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Zoonosis
SpecialtyInfectious diseases Edit this on Wikidata

Zoonoses (/ˌzoʊ.əˈnoʊs[invalid input: 'ɨ']s/, plural -/ˈnoʊsiz/, also spelled zoönoses; singular zoonosis (or zoönosis); from Greek: ζῷον zoon "animal" and νόσος nosos "sickness") are infectious diseases of animals (usually vertebrates) that can naturally be transmitted to humans.[1][2]

Major modern diseases such as Ebola virus disease, salmonellosis and influenza are zoonoses. Zoonoses can be caused by a range of disease pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, fungi and parasites; of 1,415 pathogens known to infect humans, 61% were zoonotic.[3] Most human diseases originated in animals; however, only diseases that routinely involve animal to human transmission, like rabies, are considered direct zoonosis.[4]

Zoonoses have different modes of transmission. In direct zoonosis the disease is directly transmitted from animals to humans through media such as air (influenza) or through bites and saliva (rabies).[5] In contrast, transmission can also occur via an intermediate species (referred to as a vector), which carry the disease pathogen without getting infected. When humans infect animals, it is called reverse zoonosis or anthroponosis.[6]

History

During most of human prehistory groups of hunter-gatherers were probably very small. Such groups probably made contact with other such bands only rarely. Such isolation would have caused epidemic diseases to be restricted to any given local population, because propagation and expansion of epidemics depend on frequent contact with other individuals who have not yet developed an adequate immune response. To persist in such a population, a pathogen either had to be a chronic infection, staying present and potentially infectious in the infected host for long periods, or it had to have other additional species as reservoir where it can maintain itself until further susceptible hosts are contacted and infected. In fact, for many 'human' diseases, the human is actually better viewed as an accidental or incidental victim and a dead-end host.[citation needed] Examples include rabies, anthrax, tularemia and West Nile virus. Thus, much of human exposure to infectious disease has been zoonotic.

Many modern diseases, even epidemic diseases, started out as zoonotic diseases. It is hard to establish with certainty which diseases jumped from other animals to humans, but there is increasing evidence from DNA and RNA sequencing, that measles, smallpox, influenza, HIV, and diphtheria came to us this way.[citation needed] Various forms of the common cold and tuberculosis also are adaptations of strains originating in other species.

Zoonoses are of interest because they are often previously unrecognized diseases or have increased virulence in populations lacking immunity. The West Nile virus appeared in the United States in 1999 in the New York City area, and moved through the country in the summer of 2002, causing much distress.[citation needed] Bubonic plague is a zoonotic disease,[7] as are salmonellosis, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, and Lyme disease.

A major factor contributing to the appearance of new zoonotic pathogens in human populations is increased contact between humans and wildlife.[8] This can be caused either by encroachment of human activity into wilderness areas or by movement of wild animals into areas of human activity. An example of this is the outbreak of Nipah virus in peninsular Malaysia in 1999, when intensive pig farming began on the habitat of infected fruit bats. Unidentified infection of the pigs amplified the force of infection, eventually transmitting the virus to farmers and causing 105 human deaths.[9]

Similarly, in recent times avian influenza and West Nile virus have spilled over into human populations probably due to interactions between the carrier host and domestic animals. Highly mobile animals such as bats and birds may present a greater risk of zoonotic transmission than other animals due to the ease with which they can move into areas of human habitation.

Because they depend on the human host for part of their life-cycle, diseases such as African schistosomiasis, river blindness, and elephantiasis are not defined as zoonotic, even though they may depend on transmission by insects or other vectors.

Foodborne illness

The most significant zoonotic pathogens causing foodborne diseases are Escherichia coli O157:H7, Campylobacter, Caliciviridae, and Salmonella.[10][11][12]

In 2006, a conference held in Berlin was focusing on the issue of zoonotic pathogen effects on food safety, urging governments to intervene, and the public to be vigilant towards the risks of catching food-borne diseases from farm-to-dining table.[13]

Many food outbreaks can be linked to zoonotic pathogens. Many different types of food can be contaminated that have an animal origin. Some common foods linked to zoonotic contaminations include eggs, seafood, meat, dairy, and even some vegetables.[14] Food outbreaks should be handled in preparedness plans to prevent widespread outbreaks and to efficiently and effectively contain outbreaks.

Lists of diseases

See a list of diseases categorized as zoonoses here: Category:Zoonoses

Disease[15] Pathogen(s) Animals involved Mode of transmission
African sleeping sickness Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense range of wild animals and domestic livestock transmitted by the bite of the tsetse fly
Anthrax Bacillus anthracis commonly – grazing herbivores such as cattle, sheep, goats, camels, horses, and pigs by ingestion, inhalation or skin contact of spores
Brucellosis Brucella spp. cattle, goats infected milk or meat
Cat-scratch disease Bartonella henselae, Bartonella quintana cats bites or scratches from infected cats
Chagas disease Trypanosoma cruzi armadillos, Triatominae (kissing bug) bite
Variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease PrPvCJD cattle eating meat from animals with bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE)
Cryptococcosis Cryptococcus neoformans commonly – birds like pigeons inhaling fungi
Cysticercosis & Taeniasis Taenia solium, Taenia saginata commonly – pigs and cattle consuming water or food contaminated with the tapeworm eggs (cysticercosis) or raw or undercooked pork contaminated with the cysticerci (taeniasis)
Ebola virus disease (a haemorrhagic fever) Ebolavirus spp. chimpanzees, gorillas, fruit bats, monkeys, forest antelope and porcupines through body fluids, organs
Other haemorrhagic fevers (Marburg viral haemorrhagic fever, Lassa fever, Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever, Rift Valley fever[16]) Varies – commonly viruses varies (sometimes unknown) – commonly camels, hares, hedgehogs, cattle, sheep, goats, horses and swine infection usually occurs through direct contact with infected animals
Echinococcosis Echinococcus spp. commonly – dogs, foxes, wolves, sheep, and rodents eating organs contaminated with cysts of the tapeworm
Foodborne illnesses (commonly diarrheal diseases) Campylobacter spp., Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., Shigella spp. and Trichinella spp. animals domesticated for food production (cattle, poultry) raw and/or undercooked food made from animals
Histoplasmosis Histoplasma capsulatum birds, bats inhaling fungi
Influenza Influenza A virus horses, pigs, domestic and wild birds, wild aquatic mammals such as seals and whales, minks and farmed carnivores droplets transmitted through air
Leprosy Mycobacterium leprae mainly armadillos but mangabey monkeys, rabbits and mice too any contact with armadillos including urine, faeces and pus from infected animals, the soil infected by armadillo can make you sick too and of course eating infected meat
Leptospirosis Leptospira interrogans rats, mice, dogs direct or indirect contact with urine of infected animals
Rabies Rabies virus commonly – dogs, bats, monkeys, raccoons, foxes, skunks, cattle, wolves, coyotes, mongooses and cats through saliva by biting, or through scratches from an infected animal
Toxocariasis Toxocara canis and Toxocara cati dogs, cats exposure to feces
Toxoplasmosis Toxoplasma gondii cats, livestock, poultry exposure to cat feces, and undercooked meat
Trichinosis Trichinella spiralis, Trichinella britovi rodents, pigs, horses, bears, walruses eating infected meat
Tuberculosis Mycobacterium bovis infected cattle, deer, llamas, pigs, domestic cats, wild carnivores (foxes, coyotes) and omnivores (possums, mustelids and rodents) milk, exhaled air, sputum, urine, faeces and pus from infected animals
Tularemia Francisella tularensis lagomorphs (type A) and rodents (type B) ticks, deer flies, and other insects

Partial list of outbreaks of associated with fairs and petting zoos

Outbreaks of zoonoses have been traced to human interaction with and exposure to animals at fairs, petting zoos, and other settings. In 2005, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) issued an updated list of recommendations for preventing zoonosis transmission in public settings.[17] The recommendations, developed in conjunction with the National Association of State Public Health Veterinarians, include educational responsibilities of venue operators, limiting public and animal contact, and animal care and management.

In 1988, a person became ill with swine influenza virus (swine flu) and died after visiting the display area of the pig barn at a Wisconsin county fair. Three healthcare personnel treating the case patient also developed flu-like illness with laboratory evidence of swine influenza virus infection.[18] Investigators from the CDC indicated in their final report that the swine flu had been transmitted directly from pig to human host.[19]

In 1994, seven cases of E. coli O157:H7 infection were traced to a farm in Leicestershire, United Kingdom. An epidemiological investigation into the outbreak revealed that the strain of E. coli O157:H7 isolated from nine animals on the farm was indistinguishable from the strain isolated from human samples. Investigators concluded that the most likely cause of this outbreak was direct human contact with animals.[20]

In 1995, 43 children who had visited a rural farm in Wales became ill with cryptosporidiosis. Cryptosporidium was isolated from seven of the ill children. An epidemiological investigation indicated that the source of the children's illness was contact with calves at the farm.[21]

Also in 1995, at least 13 children became ill with Cryptosporidiosis after visiting a farm in Dublin, Ireland. In a case-control study, researchers compared the activities of the 13 ill children, or cases, to the activities of 52 out of 55 people who had visited the farm – the controls. The study revealed that illness was significantly associated with playing in the sand in a picnic area beside a stream where animals had access.[22]

In 1997, an E. coli O157:H7 outbreak was identified among one child who lived on an open farm and two children who visited the farm during school parties. Two of the three children developed hemolytic-uremic syndrome (HUS). Isolates collected from the three children and from samples taken at the farm were indistinguishable, demonstrating evidence of the link between the farm and the children's illness.[23]

In 1999, what is believed to be the largest outbreak of waterborne E. coli O157:H7 illness in United States history occurred at the Washington County, New York fair. The New York State Department of Health identified 781 individuals who were suspected of being infected with either E. coli O157:H7 or Campylobacter jejuni. An investigation into the outbreak revealed that consumption of beverages purchased from vendors supplied with water drawn from an unchlorinated fairgrounds well was associated with illness. In all, 127 outbreak victims were confirmed ill with E. coli O157:H7 infections; 71 were hospitalized, 14 developed HUS, and two died.[24]

In 2000, 51 people became ill with confirmed or suspected E. coli O157:H7 infections after visiting a dairy farm in Pennsylvania. Eight children developed HUS. A case-control study among visitors to the dairy was conducted jointly by the CDC, Pennsylvania Department of Health, and the Montgomery County Health Department. The study's authors concluded that E. coli was transmitted to visitors as a result of contamination on animal hides and in the environment.[25]

Also in 2000, 43 visitors to the Medina County fair in Ohio were confirmed ill with E. coli O157:H7 infections. An investigation into the outbreak suggested that the water system from which food vendors were supplied was the source of the E. coli outbreak. Several months later, five children became ill with E. coli infections after attending a "Carnival of Horrors" event held at the Medina County fairgrounds. PFGE analysis of the strains of E. coli isolated from members of both outbreaks revealed an indistinguishable pattern, and investigators from the Medina County Health Department and the CDC determined that the Medina County Fairgrounds water distribution system was the source of both E. coli outbreaks.[26]

In 2001, an E. coli O157:H7 outbreak was traced to exposure in the Cow Palace at the Lorain County Fair in Ohio. CDC investigators identified 23 cases of E. coli infection associated with attendance at the Lorain County Fair, with additional secondary cases likely. Two people developed HUS. An investigation revealed E. coli contamination on doorways, rails, bleachers, and sawdust. Investigators concluded that the Lorain County Fair was the source of the outbreak.[27]

Wyandot County, Ohio, also reported an E. coli O157:H7 outbreak in 2001. Ninety-two E. coli infections were reported to the Wyandot County Health Department and the CDC, with 27 cases confirmed using laboratory analysis. Two cases developed HUS. Contact with infected cattle was believed to be the source of the outbreak; however, a specific cause was never identified.[27]

In 2002, 75,000 people became ill with E. coli O157:H7 infections after visiting a large agricultural fair in Ontario, Canada. Outbreak investigators conducted a case-control study, which indicated that goats and sheep from a petting zoo were the source of the E. coli among fair visitors. Other indications were that the fencing and environment surrounding the petting zoo could have been a source of transmission.[28]

What is believed to be the largest E. coli O157:H7 outbreak in Oregon history occurred among attendees at the Lane County fair in 2002.[29] An Oregon Department of Human Services – Health Services investigation led to the belief that the E. coli outbreak originated from exposure in the sheep and goat barn. In all, 79 people were confirmed ill with E. coli infections as part of the outbreak; 22 were hospitalized, and 12 suffered HUS.[30]

In 2003, fair visitors and animal exhibitors at the Fort Bend County Fair in Texas became ill with E. coli O157:H7 infections. An outbreak investigation led to the determination that 25 people had become ill with E. coli infections after attending the Fort Bend County Fair; seven people were laboratory-confirmed with E. coli, and 5 developed HUS or TTP (thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura). Investigators isolated a strain of E. coli indistinguishable from the outbreak strain from four animal husbandry sites, and found high levels of E. coli contamination in both rodeo and animal exhibit areas.[31]

In 2004, a large E. coli O157:H7 outbreak occurred among visitors at the 2004 North Carolina State Fair. During its investigation into the outbreak, the North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services (NCDHHS) received over 180 reports of illness, and documented 33 culture-confirmed cases of E. coli O157:H7 associated with attendance at the fair, with 15 children developing HUS. In its final investigation report, NCDHHS concluded that the North Carolina State Fair E. coli outbreak had originated at a petting zoo exhibit. The conclusion was supported by a case-control study, environmental sampling, and laboratory analysis of samples collected from the fair and members of the outbreak.[32]

In 2005, a petting zoo that exhibited at two Florida fairs and a festival was traced as the source of an E. coli O157:H7 outbreak. Sixty-three people who had visited either the Florida State Fair, the Central Florida Fair, or the Florida Strawberry Festival reported illness to investigators for the Florida Department of Health, including 20 who were culture-confirmed and 7 with HUS. A case-control study revealed that illness was associated with exposure to a petting zoo exhibit present at all three events.[33]

See also

References

  1. ^ WHO. "Zoonoses". Retrieved 18 December 2014.
  2. ^ The Merriam-Webster Dictionary. "Zoonosis". Retrieved 18 December 2014.
  3. ^ Taylor LH, Latham SM, Woolhouse ME (2001). "Risk factors for human disease emergence". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 356 (1411): 983–989. doi:10.1098/rstb.2001.0888. PMC 1088493. PMID 11516376.
  4. ^ Marx PA, Apetrei C, Drucker E (October 2004). "AIDS as a zoonosis? Confusion over the origin of the virus and the origin of the epidemics". Journal of medical primatology. 33 (5–6): 220–6. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0684.2004.00078.x. PMID 15525322.
  5. ^ "Zoonosis". Medical Dictionary. Retrieved 30 January 2013.
  6. ^ Messenger AM, Barnes AN, Gray GC (2014). "Reverse zoonotic disease transmission (zooanthroponosis): a systematic review of seldom-documented human biological threats to animals". PLoS ONE. 9 (2): e89055. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0089055. PMC 3938448. PMID 24586500. Retrieved 18 December 2014.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  7. ^ Meerburg BG, Singleton GR, Kijlstra A (2009). "Rodent-borne diseases and their risks for public health". Crit Rev Microbiol. 35 (3): 221–70. doi:10.1080/10408410902989837. PMID 19548807.
  8. ^ Daszak P, Cunningham AA, Hyatt AD (2001). "Anthropogenic environmental change and the emergence of infectious diseases in wildlife". Acta tropica. 78 (2): 103–116. doi:10.1016/S0001-706X(00)00179-0. PMID 11230820.
  9. ^ Field H, Young P, Yob JM, Mills J, Hall L, Mackenzie J (2001). "The natural history of Hendra and Nipah viruses". Microbes and infection / Institut Pasteur. 3 (4): 307–314. doi:10.1016/S1286-4579(01)01384-3. PMID 11334748.
  10. ^ Humphrey T, O'Brien S, Madsen M (2007). "Campylobacters as zoonotic pathogens: A food production perspective". International Journal of Food Microbiology. 117 (3): 237–257. doi:10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2007.01.006. PMID 17368847.
  11. ^ Cloeckaert A (2006). "Introduction: emerging antimicrobial resistance mechanisms in the zoonotic foodborne pathogens Salmonella and Campylobacter". Microbes and Infection. 8 (7): 1889–1890. doi:10.1016/j.micinf.2005.12.024. PMID 16714136.
  12. ^ Frederick, A. Murphy (1999). "The Threat Posed by the Global Emergence of Livestock, Food-borne, and Zoonotic Pathogens". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 894: 20–7. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1999.tb08039.x. PMID 10681965.
  13. ^ Med-Vet-Net. "Priority Setting for Foodborne and Zoonotic Pathogens" (PDF). Retrieved 5 April 2008.
  14. ^ "Investigating Foodborne Outbreaks" (PDF). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 15 September 2011. Retrieved 5 June 2013.
  15. ^ Information in this table is largely compiled from: World Health Organization. "Zoonoses and the Human-Animal-Ecosystems Interface". Retrieved 21 December 2014.
  16. ^ http://www.who.int/zoonoses/diseases/haemorrhagic_fevers/en/
  17. ^ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2005). "Compendium of Measures To Prevent Disease Associated with Animals in Public Settings, 2005: National Association of State Public Health Veterinarians, Inc. (NASPHV)" (PDF). MMWR. 54 (RR–4): inclusive page numbers. Retrieved 28 December 2008.
  18. ^ Wells DL, Hopfensperger DJ, Arden NH, Harmon MW, Davis JP, Tipple MA, Schonberger LB (1991). "Swine influenza virus infections. Transmission from ill pigs to humans at a Wisconsin agricultural fair and subsequent probable person-to-person transmission". JAMA. 265 (4): 478–81. doi:10.1001/jama.265.4.478. PMID 1845913.
  19. ^ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1988). "Human infection with swine influenza virus – Wisconsin". MMWR. 37 (43): 661–3. PMID 2846999.
  20. ^ Shukla R, Slack R, George A, Cheasty T, Rowe B, Scutter J (1995). "Escherichia coli O157 infection associated with a farm visitor center". Communicable Disease Report. 5 (6): R86–R90. PMID 7606276.
  21. ^ Evans, M. R.; D. Gardner (1996). ""Cryptosporidiosis" Outbreak Associated with an Educational Farm Holiday". Communicable Disease Report. CDR Review 29. 6 (4): R67. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |last-author-amp= ignored (|name-list-style= suggested) (help)
  22. ^ Sayers GM, Dillon MC, Connolly E, Thornton L, Hyland E, Loughman E, O'Mahony MA, Butler KM (1996). "Cryptosporidiosis in children who visited an open farm". Commun Dis Rep CDR Rev. 13. 6 (10): R140–4. PMID 8854449.
  23. ^ Milne LM, Plom A, Strudley I, Pritchard GC, Crooks R, Hall M, Duckworth G, Seng C, Susman MD, Kearney J, Wiggins RJ, Moulsdale M, Cheasty T, Willshaw GA (1999). ""Escherichia coli" O157 incident associated with a farm open to members of the public". Communicable Disease and Public Health. 2 (1): 22–26. PMID 10462890.
  24. ^ New York State Department of Health and A.C. Novello (2000). "The Washington County Fair outbreak report". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  25. ^ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2001). "Outbreaks of Escherichia coli O157:H7 infections among children associated with farm visits—Pennsylvania and Washington 2000". MMWR. 50 (15): 293–297. PMID 11330497.
  26. ^ Rickelman-Apisa, J.M. (28 September 2001). "Summary of E. coli O157:H7 Outbreak Associated with the Medina County Fairgrounds 2000 Fair and 2000 Carnival of Horrors". Medina County Health Department. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  27. ^ a b Varma, J.K. (15 February 2002). "Trip report epi-aid # 2001–84: Outbreaks of E. coli O157:H7 infections associated with Lorain and Wyandot County fairs, Ohio, September–October 2002 From Jay K. Varma, EIS officer, Food borne and Diarrheal Diseases branch to Forrest Smith, State Epidemiologist, Ohio department of Health". Public Health Service. Department of Health and Human Services. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  28. ^ Warshawsky B, Gutmanis I, Henry B, Dow J, Reffle J, Pollett G, Ahmed R, Aldom J, Alves D, Chagla A, Ciebin B, Kolbe F, Jamieson F, Rodgers F (2002). "Outbreak of Escherichia coli 0157:H7 related to animal contact at a petting zoo". Canadian Journal of Infectious Diseases. 13 (3): 175–181. PMC 2094871. PMID 18159389.
  29. ^ Oregon Department of Human Services (13 September 2002). "Hemorrhagic Escherichiosis from a County Fair" (PDF). CD Summary. 51 (19).
  30. ^ Oregon Department of Human Services, Health Services (2005). "2005 Ways and Means Presentation – Phase 1" (PDF). Oregon Department of Human Services. Retrieved 22 May 2007. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  31. ^ Durso LM, Reynolds K, Bauer N, Keen JE (2005). "Shiga-Toxigenic Escherichia coli (STEC) O157:H7 Infections Among Livestock Exhibitors and Visitors at a Texas County Fair". Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases. 5 (2): 193–201. doi:10.1089/vbz.2005.5.193. PMID 16011437.
  32. ^ Goode, B.; O'Reilly, C. (29 June 2005). "Outbreak of Shiga toxin producing E. coli (STEC) infections associated with a petting zoo at the North Carolina State Fair – Raleigh, North Carolina, November 2004 Final Report". North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  33. ^ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2005). "Outbreaks of Escherichia coli O157:H7 Associated with Petting Zoos — North Carolina, Florida, and Arizona, 2004 and 2005". MMWR. 54 (= 50): 1279.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)

Bibliography

  • Bardosh, K. One Health: Science, Politics and Zoonotic Disease in Africa. 2016. Routledge; London, UK. ISBN 978-1-138-96148-7.
  • H. Krauss, A. Weber, M. Appel, B. Enders, A. v. Graevenitz, H. D. Isenberg, H. G. Schiefer, W. Slenczka, H. Zahner: Zoonoses. Infectious Diseases Transmissible from Animals to Humans. 3rd Edition, 456 pages. ASM Press. American Society for Microbiology, Washington, D.C., 2003. ISBN 1-55581-236-8.
  • Jorge Guerra González (2010), Infection Risk and Limitation of Fundamental Rights by Animal-To-Human Transplantations. EU, Spanish and German Law with Special Consideration of English Law (in German), Hamburg: Verlag Dr. Kovac, ISBN 978-3-8300-4712-4 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |publicationplace= ignored (|publication-place= suggested) (help)
  • David Quammen (2013). Spillover: Animal Infections and the Next Human Pandemic. ISBN 978-0-393-34661-9.
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