Java: Difference between revisions

[javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]]
Geography
Location	Southeast Asia
Coordinates	7°29′30″S 110°00′16″E / 7.49167°S 110.00444°E
Archipelago	Greater Sunda Islands
Area rank	13th
Administration
	Indonesia
Demographics
Population	138 million

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Java (Indonesian: Jawa) is an island of Indonesia. With a population of 135 million (excluding the 3.6 million on the island of Madura which is administered as part of the provinces of [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]), [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] is the world's most populous island, and one of the most densely-populated places on the globe. [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] is the home of 60 percent of the Indonesian population. The Indonesian capital city, Jakarta, is located on western [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]. Much of Indonesian history took place on [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]. It was the center of powerful Hindu-Buddhist empires, the Islamic sultanates, and the core of the colonial Dutch East Indies. [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] was also the center of the Indonesian struggle for independence during the 1930s and 40s. [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] dominates Indonesia politically, economically and culturally.

Formed mostly as the result of volcanic eruptions, [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] is the 13th largest island in the world and the fifth largest island in Indonesia. A chain of volcanic mountains forms an east-west spine along the island. It has three main languages, though Javanese is dominant, and it is the native language of about 60 million people in Indonesia, most of whom live on [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]. Most of its residents are bilingual, with Indonesian as their first or second languages. While the majority of the people of [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] are Muslim, [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] has a diverse mixture of religious beliefs, ethnicities, and cultures.

[javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] is divided into four provinces, [[West [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]]], [[Central [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]]], [[East [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]]], and Banten, and also two special regions, Jakarta and Yogyakarta.

Etymology

The origins of the name "Java" are not clear. One possibility is that the island was named after the jáwa-wut plant, which was said to be common in the island during the time, and that prior to Indianization the island had different names.^[2] There are other possible sources: the word jaú and its variations mean "beyond" or "distant".^[3] And, in Sanskrit yava means barley, a plant for which the island was famous.^[3] "Yawadvipa" is mentioned in India's earliest epic, the Ramayana. Sugriva, the chief of Rama's army dispatched his men to Yawadvipa, the island of [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java], in search of Sita.^[4] It was hence referred to in Indian, specifically Tamil literature by the Sanskrit name "yāvaka dvīpa" (dvīpa = island). Another source states that the "Java" word is derived from a Proto-Austronesian root word, meaning 'home'.^[5]

Geography

]

[javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] lies between Sumatra to the west and Bali to the east. Borneo lies to the north and Christmas Island to the south. It is the world's 13th largest island. [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] is surrounded by [[[javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] Sea]] in the north, Sunda Strait in the west, Indian Ocean in the south and Bali Strait and Madura Strait in the east.

[javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] is almost entirely of volcanic origin; it contains thirty-eight mountains forming an east-west spine which have at one time or another been active volcanoes. The highest volcano in [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] is Mount Semeru (3,676 m). The most active volcano in [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] and also in Indonesia is Mount Merapi (2,968 m). See [[Volcanoes of [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]]].

More mountains and highlands help to split the interior into a series of relatively isolated regions suitable for wet-rice cultivation; the rice lands of [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] are among the richest in the world.^[6] [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] was the first place where Indonesian coffee was grown, starting in 1699. Today, Coffea arabica is grown on the Ijen Plateau by small-holders and larger plantations.

The area of [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] is approximately 139,000 km².^[7] It is about 650 miles (1,050 km) long and up to 130 miles (210 km) wide. The island's longest river is the 600 km long Solo River.^[8] The river rises from its source in central [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] at the Lawu volcano, then flows north and eastward to its mouth in the [[[javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] Sea]] near the city of Surabaya. Temperatures throughout the year average 22°C to 29°C and humidity average 75%. The northern coastal plains are normally hotter averaging 34°C during the day in the dry season. The south coast is generally cooler than the north, and highland areas inland are cooler again. The wet season begins in October ending in April during which rain falls mostly in the afternoons and intermittently during other parts of the year. The wettest months are January and February.

West [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] is wetter than East [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] and mountainous regions receive much higher rainfall. The Parahyangan highlands of West [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] receive over 4,000 mm annually, while the north coast of East [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] receives 900 mm annually.

Natural environment

The natural environment of [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] is tropical rainforest, with ecosystem ranged from coastal mangrove forest on north coast, rocky coastal cliff on southern coast, low-lying tropical forest, to high altitude rainforest on slopes of mountainous volcanic regions in the interior. The [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] environment and climate gradually altered from west to east; from wet and humid thick rainforest in western parts to dry savanna environment in the east, it corresponds to the climate and rainfalls in these regions.

Originally [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]n wildlife supports rich biodiversity, numbers of endemic species of flora and fauna had flourished; such as the world's rarest rhino Javan rhinoceros,^[9] Javan Banteng, Javan Hawk-Eagle, Javan Peafowl, Javan Silvery gibbon, Javan lutung, [[[javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] mouse-deer]], Javan Rusa, and Javan leopard. With over 450 species of birds and 37 endemic species, [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] is a birdwatchers paradise.^[10]

However [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] is also home of large numbers of humans. With an estimated population of 114,733,500 in 1995, [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] contains well over half of Indonesia's population.^[11] Since ancient times people has opened the rainforest, altered the ecosystem, shaped the landscapes and created rice paddy and terraces to support the growing population. [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]n rice terraces have existed for more than a millennia, and had supported ancient agricultural kingdoms. The growing human population have put severe pressure on [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]'s wildlife, rainforests were diminished and confined in highlands slopes or isolated peninsula. Some of [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] endemic species are critically endangered, some even already extinct; [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] used to have its own endemic tiger subspecies that extinct in mid-1970s. Today several national parks were established in [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] to protect the remnants of [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]n fragile wildlife, such as Ujung Kulon, Mount Halimun-Salak, Gede Pangrango, Baluran, Meru Betiri and Alas Purwo.

Administrative division

The island is administratively divided into four provinces:

Banten, capital: Serang
[[West [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]]], capital: Bandung
[[Central [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]]], capital: Semarang
[[East [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]]], capital: Surabaya

and two special regions:

Jakarta
Yogyakarta.

History

Fossilised remains of Homo erectus, popularly known as the "[[[javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] Man]]", dating back 1.7 million years were found along the banks of the Bengawan Solo River.^[12]

The island's exceptional fertility and rainfall allowed the development of wet-field rice cultivation, which required sophisticated levels of cooperation between villages. Out of these village alliances, small kingdoms developed. The chain of volcanic mountains and associated highlands running the length of [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] kept its interior regions and peoples separate and relatively isolated.^[13] Before the advent of Islamic states and European colonialism, the rivers provided the main means of communication, although [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]'s many rivers are mostly short. Only the Brantas and Sala rivers could provide long-distance communication, and thus their valleys supported the centres of major kingdoms. A system of roads, permanent bridges and toll gates is thought to have been established in [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] by at least the mid-seventeenth century. Local powers could disrupt the routes as could the wet season and road use was highly dependent on constant maintenance. Subsequently, communication between [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]'s population was difficult.^[14]

Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms era

The Taruma and Sunda kingdoms of western [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] appeared in the fourth and seventh centuries respectively. However, the first major principality was the Medang Kingdom which was founded in central [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] at the beginning of the eight century. Medang's religion centred on the Hindu god Shiva, and the kingdom produced some of [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]'s earliest Hindu temples on the Dieng Plateau. Around 8th century the Sailendra dynasty rose in Kedu Plain and become the patron of Mahayana Buddhism. This ancient kingdom built monuments such as 9th century Borobudur and Prambanan in central [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java].

Around 10th century the centre of power shifted from central to eastern [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]. The eastern [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]nese kingdoms of Kediri, Singhasari and Majapahit were mainly dependent on rice agriculture, yet also pursued trade within the Indonesian archipelago, and with China and India.

Majapahit was established by Wijaya and by the end of the reign of Hayam Wuruk (r. 1350-89) it claimed sovereignty over the entire Indonesian archipelago, although control was likely limited to [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java], Bali and Madura. Hayam Wuruk's prime minister, Gajah Mada, led many of the kingdom's territorial conquests. Previous [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]nese kingdoms had their power based in agriculture, however, Majapahit took control of ports and shipping lanes and became [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]'s first commercial empire. With the death of Hayam Wuruk and the coming of Islam to Indonesia, Majapahit went into decline.

Spread of Islam and rise of Islamic sultanates

By the end of the 16th century, Islam, through conversion firstly amongst the island's elite, had surpassed Hinduism and Buddhism as the dominant religion in [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]. During this era, the Islamic kingdoms of Demak, Cirebon, and Banten were ascendant. The Mataram Sultanate became the dominant power of central and eastern [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] at the end of the 16th century. The principalities of Surabaya and Cirebon were eventually subjugated such that only Mataram and Banten were left to face the Dutch in the 17th century.

Colonial periods

[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Thee-kweekbedden zonder afdak [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] TMnr 10011931.jpg|thumb|Tea plantation in [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] during Dutch colonial period. In/before 1926.]]

Java's contact with the European colonial powers began in 1522 with a treaty between the Sunda kingdom and the Portuguese in Malacca. After its failure the Portuguese presence was confined to Malacca, and to the eastern islands. In 1596, a four-ship expedition led by Cornelis de Houtman was the first Dutch contact with Indonesia.^[15] By the end of the 18th century the Dutch had extended their influence over the sultanates of the interior (see Dutch East India Company in Indonesia). While the [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]nese were great warriors, internal conflict prevented them forming effective alliances against the Dutch. Remnants of the Mataram survived as the Surakarta (Solo) and Yogyakarta principalities. [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]nese kings claimed to rule with divine authority and the Dutch helped them to preserve remnants of a [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]nese aristocracy by confirming them as regents or district officials within the colonial administration.

Java's major role during the early part of the colonial period was as a producer of rice. In spice producing islands like Banda, rice was regularly imported from [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java], to supply the deficiency in means of subsistence.^[16]

During Napoleonic wars in Europe, the Netherlands fell under France Republic, and so did its colony in East Indies. During the short-lived Daendels administration (as French proxy rule on [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]), the construction of [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java Great Post Road]] was commenced in 1808. The road span from Anyer in Western [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] to Panarukan in East [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] served as a military supply route to defend [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] from incoming British invasion.^[17]

In 1811, [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] was [[Invasion of [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] (1811)|captured by the British]], becoming a possession of the British Empire, and Sir Stamford Raffles was appointed as the island's Governor. In 1814, [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] was returned to the Dutch under the terms of the Treaty of Paris.^[18]

In 1815, there may have been 5 million people in [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java].^[19] In the second half of the eighteenth century, population spurts began in districts along the north-central coast of [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java], and in the nineteenth century population grew rapidly across the island. Factors for the great population growth include the impact of Dutch colonial rule including the imposed end to civil war in [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java], the increase in the area under rice cultivation, and the introduction of food plants such as casava and maize which could sustain populations that could not afford rice.^[20] Others attribute the growth to the taxation burdens and increased expansion of employment under the Cultivation System to which couples responded by having more children in the hope of increasing their families' ability to pay tax and buy goods.^[21] Cholera claimed 100,000 lives in [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] in 1820.^[22]

The advent of trucks and railways where there had previously only been buffalo and carts, telegraph systems, and more coordinated distribution systems under the colonial government all contributed to famine elimination in [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java], and in turn, population growth. There were no significant famines in [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] from the 1840s through to the Japanese occupation in the 1940s.^[23] Ethnological factors are also thought to have contributed to the increase in population. In [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java], there was no absolute preference for boy babies which was significant in [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] where agriculture depends on the labour of both men and women. Furthermore, the age of first marriage dropped during the nineteenth century thus increasing a women's child bearing years.^[23]

Independence

Indonesian nationalism first took hold in [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] in the early twentieth century (see Indonesian National Awakening), and the struggle to secure the country's independence following World War II was centred in [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]. The abortive coup and the subsequent violent anti-communist purge in 1965/66 largely took place in [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]. The island has dominated Indonesian social, political and economic life, which has been the source of resentment of those resides in other islands. In 1998, preceding the fall of Suharto's 32-year presidency, large riots targeted the Chinese Indonesians in another series of pogroms.^[24]

Demography

With a combined population of 136.5 million in the 2010 census (including Madura's 3.6 million),^[25] and at current growth rates, 139 million combined in 2011, is the most populous island in the world and is home to 57% of Indonesia's population.^[25] At 1,062 people per km² in 2010 it is also one of the most densely-populated parts of the world. Though little population growth is registered in Central [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java], East [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java], and Yogyakarta, these regions have higher birth rates than one would assume due to mass emigration to the Western side of [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java], Sumatra, Borneo, and Papua. Approximately 45% of the population of Indonesia is ethnically [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]nese.,^[26] Sundanese make a large portion of [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]'s population as well.

is forming into a megalopolitan chain of cities, as seen from space.]]

The dense Western third of the island (West [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java], Banten, and DKI Jakarta) has an even higher population density exceeding 1,400 per km² and is taking up the lion's share of population growth of [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java].^[25] It is home to 3 metropolitan areas, Greater Jakarta (with outlying areas of Greater Serang and Greater Sukabumi), Greater Bandung, and Greater Cirebon.

Province or Special Region	Capital	Area km²²⁾	Area %	Population Census of 2000^[27]	Population Census of 2010^[27]	Population Density in 2010
Banten	Serang	9,160.7	7.1	8,098,277	10,644,030	1,162
DKI Jakarta	-	664	0.5	8,361,079	9,588,198	14,440
[[West [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]]]	Bandung	34,817	27.1	35,724,093	43,021,826	1,235
[[Central [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]]]	Semarang	32,801	25.3	31,223,258	32,380,687	995
Yogyakarta	Yogyakarta	3,133	2.4	3,121,045	3,452,390	1,084
[[East [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]]]	Surabaya	47,922	37.3	34,765,993	37,476,011	782
Region Administered as Java	Jakarta	128,297	100%	121,293,745	136,563,142	1,064
Madura Island of East [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]	-	4,250	3.3	3,230,300	3,621,646	852
[javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] Island¹⁾	-	124,047	96.7	118,063,445	132,941,496	1,071

^{1) Other islands are included in this figure but are very small in population and area}

^{2) Land area of provinces updated in 2010 Census figures, areas may be different than past results.}

From the 1970s to the fall of the Suharto regime in 1998, the Indonesian government ran transmigration programs aimed at resettling the population of [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] on other less-populated islands of Indonesia. This program has met with mixed results; sometimes causing conflicts between the locals and the recently arrived settlers. However, [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]'s share of the nation's population has fallen steadily.

Jakarta and its outskirts being the dominant metropolis is also home to people from all over the nation. East [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] is also home to ethnic Balinese, as well as large numbers of Madurans due to their historic poverty.

Ethnicity and culture

[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Een jonge [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]an te Semarang [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] TMnr 10002811.jpg|thumb|180px|left|A teenager in [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] wearing traditional Javanese attire: blangkon headgear, batik sarong and kris as accessory. 1913. ]] Despite its large population and in contrast to the other larger islands of Indonesia, [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] is comparatively homogeneous in ethnic composition. Only two ethnic groups are native to the island—the Javanese and Sundanese. A third group is the Madurese, who inhabit the island of Madura off the north east coast of [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java], and have immigrated to [[East [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]]] in large numbers since the 18th century.^[28] The [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]nese comprise about two-thirds of the island's population, while the Sundanese and Madurese account for 20% and 10% respectively.^[28] The forth group is the Betawi people that speak a dialect of Malay, they are the descendants of the people living around Batavia from around the 17th century. Betawis are creole people, mostly descended from various Indonesian archipelago ethnic groups such as Malay, Sundanese, Javanese, Balinese, Minang, Bugis, Makassar, Ambonese, mixed with foreign ethnic groups such as Portuguese, Dutch, Arab, Chinese and Indian brought to or attracted to Batavia to meet labour needs. They have a culture and language distinct from the surrounding Sundanese and Javanese.

The [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]nese kakawin Tantu Pagelaran explained the mythical origin of the island and its volcanic nature. Four major cultural areas exist on the island: the kejawen or [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]nese heartland, the north coast of the pasisir region, the Sunda lands of West [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java], and the eastern salient, also known as Blambangan. Madura makes up a fifth area having close cultural ties with coastal [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java].^[28] The kejawen [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]nese culture is the island's most dominant. [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]'s remaining aristocracy are based here, and it is the region from where the majority of Indonesia's army, business, and political elite originate. Its language, arts, and etiquette are regarded as the island's most refined and exemplary.^[28] The territory from Banyumas in the west through to Blitar in the east and encompasses Indonesia's most fertile and densely populated agricultural land.^[28]

In the southwestern part of Central [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java], which is usually named the Banyumasan region, a cultural mingling occurred; bringing together [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]nese culture and Sundanese culture to create the Banyumasan culture.^{[citation needed]} In the central [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]nese court cities of Yogyakarta and Surakarta, contemporary kings trace their lineages back to the pre-colonial Islamic kingdoms that ruled the region, making those places especially strong repositories of classical [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]nese culture. Classic arts of [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] include gamelan music and wayang puppet shows.

[javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] was the site of many influential kingdoms in the Southeast Asian region,^[29] and as a result, many literary works have been written by [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]nese authors. These include Ken Arok and Ken Dedes, the story of the orphan who usurped his king, and married the queen of the ancient [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]nese kingdom; and translations of Ramayana and Mahabharata. Pramoedya Ananta Toer is a famous contemporary Indonesian author, who has written many stories based on his own experiences of having grown up in [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java], and takes many elements from [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]nese folklore and historical legends.

Languages

[[File:[javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] languages.JPG|thumb|220px|Languages spoken in [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] (Javanese is shown in white)]]

The three major languages spoken on [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] are Javanese, Sundanese and Madurese. Other languages spoken include Betawi (a Malay dialect local to the Jakarta region), Osing and Tenggerese (closely related to [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]nese), Baduy (closely related to Sundanese), Kangeanese (closely related to Madurese), Balinese, and Banyumasan^[30] The vast majority of the population also speaks Indonesian, often as a second language.

Religion

during colonial period. The mosque combined traditional [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]nese style (multi-tiered roof) with European architecture.]]

More than 90 percent of the people of [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] are Muslims, on a broad continuum between abangan (more traditional) and santri (more modernist). Small Hindu enclaves are scattered throughout [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java], but there is a large Hindu population along the eastern coast nearest Bali, especially around the town of Banyuwangi. There are also Christian communities, mostly in the larger cities, though some rural areas of south-central [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] are strongly Roman Catholic. Roman Catholics and other Christian groups have been persecuted for their beliefs such as a ban on Christmas services.^[31] Buddhist communities also exist in the major cities, primarily among the Chinese Indonesian. The Indonesian constitution recognises six official religions. (See Religion in Indonesia.)

[javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] has been a melting pot of religions and cultures, which has created a broad range of religious belief. Indian influences came first with Shaivism and Buddhism penetrating deeply into society, blending with indigenous tradition and culture.^[32] One conduit for this were the ascetics, called resi, who taught mystical practices. A resi lived surrounded by students, who took care of their master's daily needs. Resi's authorities were merely ceremonial. At the courts, Brahmin clerics and pudjangga (sacred literati) legitimised rulers and linked Hindu cosmology to their political needs.^[32]

Islam, which came after Hinduism, strengthened the status structure of this traditional religious pattern. The Muslim scholar of the writ (Kyai) became the new religious elite as Hindu influences receded. Islam recognises no hierarchy of religious leaders nor a formal priesthood, but the Dutch colonial government established an elaborate rank order for mosque and other Islamic preaching schools. In [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]nese pesantren (Islamic schools), The Kyai perpetuated the tradition of the resi. Students around him provided his needs, even peasants around the school.^[32]

Pre-Islamic [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]n traditions have encouraged Islam in a mystical direction. There emerged in [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] a loosely structured society of religious leadership, revolving around kyais, possessing various degrees of proficiency in pre-Islamic and Islamic lore, belief and practice.^[32] The kyais are the principal intermediaries between the villages masses and the realm of the supernatural. However, this very looseneess of kyai leadership structure has promoted schism. There were often sharp divisions between orthodox kyais, who merely instructed in Islamic law, with those who taught mysticism and those who sought reformed Islam with modern scientific concepts. As a result, there is a division between santri, who believe that they are more orthodox in their Islamic belief and practice, with abangan, who have mixed pre-Islamic animistic and Hindu-Indian concepts with a superficial acceptance of Islamic belief.^[32]

A wider effect of this division is the number of sects. In the middle of 1956, the Department of Religious Affairs in Yogyakarta reported 63 religious sects in [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] other than the official Indonesian religions. Of these, 35 were in [[Central [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]]], 22 in [[West [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]]] and 6 in [[East [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]]].^[32] These include Kejawen, Sumarah, Subud, etc. Their total membership is difficult to estimate as many of their adherents identify themselves with one of the official religions.^[33]

Economy

[[File:Rice plantation in [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java].jpg|thumb|left|Javanese women planting rice in a rice field near Prambanan, Yogyakarta]] Initially the economy of [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] relied heavily on rice agriculture. Ancient kingdoms such as the Tarumanagara, Mataram, and Majapahit were dependent on rice yields and tax. [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] was famous for rice surpluses and rice export since ancient times, and rice agriculture contributed to the population growth of the island. Trade with other parts of Asia such as India and China flourished as early as the 4th century, as evidenced by Chinese ceramics found on the island dated to that period. [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] also took part in the global trade of Maluku spice from ancient times in the Majapahit era, until well into the VOC era.

Dutch East India Company set their foothold on Batavia in 17th century and was succeeded by Netherlands East Indies in 18th century. During these colonial times, the Dutch introduced the cultivation of commercial plants in [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java], such as sugarcane, rubber, coffee, tea, and quinine. In the 19th and early 20th century, [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]nese coffee gained global popularity. Thus, the name "Java" today has become a synonym for coffee.

[[File:[javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] Transportation Network.svg|thumb|right|250px|[javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] transportation network]] [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] is the most developed island in Indonesia since the era of Netherlands East Indies to modern Republic of Indonesia. The road transportation networks that have existed since ancient times were connected and perfected with the construction of [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java Great Post Road]] by Daendels in the early 19th century. The [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] Great Post Road become the backbone of [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]'s road infrastructure and laid the base of [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java North Coast Road]] (Indonesian: Jalan Pantura, abbreviation from "Pantai Utara"). The need to transport commercial produces such as coffee from plantations in the interior of the island to the harbour on the coast spurred the construction of railway networks in [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]. Today the industry, business and trade, also services flourished in major cities of [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java], such as Jakarta, Surabaya, Semarang, and Bandung; while some traditional Sultanate cities such as Yogyakarta, Surakarta, and Cirebon preserved its royal legacy and become the centre of art, culture and tourism in [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]. Industrial estates also growing in towns on northern coast of [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java], especially around Cilegon, Tangerang, Bekasi, Karawang, Gresik and Sidoarjo. The toll road highway networks was built and expanded since Suharto era until now, connecting major urban centres and surrounding areas, such as in and around Jakarta and Bandung; also the ones in Cirebon, Semarang and Surabaya. In addition to these motorways, [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] has 16 national highways.

Notes

^ "Islands By Land Area". Islands.unep.ch. 2012-07-21.
^ Raffles, Thomas E. : " The History of [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]". Oxford University Press, 1965. Page 2
^ ^a ^b Raffles, Thomas E. : "The History of [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]". Oxford University Press, 1965 . Page 3
^ History of Ancient India Kapur, Kamlesh
^ Hatley, R., Schiller, J., Lucas, A., Martin-Schiller, B., (1984). "Mapping cultural regions of [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]" in: Other [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]s away from the kraton. pp. 1–32.
^ Ricklefs, M.C. (1991). A History of Modern Indonesia since c.1300 (2nd edition). London: MacMillan. p. 15. ISBN 0-333-57690-X. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
^ Monk,, K.A. (1996). The Ecology of Nusa Tenggara and Maluku. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd. p. 7. ISBN 962-593-076-0. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
^ Management of Bengawan Solo River Area Jasa Tirta I Corporation 2004. Retrieved 26 July 2006
^ "Javan Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus)". EDGE Evolutionarily Distinct and Globally Endangered. Retrieved 26 June 2012.
^ "Indonesia bird watching tour". wildlifenews.co.uk. Retrieved 26 June 2012.
^ "Doing Business in Indonesia". export.gov. Retrieved 26 June 2012.
^ Pope, G G (1988). "Recent advances in far eastern paleoanthropology". Annual Review of Anthropology. 17: 43–77. doi:10.1146/annurev.an.17.100188.000355. cited in Whitten, T (1996). The Ecology of [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] and Bali. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd. pp. 309–312. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Pope, G (August 15, 1983). "Evidence on the Age of the Asian Hominidae". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 80 (16): 4, 988–4992. doi:10.1073/pnas.80.16.4988. PMC 384173. PMID 6410399. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help) cited in Whitten, T (1996). The Ecology of [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] and Bali. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd. p. 309. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); de Vos, J.P. (9 December 1994). "Dating hominid sites in Indonesia" (PDF). Science Magazine. 266 (16): 4, 988–4992. doi:10.1126/science.7992059. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) cited in Whitten, T (1996). The Ecology of [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] and Bali. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd. p. 309. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
^ Ricklefs (1991), pp. 16–17
^ Ricklefs (1991), p. 15.
^ Ames, Glenn J. (2008). The Globe Encompassed: The Age of European Discovery, 1500-1700. p. 99.
^ St. John, Horace Stebbing Roscoe (1853). The Indian Archipelago: its history and present state, Volume 1. Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans. p. 137.
^ Ekspedisi Anjer-Panaroekan, Laporan Jurnalistik Kompas. Penerbit Buku Kompas, PT Kompas Media Nusantara, Jakarta Indonesia. 2008 November. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-979-709-391-4. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
^ Atkins, James (1889). The Coins And Tokens Of The Possessions And Colonies Of The British Empire. London: Quaritch, Bernard. p. 213. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
^ [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java] [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] (island, Indonesia)]. Encyclopædia Britannica.
^ Taylor (2003), p. 253.
^ Taylor (2003), pp. 253-254.
^ Byrne, Joseph Patrick (2008). Encyclopedia of Pestilence, Pandemics, and Plagues: A-M. ABC-CLIO. p. 99. ISBN 0-313-34102-8.
^ ^a ^b Taylor (2003), p. 254.
^ "Ethnic Chinese tell of mass rapes". BBC News. 23 June 1998. Retrieved 28 April 2010.
^ ^a ^b ^c http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2010/08/23/population-growth-%E2%80%98good-papua%E2%80%99.html
^ CIA factbook
^ ^a ^b http://www.citypopulation.de/Indonesia-MU.html
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Hefner, Robert (1997). [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]]. Singapore: Periplus Editions. p. 58. ISBN 962-593-244-5.
^ See Wallace Stevens's poem "Tea" for an appreciative allusion to [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]nese culture.
^ Languages of [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java] and Bali] – Ethnologue. Other sources may list some of these as dialects rather than languages.
^ Epa, Konradus. "Christians refuse to cancel Christmas". UCA News.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f van der Kroef, Justus M. (1961). "New Religious Sects in [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]". Far Eastern Survey. 30 (2): 18–15. doi:10.1525/as.1961.30.2.01p1432u. JSTOR 3024260.
^ Beatty, Andrew, Varieties of [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]nese Religion: An Anthropological Account, Cambridge University Press 1999, ISBN 0-521-62473-8

References

Taylor, Jean Gelman (2003). Indonesia: Peoples and Histories. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-10518-5.

External links

[javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java] Indonesia]
Template:Wikitravelpar

Template:Indonesia [[af:[javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] (eiland)]] [[bs:[javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] (ostrvo)]] [[da:[javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] (ø)]] [[de:[javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] (Insel)]] [[es:[javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] (isla)]] [[eu:[javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] (uhartea)]] [[fr:[javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] (île)]] [[hr:[javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] (otok)]] [[io:[javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] (insulo)]] [[pam:[javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] (island)]] [[lad:D[javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] (isola)]] [[lv:[javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] (sala)]] [[lt:[javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] (sala)]] [[nl:[javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] (eiland)]] [[no:[javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] (øy)]] [[stq:[javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] (Ailound)]] [[sh:[javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] (otok)]]

[1] "Islands By Land Area". Islands.unep.ch. 2012-07-21.

[2] Raffles, Thomas E. : " The History of [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]". Oxford University Press, 1965. Page 2

[Raffles,_Thomas_E._1965._Page_3-3] Raffles, Thomas E. : "The History of [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]". Oxford University Press, 1965 . Page 3

[4] History of Ancient India Kapur, Kamlesh

[5] Hatley, R., Schiller, J., Lucas, A., Martin-Schiller, B., (1984). "Mapping cultural regions of [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]" in: Other [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]s away from the kraton. pp. 1–32.

[RICKLEFS_p15-6] Ricklefs, M.C. (1991). A History of Modern Indonesia since c.1300 (2nd edition). London: MacMillan. p. 15. ISBN 0-333-57690-X. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[MONK_7-7] Monk,, K.A. (1996). The Ecology of Nusa Tenggara and Maluku. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd. p. 7. ISBN 962-593-076-0. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)

[8] Management of Bengawan Solo River Area Jasa Tirta I Corporation 2004. Retrieved 26 July 2006

[9] "Javan Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus)". EDGE Evolutionarily Distinct and Globally Endangered. Retrieved 26 June 2012.

[10] "Indonesia bird watching tour". wildlifenews.co.uk. Retrieved 26 June 2012.

[11] "Doing Business in Indonesia". export.gov. Retrieved 26 June 2012.

[12] Pope, G G (1988). "Recent advances in far eastern paleoanthropology". Annual Review of Anthropology. 17: 43–77. doi:10.1146/annurev.an.17.100188.000355. cited in Whitten, T (1996). The Ecology of [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] and Bali. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd. pp. 309–312. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Pope, G (August 15, 1983). "Evidence on the Age of the Asian Hominidae". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 80 (16): 4, 988–4992. doi:10.1073/pnas.80.16.4988. PMC 384173. PMID 6410399. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help) cited in Whitten, T (1996). The Ecology of [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] and Bali. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd. p. 309. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); de Vos, J.P. (9 December 1994). "Dating hominid sites in Indonesia" (PDF). Science Magazine. 266 (16): 4, 988–4992. doi:10.1126/science.7992059. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) cited in Whitten, T (1996). The Ecology of [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] and Bali. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd. p. 309. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

[13] Ricklefs (1991), pp. 16–17

[14] Ricklefs (1991), p. 15.

[15] Ames, Glenn J. (2008). The Globe Encompassed: The Age of European Discovery, 1500-1700. p. 99.

[16] St. John, Horace Stebbing Roscoe (1853). The Indian Archipelago: its history and present state, Volume 1. Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans. p. 137.

[17] Ekspedisi Anjer-Panaroekan, Laporan Jurnalistik Kompas. Penerbit Buku Kompas, PT Kompas Media Nusantara, Jakarta Indonesia. 2008 November. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-979-709-391-4. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)

[18] Atkins, James (1889). The Coins And Tokens Of The Possessions And Colonies Of The British Empire. London: Quaritch, Bernard. p. 213. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[19] [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java] [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]] (island, Indonesia)]. Encyclopædia Britannica.

[20] Taylor (2003), p. 253.

[21] Taylor (2003), pp. 253-254.

[22] Byrne, Joseph Patrick (2008). Encyclopedia of Pestilence, Pandemics, and Plagues: A-M. ABC-CLIO. p. 99. ISBN 0-313-34102-8.

[Taylor_2003,_p._254-23] Taylor (2003), p. 254.

[24] "Ethnic Chinese tell of mass rapes". BBC News. 23 June 1998. Retrieved 28 April 2010.

[JKTPOS-25] ttp://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2010/08/23/population-growth-%E2%80%98good-papua%E2%80%99.html

[26] CIA factbook

[citypop-27] ttp://www.citypopulation.de/Indonesia-MU.html

[Periplus58-28] Hefner, Robert (1997). [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]]. Singapore: Periplus Editions. p. 58. ISBN 962-593-244-5.

[29] See Wallace Stevens's poem "Tea" for an appreciative allusion to [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]nese culture.

[30] Languages of [javacode-x.blogspot.com [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java] and Bali] – Ethnologue. Other sources may list some of these as dialects rather than languages.

[Christians_refuse_to_cancel_Christmas-31] Epa, Konradus. "Christians refuse to cancel Christmas". UCA News.

[kroef1961-32] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f van der Kroef, Justus M. (1961). "New Religious Sects in [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]". Far Eastern Survey. 30 (2): 18–15. doi:10.1525/as.1961.30.2.01p1432u. JSTOR 3024260.

[Beatty-33] Beatty, Andrew, Varieties of [javacode-x.blogspot.com Java]nese Religion: An Anthropological Account, Cambridge University Press 1999, ISBN 0-521-62473-8

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