Force also has a maritime strike role, to provide support to the Indian Navy.[34][35] These Jaguars are armed with the Sea Eagle missile. There are reports of IAF going for the Harpoon or the Exocet missiles to arm these Jaguars.[36] The IAF is also using its Su-30MKI aircraft for maritime role.[37] Su-30MKI and the Il-38 will be armed with the air-launched version of the Brahmos cruise missile.

Weapon Systems

Main article: Weapon Systems of the Indian Navy

The Indian Navy uses modern technology and weapon systems. Some of these systems are indigenously developed. Others like the BrahMos supersonic cruise missiles, are jointly developed with Russia. The Navy inducted the Lakshya PTA into service.[38] There are reports on the joint development of the Barak-II missile system, between India and Israel. The Barak-II is an improved, longer range version of the Barak-I air defence missile.[39] The Barak-I is used on most of the main ships of the Indian Navy.

Submarine-based missiles

India has a number of foreign made cruise missile systems in its arsenal, which includes the Klub (SS-N-27). It also has some indigenous cruise missile systems under development, including the Sagarika and Lakshya variants. The Barak-I missile is operational with the Indian Naval ships. The Sagarika (Oceanic) began development in 1994 as a submarine-launched cruise missile (SLCM), which will have a range of at least 300 km (a few claim 1000 km). Another successful program has been the development of the Yakhont Anti Ship Missile system into the BrahMos, by NPO and India's DRDO. The BrahMos has been tailored to Indian needs and uses a large proportion of Indian designed components and technology, for its fire control systems, Transporter erector launches, to its onboard navigational attack system.

Future plans

File:Satpura.gif
INS Satpura being launched.

In April 2005 India started the construction of a 37,500 tonne carrier Indigenous Aircraft Carrier (IAC) at a cost of 4,000 crore and scheduled to operate 30 aircraft, including Naval LCA, MiG-29K, and Sea Harrier combat aircraft, as well as HAL Dhruv, Ka-31, and Sea King Mk.42 helicopters. Four turbine engines will power the ship. The carrier is being constructed by state-run Cochin Shipyard Limited.[40] and will be commissioned by 2012-13. The Indian Minister of State for Defence Mr Pallam Raju went on record in September 2006 stating that the aircraft carrier is likely to be commissioned by 2011.[41]

In 2004, India bought the Russian aircraft carrier, Admiral Gorshkov for the equivalent of US $1.5 billion.[42] It will cost US$800 million to refit, and expected to join Indian Navy in 2008, while US$700 million will be spend to purchase 12 single-seat Mig-29K and 4 dual-seat Mig-29KUB, as well as facilities and procedures for training of pilots and technical staff, delivery of simulators, spare parts, and establishment maintenance on Indian Navy facilities. Also, 6 Kamov-31 attack and reconnaissance anti-submarine helicopters. Upgrades include removing missiles from the carrier foredeck to make way for a 14.3-degrees ski-jump.[43]

In 2006, India purchased the 17,000 tonne USS Trenton for 50 Million USD. The ship will arrive in India by April 2007, after its commissioning in February 2007. The ship will be rechristened the INS Jalashva. Negotiations are under way to purchase six H-3 Sea King maritime utility transport helicopters that will operate from the ship. A delegation from the Indian Navy is already in the US to prepare for the 'hot transfer' of the ship and it's passage to India. The ship is likely to be based at Visakhapatnam under the Eastern Naval Command.

The Indian Navy is going through an intense phase of expansion, modernisation and upgrading. Currently, India is constructing 3 Shivalik class frigate, 3 Kolkata class destroyer, 10 Bangaram Class Fast Patrol Vessels, 12 Super Dvora Mk.II Class Fast Patrol Vessels, 1 Magar Class Amphibious Warfare Vessel, 3 Shardul class LST Amphibious Warfare Vessels,[44] 8 Mine Counter-Measures Vessels[45] and 6 Scorpène class submarines. Yantar, plant in Kaliningrad was awarded a contract to build 3 additional 1135.6 frigates costing India US$1.56 billion. The increased price is due to more sophisticated armaments such as, BrahMos Cruise Missile. The Navy has the government's approval for an additional 8 warships.

File:LCATrainerModel.jpg
Model of HAL TejasTrainer

In 2004, the Ministry of Defence spent US $5.7 billion in arms purchases making India the developing world's leading military buyer. A major chunk of those purchases were made for the Indian Navy. India, is currently focusing on expanding its submarine fleet. According to some very reliable defense sources India is paying 2 billion dollars for the completion of 2 Akula class submarines which were 40-60% completed[citation needed]; 300 Indian Navy personnel being trained in Russia for the operation of these submarines. India has finalised a deal with Russia, in which at the end of the lease of these submarines, it has an option to buy them. The ordering of the six Scorpene submarines is part of project 75 which calls for 24 submarines in 30 years. Also newer technology like the Unmanned Underwater Vehicle (UUV) named Flatfish is being developed for the Indian Navy to protect the littoral domain.[46] The Indian Navy is also planning to induct new maritime patrol aircraft.[47]

Towards a true Blue-Water Navy

File:Gorshkov-01-model.jpg
The Aircraft carrier INS Vikramaditya will join the Indian Navy in 2008.

With these upgrades and inductions, it is expected by independent analysts that the Indian Navy might soon become a true Blue-water navy.[48] The Naval capacity of India already puts it as the most powerful of the Navies off the waters of the Indian Ocean. According to a report published by the US Congress, the Indian Navy could be among the top three navies in the world by 2009[citation needed].

Admiral Sureesh Mehta, who took command as the new chief of the Indian Navy[citation needed] told the press that in keeping with India's rapid growth the Navy now has a much bigger role to play. He went on to explain his vision for the Indian Navy : a truly blue-water Navy with strategic reach to operate from Africa's eastern coast right up to Malacca Straits built around a satellite networked-force and augmented by maritime surveillance capabilities to keep tabs on the entire Indian Ocean Region.[49] His priority list for the Indian Navy also included greater longevity and safety of ships.[50]

References

Notes

  1. ^ Global Security article on the Indian Navy
  2. ^ History of the Indian Navy
  3. ^ Goa Operation - Indian Navy
  4. ^ U.S intervention in 1971 war
  5. ^ 'India's national interest had been made coterminus with maritime security'
  6. ^ Indian Navy celebrates its silent Kargil victory
  7. ^ Ministry of Defence Report
  8. ^ Tsunami relief
  9. ^ Operation sukoon
  10. ^ Operation sukoon @ official website
  11. ^ Project Seabird
  12. ^ India navy drops another anchor
  13. ^ Indian Navy to lease station in Madagascar
  14. ^ India, Mozambique sign maritime defense agreement
  15. ^ MARCOS (Marine Commandos)
  16. ^ President's fleet review
  17. ^ Bridges of friendship gallery
  18. ^ Bridges of Friendship
  19. ^ Indian Navy Displays its Blue-Water Capabilities
  20. ^ Realising the Indian Dream
  21. ^ Visit of IN ships to Kenya
  22. ^ INS Tarangini
  23. ^ I Indian Navy summits Everest
  24. ^ Indian Navy Team in Iceland
  25. ^ Chilling out!
  26. ^ Indian Navy team to ski to South Pole
  27. ^ Indian Navy timeline
  28. ^ Change but Continuity: The Indian Navy Marches Ahead
  29. ^ Information technology and Indian Navy
  30. ^ Warship collides with SCI vessel off Mumbai coast
  31. ^ India's nuclear forces, 2005
  32. ^ India's navy in $1.8bn sub deal
  33. ^ NSTL develops autonomous underwater vehicle
  34. ^ Sepecat/HAL Jaguar
  35. ^ Image of IAF maritime Jaguar
  36. ^ IAF to arm maritime Jaguar fighters with anti-ship missiles
  37. ^ Indian Air Force's Su-30MKI ready for maritime role
  38. ^ Some major strides in defence research
  39. ^ Israel, India to Cooperate on $350M Long-Range Barak SAM Project
  40. ^ India's construction of aircraft carrier.
  41. ^ IAC construction
  42. ^ A report on India's purchase of Admiral Gorshkov.
  43. ^ Unmanned defence systems come of age
  44. ^ LST(L) Shardul - Landing Ship Tank — Large (LST-L)
  45. ^ Mine-counter Measure vessel
  46. ^ India's Navy Holding Maritime Patrol Aircraft Competition
  47. ^ India Pursuing Blue Water Navy, Ballistic Missile Sub
  48. ^ Blue-water Navy is the aim
  1. ^ Baluchis, Beijing, and Pakistan’s Gwadar Port - Henry L. Stimson Center
  2. ^ The Resurgence of Baluch nationalism by Frédéric Grare - Carnegie Endowment for International Peace
  3. ^ Bangladesh: Out of War, a Nation Is Born Dec. 20, 1971 TIME

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External links

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