User:Night Lantern/additional sandbox: Difference between revisions
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=== Ethnic distributions === |
=== Ethnic distributions === |
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[[File:Geographical distributions of ethnic Chinese Malaysians.svg|thumb| |
[[File:Geographical distributions of ethnic Chinese Malaysians.svg|thumb|500px|center|Geographical distributions of ethnic Chinese Malaysians by majority in each cities or towns:<br />{{legend|#ABFFAB|[[Hokkien people|Hokkien]]}}{{legend|#E681FF|[[Cantonese people|Cantonese]]}}{{legend|#8181FF|[[Hakka people|Hakka]]}}{{legend|#FFE781|[[Foochow people|Foochow]]}}{{legend|#87CDDE|[[Hainanese people|Hainanese]]}}{{legend|#FFB380|[[Teochew people|Teochew]]}}{{legend|#8DD35F|[[Guangxi|Kwongsai]]}}{{legend|#DECD87|[[Fuqing dialect|Hockchia]]}}{{legend|#C5C9B8|Undetermined majority}}]] |
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The Malaysian Census in 2000 reported the ethnic Chinese Malaysians numbered at 5,691,908 (24.45%) from the total of 22,274,690 of the country population at the time with 86% of the ethnic Chinese living in urban areas.{{sfn|Ember|Ember|Skoggard|2004|p=698}} In [[West Malaysia]], [[Hokkien people|Hokkien]] became the leading group followed by [[Cantonese people|Cantonese]], [[Hakka people|Hakka]] and [[Teochew people|Teochew]].{{sfn|Kam|Chee|2000|p=39}} The pattern differs in East Malaysia where Hakka is the majority in Sabah and Sarawak followed by Hokkien and Cantonese in Sabah and the [[Foochow people|Foochow]], Hokkien and Teochew in Sarawak.{{sfn|Kam|Chee|2000|p=47}}{{sfn|T'ien|1983|p=278}}{{sfn|Kee|2013|p=291}} The Hokkien are notably prominent in the states of [[Johor]], [[Kedah]], Kelantan, Malacca, Penang, [[Perlis]], Sarawak and Terengganu while the Hakka is prominent in Sabah.{{sfn|Ember|Ember|Skoggard|2004|p=699}} The Cantonese is mostly concentrate in the cities of Kuala Lumpur and Ipoh, and to some extent to [[Kuantan]] and [[Seremban]].{{sfn|Ember|Ember|Skoggard|2004|p=699}} The Teochew are mostly in Johor and coastal Perak while the Foochow are numerous in [[Yong Peng]], [[Sitiawan]], [[Bintangor]], [[Sarikei]] and [[Sibu]].{{sfn|Ember|Ember|Skoggard|2004|p=699}}{{sfn|Lee|Suryadinata|2012|p=114}} The population of [[Hainanese people|Hainanese]] can be found in all cities and towns in Malaysia, numerously in Malacca and Terengganu together with the smaller population of Kwongsais in [[Pahang]] and [[Putian people|Henghuas]] (Putian) and Hockchia in various other areas.{{sfn|Ember|Ember|Skoggard|2004|p=699}} There is also a small community of ''[[Huáběi]]-ren'' (northern Chinese) in Sabah whose ancestors coming from various parts of [[Hebei]] and [[Shandong]], with most of them calling themselves as ''[[Tiānjīn]]-ren''.{{sfn|Ember|Ember|Skoggard|2004|p=699}} |
The Malaysian Census in 2000 reported the ethnic Chinese Malaysians numbered at 5,691,908 (24.45%) from the total of 22,274,690 of the country population at the time with 86% of the ethnic Chinese living in urban areas.{{sfn|Ember|Ember|Skoggard|2004|p=698}} In [[West Malaysia]], [[Hokkien people|Hokkien]] became the leading group followed by [[Cantonese people|Cantonese]], [[Hakka people|Hakka]] and [[Teochew people|Teochew]].{{sfn|Kam|Chee|2000|p=39}} The pattern differs in East Malaysia where Hakka is the majority in Sabah and Sarawak followed by Hokkien and Cantonese in Sabah and the [[Foochow people|Foochow]], Hokkien and Teochew in Sarawak.{{sfn|Kam|Chee|2000|p=47}}{{sfn|T'ien|1983|p=278}}{{sfn|Kee|2013|p=291}} The Hokkien are notably prominent in the states of [[Johor]], [[Kedah]], Kelantan, Malacca, Penang, [[Perlis]], Sarawak and Terengganu while the Hakka is prominent in Sabah.{{sfn|Ember|Ember|Skoggard|2004|p=699}} The Cantonese is mostly concentrate in the cities of Kuala Lumpur and Ipoh, and to some extent to [[Kuantan]] and [[Seremban]].{{sfn|Ember|Ember|Skoggard|2004|p=699}} The Teochew are mostly in Johor and coastal Perak while the Foochow are numerous in [[Yong Peng]], [[Sitiawan]], [[Sungai Pelek]], [[Bintangor]], [[Sarikei]] and [[Sibu]].{{sfn|Ember|Ember|Skoggard|2004|p=699}}{{sfn|Lee|Suryadinata|2012|p=114}} The population of [[Hainanese people|Hainanese]] can be found in all cities and towns in Malaysia, numerously in Malacca and Terengganu together with the smaller population of Kwongsais in [[Pahang]] and [[Putian people|Henghuas]] (Putian) and Hockchia in various other areas.{{sfn|Ember|Ember|Skoggard|2004|p=699}} There is also a small community of ''[[Huáběi]]-ren'' (northern Chinese) in Sabah whose ancestors coming from various parts of [[Hebei]] and [[Shandong]], with most of them calling themselves as ''[[Tiānjīn]]-ren''or Sanjiang-ren ({{zh|[[:zh:三江人|三江人]]}}).{{sfn|Ember|Ember|Skoggard|2004|p=699}} |
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=== Dialects === |
=== Dialects === |
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History
Early history
Since the early dynasties of China, there have been connection between China and various early kingdoms in the Malay Archipelago such as in the northern area of Malay Peninsula and Po-Ni in western part of Borneo.[1] The first recorded movement of people from China into the present-territory of Malaysia was during the arrival of Mongol expeditionary forces under the led of Kublai Khan to Borneo in 1292 for their preparation in the invasion of Java in 1293.[2][3] Many of his Chinese followers and traders later settled and established their own enclave within the Kinabatangan River as a result of the campaign with their arrival are warmly received by the indigenous people in the island who were eager to possess the jars and bead they brought along with silks, metalwork and pottery.[4][5][6]
Through the establishment of firm relationship, a Chinese explorer and mariner named Zheng He commanded several expeditions to southeastern Asia between 1405 and 1430 where they visiting Malacca in their third voyage.[7] His accompanier and translator named Ma Huan described the place in his Yingya Shenglan as formerly under Siam before a local king there asserting for independence to become an "Islamised country" and by the time of their fourth imperial fleet visit, he described the local king had just convert and dressed like an Arab with his kingdom are chafing under the Chinese dominance.[8][9] The last edition of official Chinese historical works of Twenty-Four Histories named as History of Ming (Mingshi) made a brief mention of an already established Chinese settlement in the area,[10] followed by other records especially when trade contacts had been established with the Nanyang region.[11] The Words about the Sea (Hai Yü) written by Hwang Chung (Huang Zhong) and published in 1537 gives further account on the life practice of the Chinese community in Malacca which are different than the local Malays.[12]
The connection are well maintained even with the Islamisation of Malacca and Brunei kingdoms whose thalassocracy once comprising large territory in the present-day Malaysia when both of the Muslim sultanates pledged for protection from the Chinese dynasties to shield them from further conquest either by neighbouring Javanese Majapahit and Siamese Ayutthaya,[13][14][15] with the close relationship also resulted in the interracial marriage between the Sultanate royal family and Chinese envoy and representatives.[16][17][18] Zheng He's arrival propagated the spread of Islam in the Malay Archipelago and aided the growth of Chinese Muslim population from the eastern China's coastal towns of Fujian and Canton with many of their traders arrived at the coastal towns of present-day Malaysia and Indonesia by the early 15th century.[19][20] Apart from the early settlements in Kinabatangan and Malacca, two other oldest Chinese settlements are located in Terengganu and Penang Island as part of the trade networks with the respective areas.[21][22][23]
Colonial era (1500–1900)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Bukit_Chena%2C_Malacca_%287886253620%29.jpg/220px-Bukit_Chena%2C_Malacca_%287886253620%29.jpg)
Following the conquest of Malacca by the Portuguese in 1511, many Chinese traders avoided Portuguese Malacca although the flow of emigrants from China continued.[24] Despite several retaliation on the Portuguese activities in Malacca conducted by Ming dynasty under the rule of Zhengde Emperor following the Portuguese fleet arrival in Canton,[25] the Chinese Emperor reluctant to help the deposed Malaccan ruler to retrieve his nation with the dynasty policy being changed to maintain friendly relations with the Portuguese.[25][26] His successor, the Jiajing Emperor later change the attitude of the Ming court by executing two of the dynasty officials and putting the Malacca issues back as the main agenda.[26] Some Chinese from the mainland areas including from Fujian co-operated with the Portuguese in defiance to the Ming dynasty regulation for the sake of trade by informing them on the trade route to Guangdong for the open of direct trade contacts with both Siam and South China despite the local Malaccan Chinese were not treated favourably by the latter with most other Chinese from different overseas areas also refuse to co-operate with the Portuguese.[27] Through the administration of Portuguese in Malacca, Chinese Muslims sided with other Islamic traders against the latter by providing ships and capital.[28] A negotiation later being held in Guangdong regarding the Malaccan issues between the Chinese officials and Portuguese envoys with Malacca remain under Portuguese control.[29]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Malaysia%3B_Captain_China_surrounded_by_his_Chinese_and_Malay_Wellcome_V0037516.jpg/220px-Malaysia%3B_Captain_China_surrounded_by_his_Chinese_and_Malay_Wellcome_V0037516.jpg)
With the success of the Dutch in overtaking Malacca from the Portuguese in 1641,[30] many local Malaccan Chinese are hired for the construction of Dutch buildings.[31] The Dutch for their part, found the Chinese people as industrious and encouraged their participation in the economic life of Dutch colony.[32] Through their administration, the Dutch also establish a settlement in Perak in 1650 through a treaty entered earlier with Aceh.[33] The Dutch further suggested the 17th Sultan of Perak, Alauddin, to allow the Chinese to develop tin mines which were then not only warmly welcomed by the latter but also encouraged the scheme where he request for more Chinese workforce to be sent from Malacca and promised to punish any official who found guilty of mistreating the Chinese.[34][35] With the consent given by the Sultan, the Chinese then playing a leading role in the industry, but as a result of the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War in 1780, the tin trade was adversely affected with many Chinese miners left.[36] Despite the existence of early Chinese settlements in Malacca and several other areas along the achipelago coasts, the large migration of Chinese to the country are largely occurred following the opening of British settlements in both British Malaya and British Borneo in the early 19th century.[37]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/British_officials_in_Perak_with_wealthy_Chinese_person.jpg/300px-British_officials_in_Perak_with_wealthy_Chinese_person.jpg)
In 1786, the opening of British settlement in Penang and another in Singapore in 1819 triggered the large movement of people from China to the Malay Peninsula.[37] Following the establishment of British rule in Labuan in 1846, more Chinese with the majority being the Hakka arrived to the British Borneo part of North Borneo where many of them are originated from Singapore with the trend persist until several years after the establishment of North Borneo Chartered Company.[38] Chinese migration to northern Borneo are largely confined to agricultural sectors in both Labuan and North Borneo while in the Kingdom of Sarawak, they are largely on the mining sectors together with agricultural.[39][40] Rajah Charles Brooke of Sarawak promoted the migration of Chinese along with Dayak to the interior of Sarawak to develop the area which resulted in the establishment of administrative and bazaar trading centre by the 19th century, primarily in the First, Second and Third Divisions of the country.[41] In 1876, Rajah Charles further invited Chinese-pepper grower from Singapore to settled in Kuching which later being joined by local Chinese miners and others from neighbouring Dutch Borneo.[42][43] With the introduction of pepper into the kingdom, the entire pepper cultivation in Sarawak area of Kuching-Serian in the First Division are dominated by the Hakka, while the Foochow and Cantonese dominate the cultivation in Sarikei-Binatang area in the Third Division with Sarawak become the second largest pepper producer in the world.[43][44] Following the British success in gaining direct control on the four states of Perak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan and Pahang, nearly two million Chinese immigrants entered with half of 1.5 million in both Perak and Selangor.[45][46]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/The_National_geographic_magazine_%28Page_164%29_BHL40563162_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-The_National_geographic_magazine_%28Page_164%29_BHL40563162_%28cropped%29.jpg)
With the further discovery of rich tin deposits in British Malaya, the Chinese immigrants became more involved in the tin mining businesses with many of their labourers work in the industry.[47] With more tin mines opened in Perak, many of the Chinese community in neighbouring Penang also gain profits and become wealthy.[48] By 1870s, many Chinese tin mining communities had been established in the Malay Peninsula, particularly in Ipoh (Kinta Valley), Taiping, Seremban and Kuala Lumpur (Klang Valley) which is largely dominated by Hakka and Cantonese group.[49][50] Each of the mining communities were governed by a Kapitan Cina with duties and privileges similar as being used in the Kangchu system of Johor.[51] The huge influx of Chinese migration are directly caused by the poverty in rural China and massive employment opportunities in the British colonial or protectorate territories with an estimated of 5 million Chinese had entered by the 19th century and 12 million more despite a total of 17 million later either moved to other parts of Southeast Asia or return to China.[52] Nonetheless with their economic success following the migration, there were also disorder among the Chinese communities as they were divided into different secret societies which in part exarcerbated by political unrest among Malay aristocracy fighting for the right to be chief with each side enlisting help from different Chinese secret societies faction.[51][53] The situation of the local Malay politics at the time are described by observers as plagued with anarchy and civil war between their own kind, prompting alliances of high placed Malay political leaders with the Chinese as well European officials for protection and securing their investments.[54]
Divided nationalism and turbulent era (1900–1945)
You can help shoulder the responsibility of saving our country by donating your money, while our comrades in our country are sacrificing their lives.
—Sun Yat-sen, during his speech at the 1910 Penang conference in the Straits Settlements of Penang.[55]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Fundraising_in_Ipoh_for_the_Second_Guangzhou_uprising.jpg/250px-Fundraising_in_Ipoh_for_the_Second_Guangzhou_uprising.jpg)
By 1900s, civil wars and conflicts between the indigenous ethnics began to ceased when the British establish firm control over both Malaya and northern Borneo despite none of the Malay kingdoms was actually colonised with all the related entities came under political and economic stability as well economic prosperity under the British capital and economic geared up by the Chinese and Indian workforce through the national exploitation of tin and rubber.[52][56] Prior to the 1911 Chinese Revolution that successfully overthrow the Qing dynasty in China, the leader of the Tongmenghui revolt named Sun Yat-sen raise overseas fundings and organisational support from overseas Chinese communities mainly from French Indochina, Dutch East Indies, Philippines, Siam, British Singapore, British Malaya and British Borneo with the establishment of Nanyang revolutionary organisation activities in Saigon, Hanoi, Pontianak, Manila, Bangkok, Singapore and George Town.[57] Through the way to transform the current administration of China, a competition raise between three groups who champion the political reformation with each of the group targeted overseas Chinese especially in Malaya and Singapore for their source of support and funds.[58] The first group comprising the pro-Qing elite who mainly targets wealthy Chinese for funds and expertise to modernise China while the other two are reformists and revolutionaries who intends to advocated constitutional reforms, introduction of parliamentary system and complete overthrow of Qing and Manchu political influence for a modern Chinese nation.[58]
Following the success of reformists and revolutionaries after the revolution with the establishment of a new Chinese government under the Republic of China, many branches of the Tongmenghui succeeding party of Kuomintang emerged in British Malaya with majority support were first shown by Straits-born Chinese than the China-born.[56] In British Borneo, Kuomintang activities came under the Democratic Party of North Borneo, a body formed by Chinese-educated towkays despite it is not known whether China assisted the activities.[59] The patriotism among Chinese immigrant communities was then entirely focused on China.[60] The British colonial authorities initially do not have problem for any Chinese residing in the two territories becoming Kuomintang members but with the anti-imperialists policy within the organisation, this resulted the British and the new China government unable to maintain a close relationship.[61] By 1925, when communist movement emerged among the overseas Chinese with the establishment of South Seas Communist Party in colonial Singapore and its subsequent banning, this further leading to the establishment of Indochinese Communist Party, Communist Party of Malaya, Communist Party of Burma and the Communist Party of Siam with the communist movement also maintaining relations with an earlier Southeast Asia Communist Party of Indonesia.[62][63] Prior to the World War II, the Communist Party of Malaya followed the general communists line of opposing Western democracies by intensifying its propaganda against the Malayan government as well the colonial government of Singapore in 1940.[64]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/The_British_Reoccupation_of_Malaya_SE5883.jpg/220px-The_British_Reoccupation_of_Malaya_SE5883.jpg)
With the beginning of Sino-Japanese conflict and subsequent Japanese occupations of Malaya and British Borneo, further activities by young Kuomintang enthusiasts were shortly stopped.[65] When the Communist Party of China under Mao Zedong reached an agreement with the Kuomintang government under Chiang Kai-shek to put aside their conflict and rally together against Japanese aggression in July 1940, a growth of anti-British led to the banning of Kuomintang and other Chinese organisations in Malaya.[64][66] Nevertheless with the ensuing conflict with Japan that also involving the British, Chiang Kai-shek urge every Kuomintang members to fight alongside the latter with the British colonial authorities in return announced the lifting of ban towards any Chinese associations including both the Kuomintang and Chinese communist movement as a sign to appreciating the value of co-operation.[67] The leaving of ban and subsequent recognition by the British colonial authorities towards the Communist Party of Malaya as their ally resulted in the formation of the party guerrilla force of Malayan Peoples' Anti-Japanese Army (MPAJA) in 1941.[68] The MPAJA which consisted mainly of ethnic Chinese in Malaya waged a guerrilla war against the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) throughout Malaya with the movement had a total strength of 10,000 men from eight battalions where they also made contact with the British Force 136 during the war.[69] Some revolt by local Chinese under the influence of the Kuomintang such as the Jesselton uprising in British Borneo occur through the Japanese harsh administration but as similarly happened towards many innocent civilians, they were severely repressed by Japanese secret police of Kenpeitai.[70][71]
In North Borneo, much of the underground anti-Japanese activities by ethnic Chinese is part of the Nanyang Chinese National Salvation Movement led by Tan Kah Kee while in Sarawak most of them operating under the communist-influenced movement of Sarawak Anti Fascist League.[72][73] The victory of the Allies in the Pacific in 1945 led to the disbandment of MPAJA guerrillas in the Malay Peninsula and many of their leading members receiving awards from the British.[74] But even with the disbandment after the war ended, the MPAJA has adopted a radical policy and began to massacring those, mainly Malays who they had considered as collaborators during their war against the Japanese, causing a rising ethnic conflict when the Malays began to retaliated.[75] The MPAJA also targeting British posts with several grenade attacks on British troops.[74] Different situation happened in North Borneo which is under Kuomintang influence when ethnic Chinese there choose to co-operate with the British and being loyal to King George VI towards the formation of the Crown Colony of North Borneo after the war.[76]
Post-turbulent, further emergency and social integration (1946–1962)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Police_in_Malayan_Emergency.jpg/220px-Police_in_Malayan_Emergency.jpg)
The answer [to the uprising] lies not in pouring more troops into the jungle, but in the hearts and minds of the people.
—Gerald Templer, following his appointment as British High Commissioner to Malaya to deal with Malayan Emergency in 1952.[77]
With the rebranding of MPAJA to Malayan National Liberation Army (MNLA), attacks by communist insurgents further ensued with their guerrilla tactics in the jungles by sabotaging transportation networks and attacking British plantation sources that resulted in the assassination of several European plantation owners in Malaya.[75] The British intelligence estimate the support for the MNLA was mainly based on around 500,000 from the total of 3.12 million ethnic Chinese living in Malaya by the time and battling the insurgents proved difficult as most of them hid in inaccessible jungles.[78] With the declaration of emergency on 18 June 1948 during the ensuing Malayan Emergency, the early government response was chaotic and disorganised as their primary target is only to guard important economic targets.[79][80] The predominantly nature of the MNLA which consisted entirely from ethnic Chinese making most of the Malays who constituted nearly half of the population of five million in 1950 opposed the movement.[81]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/New_Village_in_Malaya%2C_1950s.jpg/220px-New_Village_in_Malaya%2C_1950s.jpg)
A military plan called Briggs' Plan which devised by British General Harold Briggs are being undertaken shortly in 1950 to protect the population and isolate any connection of involved population from the insurgents which is also followed by the promise for independence, with the latter won majority support from the Malays although the Chinese population need more convincing as they feared on being treated as a "second-class citizens" in an independent Malaya.[83] Among the steps being undertaken under the plan includes the establishment of rapid settlement of squatters under security surveillance, regrouping of labours, minimum level of troops throughout Malaya to support security forces on clearing priority areas and complete accord of operation between police and army with close integration of intelligence.[84] Under the continual resettlement scheme, more than 700,000 rural ethnic Chinese community were corralled into 582 new settlements established by the government around Malaya.[82] With the demise of British colonial administrator Henry Gurney after a sudden ambush by the insurgents in 1951, Gerald Templer are appointed as a new colonial administrator to Malaya by Winston Churchill in the following year with the latter then primarily choose the "hearts and minds campaign" apart from military and psychological measures to combat the insurgents.[78][85][86] As part of his campaign, Templer instituted incentive schemes for surrendering rebels including to those who encouraged them to surrender and used strict curfews and tight control of food supplies from involved areas to flush out the insurgents.[87][88] Crops grown by the insurgents were sprayed with herbicide and defoliants with any of the involved areas that already found to be free from the insurgents will be elevated to "white status" with any previous restrictions were lifted.[89][90][91]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Anti-communist_rally_in_Semenyih%2C_Selangor_during_the_ensuing_Malayan_Emergency%2C_1950s.jpg/220px-Anti-communist_rally_in_Semenyih%2C_Selangor_during_the_ensuing_Malayan_Emergency%2C_1950s.jpg)
Despite large applaud are given for his campaign, the root causes of the campaign success are mainly attributed to the continuous Briggs' Plan as been expressed by the leader of the communist side Chin Peng where the massive resettlement of ethnic Chinese villagers resulted in the isolation of the communist movement.[92] Apart from that, the various early moves made by his predecessor Gurney for the introduction of a quasi-ministerial system with a bill to increase the number of non-Malays to be eligible for citizenship in the path towards independence also contributed to the victory.[93] Even with the hearts and minds issued by Templer throughout the war, there were also a massacre named the Batang Kali massacre perpetrated by British security forces against unarmed ethnic Chinese civilians in late 1948.[94] Following the fall of Kuomintang and the establishment of communist control in China in 1949, foreign missionaries in the country were forced by the new communist authorities to leave which then invited by Templer to provide spiritual healing to the residents of the new government-controlled villages in Malaya where they also provide medical education and welfare measures to one-third of the Chinese population.[95] By September 1952, Templer realising the citizenship plan with every people born in Malaya were granted full citizenship which include 1.2 million Chinese within the scheme.[96]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Photo_of_ancient_Penang_inside_a_room.jpg/220px-Photo_of_ancient_Penang_inside_a_room.jpg)
By the time when the Federation of Malaya attained its independence from the British in 1957, there were still conflicts with the communist.[97] Each of the ethnic Chinese communist members who surrendered were given the choice whether they want to be repatriated to China or return to their normal lives by showing their loyalty to the elected government of Malaya and giving up their communist ideology to which they will be helped by the government.[98] The campaign against communist by the newly independent country continued until 1960 when the Malayan government declared the end of state of emergency after Chin Peng decided to abandon its armed struggle with the demobilisation of its armed units thus leaving his hide-out in southern Thailand for Beijing through North Vietnam where he was accommodated by the Chinese authorities in the International Liaison Bureau with medical benefits and monthly allowances.[99][100] Through the meeting between the leader of Malayan communist with high-ranking Chinese communist politician such as Deng Xiaoping in Beijing, China urged them to continue their armed struggle, convincing the Communist Party of Malaya to reverse the policy they had decided earlier.[101] The success of the establishment of a communist government in Mainland China also had great effect on the ethnic Chinese community in Sarawak, especially younger generations when they organised themselves into pro-Beijing friendship society of Sarawak Overseas Chinese Democratic Youth League and following local government vigilance that resulting to its disestablishment, it was re-established into Sarawak Advanced Youths' Association which later culminating into the communist insurgency in Sarawak in 1960.[72] Even the conflicts with communist ensued, the economic situation of Malaya continued to prosper with strong financial position and defined by World Bank as among the most prosperous in Asia with large dependent on tin and rubber industries inherited since the British era which is largely dominated by ethnic Chinese and Indian workforce.[102][103]
Struggle for equality under the proposed Malaysian Malaysia (1963–1965)
Early in 1961 when Malayan Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman outlined the idea for a "Grand Malaysian Alliance" comprising the British protectorate of Brunei and Crown colonies of North Borneo, Sarawak and Singapore,[104] the leader of Singapore under ethnic Chinese Lee Kuan Yew who is also against the communist movement become the utmost supporter towards the proposal with its party of People's Action Party (PAP) rallying for equality for all future Malaysians, regardless of their "class, skin colour or creed" with equal concept rested on a multi-ethnic society involving each of races in the entities which is not solely to be "Malayised" after the merger.[105][106] Although Lee were seen by Malay extremes in the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) and Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party (PAS) as being anti towards Malay special rights in the new federation following his criticism towards the unbalanced system between every races after the formation of Malaysia in 1963,[107][108] the Singaporean leader had earlier adopted Malay language as the national language of Singapore and appointed the first Yang di-Pertuan Negara, Yusof Ishak from the Malay ethnicity.[109]
The Malaysian Chinese Association (MCA) as the successor of Malayan Chinese Association and representative of ethnic Chinese in Malay Peninsula led by Tan Cheng Lock which has been part of the Malaysian Alliance Party refused to joined in the struggle for equality as they feared it will disrupted an earlier consensual agreement that has been agreed in Malaya between UMNO and the Malaysian Indian Congress (MIC), in which the Malays hold the country political dominance, the Chinese control the country economic sectors while Indians playing a lesser economic role but within a gradual specific time frame the Malays will later partaking the sharing of economic with the Chinese and Indians partaking some aspects of political power.[110] After two years being part of a newer federation, especially following the controversial enactment of Article 153 to the Constitution of Malaysia, Lee is joined by two parties in the Malay Peninsula, the United Democratic Party led by Lim Chong Eu and People's Progressive Party led by D. R. Seenivasagam as well two from Sarawak such as the Sarawak United Peoples' Party led by Ong Kee Hui and Machinda Party led by Michael Buma to form the Malaysian Solidarity Convention to continuously campaign for equality under Malaysian Malaysia.[107] During his speech at the Malaysian Solidarity Convention meeting in Singapore in June 1965, he expressed the political way based on race and religion currently practised in the Malay Peninsula:
It took a long time for us all to come to the same conclusions despite our differing experience in Malaya, Singapore, Sabah and Sarawak. Our friends in Sabah are not here today officially, but I can assure you that we have many friends there. There is no doubt about it that it took us a long time to reach inevitable conclusion that these people [referring to the racial politics in Malay Peninsula] were up to no good. You know the line they were taking with growing truculence on a heavy racial accent, the intimidatory postures and the snarling guttural notes on which they sent out their signals to their followers on the basis of race lead us to only one conclusion -- that if this goes on, Malaysia will not belong to Malaysians. Since there are so many Malaysians, we decided that the time has come for us to speak our minds.[111]
— Part of Lee Kuan Yew speech at the Malaysian Solidarity Convention in National Theatre, Singapore, June 1965.
Lee further callings for the re-alignment of forces between those who wanted a "true Malaysian nation" or those who preferred a country lead by communal segregation dominated by one of the constituent party from the Alliance together with his attacks on the Malay ultras for their attempts to forster only Malay dominance over the new country of Malaysia has lead to a bitter relations between PAP and UMNO which further exaggerated into race riots in Singapore earlier in 1964 and leading to their expulsion from the federation in August 1965.[107][112][113]
Further conflicts and ethnic clashes (1965–1990)
The struggle for equality concept are then being continued by a new party established in the Malay Peninsula shortly after in 1965, the Democratic Action Party (DAP) as PAP successor following the latter expulsion from the federation.[108] Many ethnic Chinese in the Malay Peninsula soon began to perceive their ethnic party representative, the MCA are only concerned with business and economic interests than social factors since the party itself being led by wealthy Chinese with entire decision making fell under the influence of UMNO with persistent reminder by Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman to the whole nation that MCA should be the sole legitimate representative for the ethnic Chinese community in the federation.[108] By 1968, the communists with the support of Mainland China communist government began to gain ground by launching a new insurgency from their stronghold in southern Thailand in the heightened disagreement between the local ethnic Chinese and Malay in local political scene with the issuance of a directive entitled "Hold High the Great Red Banner of Armed Struggle and Valiantly March Forward" by the Central Command of the Communist Party of Malaya with guerrilla attacks on Malaysian security forces resulting to significant amount of success and considerable losses to the latter.[114][115] The following year when the 1969 Malaysian general election being held, MCA faced strong challenges from the new ethnic Chinese representative parties, the DAP together with Malaysian People's Movement Party (GERAKAN). Of the 33 parliamentary seats contested during the election, MCA only managed to retain 13 seats and lost its control over the Penang state government to GERAKAN with subsequent gain by the opposition parties led to further tension between the Chinese and Malay which erupted into the 13 May riots.[116][117] The clashes since then largely affecting the ethnic sentiments between the two groups in Malay Peninsula including in neighbouring Singapore which have similarly enduring clashes early in 1964 when it still part of Malaysia.[118]
In the aftermath of the riots that sent severe shock through the whole Malaysian society, Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman placed the blame entirely on the communists rather than race issues plaguing both the ethnic Chinese and Malay, holding the view that Mainland China communist government was trying to do the similar things with what had been did by Soviet Union to eastern Europe, further in the opinion that the ongoing Vietnam War in their neighbour was "not simply a civil war but communist ideology expansion".[119] Instead of declaring a state of emergency as done by the British authorities previously, the Malaysian government responded by introducing several policy initiatives including the security and development, neighbourhood watch programme and the People's Volunteer Group.[120] With the internal conflicts within the Communist Party of Malaya in the 1970s, the group split into two factions of revolutionary in 1970 and Marxist–Leninist in 1974.[121] The communists struggle suffered setbacks when both Kuala Lumpur and Beijing began to established diplomatic relations in 1974 with China ending their aid to the movement, causing the merger between the two separated factions into the Malaysian Communist Party in 1983 before they surrendering to Thai authorities in 1987 following continuous offensives by the latter with subsequent peace agreement between Malaysian authorities and the communists movement in 1989.[56][122] Another communist insurgency by predominantly ethnic Chinese in Sarawak which partly supported by neighbouring Indonesia for their opposition towards the federation of Malaysia also ended through peace negotiations in 1990.[123]
Present situation (1990–present)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Street_in_Happy_Valley%2C_George_Town%2C_Penang.jpg/250px-Street_in_Happy_Valley%2C_George_Town%2C_Penang.jpg)
As a legacy of the divide and rule colonial policy imposed since the British administration, the division have lasting impact on the present-day ethnic relations in Malaysia which further exercabated by agreement between race-based parties formed prior to the country formation.[124] The failure to lived under equal concepts has lead to "strong identification with Chinese identity" from every ethnic Chinese Malaysian in contrast with what had long been practised by other Southeast Asian Chinese in neighbouring Indonesia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam.[124][125] In the aftermath of ethnic clashes in 1969 between the Chinese and Malay, the further implementation of Malaysian New Economic Policy favouring the Malays from 1971 until 1990 resulting the increase of Bumiputera economic control by 60%.[126] Nevertheless, since the country foundation even with previous agreement of their limitation in political matters and other controversial policy, ethnic Chinese Malaysian remain the traditional dominant player in the business sector of the Malaysian economy with equity ownership doubled from only 22.8% in 1969 to 45.5% in 1990 and almost every of rich people in the country are dominated by the latter.[127]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Petaling_Street%2C_Kuala_Lumpur.jpg/220px-Petaling_Street%2C_Kuala_Lumpur.jpg)
Since ethnic Chinese Malaysian managing the country economy, most of them reside in urban areas with statistics in 1991 found that about three-quarters (75.8%) mostly living in the country towns and cities.[128] The continual disparity causing many modern ethnic Chinese Malaysian do not normally speak Malay among themselves,[129] in contrast to the earlier ethnic Chinese who had mix with local Malay or other indigenous people such as the Straits-born Chinese of Baba-Nyonya, Kelantanese and Terengganuan Peranakans, Penangite Hokkien and Sabah Sino-Natives.[130][131][132] Ethnic Chinese Malaysian in East Malaysia on both Sabah and Sarawak, especially in small inland towns also interact more closely with indigenous people there with the absence of significant language and religious barrier which further resulted in more interracial marriage among them.[132] Major issues of integration in modern Malaysian nation as a whole today is largely inherited from the past Malayan racial politics especially when contacts between ethnics are only made between several sub-communities which eventually consolidated into a single political community.[133] The discriminate affirmative policy and hierarchy continually practised in Malaysia's modern education system and workplace in the 21th century further causing the brain drain trends among young educated and talented ethnic Chinese Malaysian to different developed countries.[134][135] Despite the rising brain drain among the youth, the country also saw the latest wave of newer ethnic Chinese Mandarin-speaking immigrants from China and another from new mixture with Vietnamese since 2000s following the increasing number of ethnic Chinese Malaysian, especially men marrying foreign wives from Mainland China and Vietnam.[136]
Origins and social demographics
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Origin_of_ethnic_Chinese_Malaysians.svg/220px-Origin_of_ethnic_Chinese_Malaysians.svg.png)
Since their early ancient trade connection and subsequent migrations, the majority of ethnic Chinese in Malaysia are mostly from ethnic Han from the historical areas of Fujian and Guangdong provinces in southern China.[137] Nearly all ethnic Chinese Malaysians living in the country today are either patrilineal descendants of these early immigrants, or new immigrants born in mainland China.[138] Among the first group from the first migration wave are the Peranakans in Kelantan and Terengganu, Sino-Natives in Sabah and Straits-born Chinese (Baba-Nyonya) in Malacca and Penang.[130][131][139] The Taiping Rebellion in the mid-19th century caused much chaos and suffering in southern China, which leading many ethnic Chinese civilians to sought refuge overseas, particularly to Nanyang region in further south.[140] With the expanding British colonial economies in the region which led to the establishment of Straits Settlements, more migrants were attracted and primary become the important destination for Chinese emigration.[140]
By the late 19th century with the second wave of migration through the British colonial rule, the Hokkien of southern Fujian led by many of their wealthy and powerful individuals with skills in finance and maritime shipping became the dominant immigrant group as the first group of ethnic Chinese to settle in large numbers with their language become a contact language among Chinese of different linguistics background.[141] The Cantonese from Canton in Guangdong follow suit and became well known as mineworkers,[142] land reclamation, mechanics and their familiarity with cash cropping.[142][143] Another large group, the Hakka are mostly hill farmers originated from northeastern Guangdong and various southern China places who very specialise in forest clearance, mining as well on metalworking.[142][143] Other groups like the Teochew from Chaozhou of eastern Guangdong are mainly on plantation agriculture,[142][143] the Foochow from central Fujian specialise on entrepreneurship while the Hainanese from Hainan as one of the ethnic Chinese minority saw themselves as sojourners with many of Hainanese chefs and waiters ruled the kitchen of local Chinese kopi tiam and restaurants.[144][145] Followed by the third wave of ethnic Chinese migration thereafter, this resulted Malaysia as being one of the country outside China and Taiwan with largest population of Chinese speakers in the world.[136][146] Following the establishment of diplomatic relationship between Mainland China and Malaysia in 1974, a joint communiqué was made between the two nations, which stated:
“ | The Chinese government considers anyone of Chinese origin who has taken up his own will or acquired Malaysian nationality as automatically forfeiting Chinese nationality. As for residents who retain Chinese nationality of their own will, the Chinese government, acting in accordance with its consistent policy, will enjoin them to abide by the law of the Government of Malaysia, respect the customs and habits of the people there, and live in unity with them, and their proper rights and interests will be protected by the Government of China and respected by the Government of Malaysia.[147] | ” |
Ethnic distributions
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Geographical_distributions_of_ethnic_Chinese_Malaysians.svg/500px-Geographical_distributions_of_ethnic_Chinese_Malaysians.svg.png)
The Malaysian Census in 2000 reported the ethnic Chinese Malaysians numbered at 5,691,908 (24.45%) from the total of 22,274,690 of the country population at the time with 86% of the ethnic Chinese living in urban areas.[140] In West Malaysia, Hokkien became the leading group followed by Cantonese, Hakka and Teochew.[148] The pattern differs in East Malaysia where Hakka is the majority in Sabah and Sarawak followed by Hokkien and Cantonese in Sabah and the Foochow, Hokkien and Teochew in Sarawak.[149][150][151] The Hokkien are notably prominent in the states of Johor, Kedah, Kelantan, Malacca, Penang, Perlis, Sarawak and Terengganu while the Hakka is prominent in Sabah.[152] The Cantonese is mostly concentrate in the cities of Kuala Lumpur and Ipoh, and to some extent to Kuantan and Seremban.[152] The Teochew are mostly in Johor and coastal Perak while the Foochow are numerous in Yong Peng, Sitiawan, Sungai Pelek, Bintangor, Sarikei and Sibu.[152][153] The population of Hainanese can be found in all cities and towns in Malaysia, numerously in Malacca and Terengganu together with the smaller population of Kwongsais in Pahang and Henghuas (Putian) and Hockchia in various other areas.[152] There is also a small community of Huáběi-ren (northern Chinese) in Sabah whose ancestors coming from various parts of Hebei and Shandong, with most of them calling themselves as Tiānjīn-renor Sanjiang-ren (Chinese: 三江人).[152]
Dialects
The largest group of Chinese speakers in the country as reported by the Department of Statistics in 2003 are Hokkien with 2,020,914, Hakka with 1,092,835, Cantonese with 1,068,008, Teochew with 497,280, Foochow with 251,553, Hainanese with 141,045, Kwongsai with 51,674, Henghua with 24,654, Hockchia with 14,935 and different other ethnic Chinese with 202,977, comprising a total of 5,365,875.[140]
Footnotes
- ^ Andaya 1982, p. 17
• Zepp 1989, p. 19–21
• Tze-Ken 1999, p. 132
• Munoz 2006, p. 178
• Lee 2013, p. 542
• Wan et al. 2013, p. 7–11 - ^ Royal Society (Great Britain) 1924, p. 157.
- ^ Runciman 2011, p. 11.
- ^ Tze-Ken 1998, p. 2.
- ^ Guillot, Lombard & Ptak 1998, p. 162.
- ^ Runciman 2011, p. 14.
- ^ Brezina 2016, p. 58.
- ^ Ma, Huan & Feng 1970, p. 109.
- ^ Gordon 2007, p. 133.
- ^ Chee 1988, p. 29.
- ^ Purcell 1947, p. 115–125.
- ^ Groeneveldt 1876, p. 7.
- ^ Cohen 2000, p. 175.
- ^ Ma & Cartier 2003, p. 79.
- ^ de Vienne 2015, p. 42–43.
- ^ Ma & Cartier 2003, p. 90.
- ^ Lee 2010, p. 11.
- ^ Ooi 2015, p. 50.
- ^ Ember, Ember & Skoggard 2004, p. 115.
- ^ Hailong 2017, p. 11.
- ^ Lee 1965, p. 306–314.
- ^ a b Tze-Ken 2016, p. 9–21.
- ^ Wade & James 2018, p. 249.
- ^ Guillot, Lombard & Ptak 1998, p. 179.
- ^ a b Zhang 1934, p. 67.
- ^ a b Wade & James 2018, p. 144.
- ^ Guillot, Lombard & Ptak 1998, p. 179
• Wernham 1968, p. 543
• Kratoska 2001a, p. 101
• Borschberg 2004, p. 12 - ^ Borschberg 2004, p. 12.
- ^ Wade & James 2018, p. 145–146.
- ^ Blussé 2009, p. 23.
- ^ Huck & Jorge 2006, p. 126.
- ^ Ramanathan 1994, p. 67.
- ^ Chisholm 1911, p. 479.
- ^ Khoo & Lubis 2005, p. 5.
- ^ anon. 2014, p. 210.
- ^ Kay 1972, p. 39.
- ^ a b Hirschman 1986, p. 338.
- ^ Tze-Ken 1999, p. 132.
- ^ Geography of British Colonies 1864, p. 31.
- ^ Niew 1969, p. 2.
- ^ Drabble 2000, p. 86.
- ^ Gurney 1986, p. 268.
- ^ a b Bulbeck et al. 1998, p. 68.
- ^ Kaur 2016, p. 48.
- ^ Doran & Dixon 1991, p. 111.
- ^ Kratoska 2001b, p. 209.
- ^ Yat 1969, p. 57.
- ^ Douw, Huang & Ip 2013, p. 165.
- ^ Tin Industry (Research and Development) Board 1955, p. 9.
- ^ Lin & Hill 1979, p. 145.
- ^ a b Landa 2016, p. 58.
- ^ a b Ching & McKenna 1990, p. 2.
- ^ Comber 1956, p. 146–162.
- ^ Peletz 1996, p. 102.
- ^ Khoo 2008, p. 55.
- ^ a b c Khoo 2010.
- ^ de Ruffé 1928, p. 124
• Harris 1956, p. 98
• Png 1961, p. 1–32
• Journal of the Siam Society 1974, p. 44
• Suryadinata 2006, p. 122
• Lai & Hock 2011, p. 247 - ^ a b Khoo 2008, p. 24.
- ^ Borneo Research Council 1977, p. 114.
- ^ Wang 1964, p. 141.
- ^ Hak 2000, p. 69.
- ^ Kennedy 1957, p. 213.
- ^ Fujio 2016, p. 12–13.
- ^ a b Shereen 2018.
- ^ Journal of South-East Asian History 1961, p. 224.
- ^ Wang 1964, p. 144.
- ^ Cheah 2013, p. 37.
- ^ Suryadinata 2012, p. 136.
- ^ Wong 2002.
- ^ Thurman & Sherman 2001, p. 123.
- ^ Tay 2016.
- ^ a b der Kroef 1964, p. 50–60.
- ^ Tze-Ken 2001, p. 93–105.
- ^ a b Hartfield 2012, p. 350.
- ^ a b Kantowicz 2000, p. 111.
- ^ Kalgoorlie Miner 1946.
- ^ Lapping 1985, p. 224.
- ^ a b Koh & Choo 2009.
- ^ Leifer 2013, p. 110.
- ^ Price 2018, p. 165.
- ^ Hack 1999, p. 99–125.
- ^ a b Yuumi 2004, p. 225–231.
- ^ Chaliand 1982, p. 272.
- ^ Hamby 2002, p. 59.
- ^ Stubbs 2004, p. 1.
- ^ Ramakrishna 2013, p. 139.
- ^ Nolan 2011, p. 248.
- ^ Comber 2015, p. 100.
- ^ Ooi 2004, p. 830.
- ^ Jackson 2008, p. 49.
- ^ Hamblin 2013, p. 175.
- ^ Gentile 2013, p. 52.
- ^ Tarling 1992, p. 376.
- ^ Hale 2013, p. 432.
- ^ Roy & Saha 2016, p. 68.
- ^ Roy & Saha 2016, p. 67.
- ^ Great Britain. Colonial Office 1957, p. 469.
- ^ Great Britain. Colonial Office 1957, p. 4.
- ^ Singh 2014, p. 39.
- ^ Garver 2015, p. 200.
- ^ Singh 2014, p. 41.
- ^ Gomes 2007, p. 46.
- ^ World Bank 2010.
- ^ Bunnell 2004, p. 76.
- ^ Purushotam 2000, p. 209.
- ^ Josey 2013, p. 153.
- ^ a b c Cheah 2002, p. 54.
- ^ a b c Akbarzadeh & Saeed 2003, p. 142.
- ^ Andrew 2004, p. 42.
- ^ Ooi 2004, p. 55.
- ^ National Archives of Singapore 1965, p. 1.
- ^ Diamond, Plattner & Chu 2013, p. 187.
- ^ Reid 2015, p. 362.
- ^ Razak 2015, p. 69.
- ^ Lim & Khor 2016, p. 101.
- ^ Charles & Cheng 1971, p. 47.
- ^ der Kroef 1981, p. 107.
- ^ Kia 2007, p. 74.
- ^ Cheng 2009, p. 66.
- ^ Nazar 2005, p. 19–20.
- ^ Chin 2003, p. 467–468.
- ^ Chin 2003, p. 450.
- ^ Porritt 2004, p. 279.
- ^ a b Chee 2010, p. 95.
- ^ Chen 2004, p. 66.
- ^ Gomez 2012, p. 1.
- ^ Ooi 2004, p. 55
• Gomez 2012, p. 2
• Jesudason 1997
• Malott 2011 - ^ Kam & Chee 2000, p. 78.
- ^ Wang & Wang 1998, p. 31.
- ^ a b Chee 2004, p. 93–95.
- ^ a b Tze-Ken 2004, p. 55.
- ^ a b Chee 2010, p. 110.
- ^ Enloe 1968, p. 372–385.
- ^ Jakobsen 2014, p. 170.
- ^ Tyson 2018, p. 55.
- ^ a b c Samantha 2016.
- ^ Simon 1996, p. 51.
- ^ Chee 1997, p. 103–116.
- ^ Oxford Business Group 2008, p. 12.
- ^ a b c d Ember, Ember & Skoggard 2004, p. 698.
- ^ Gosling & Lim 1983, p. 89
• Menkhoff 1993, p. 47
• Kuhn 2008, p. 47
• Wurm, Mühlhäusler & Tryon 2011, p. 698 - ^ a b c d Reid & Rodgers 2001, p. 82.
- ^ a b c Kuhn 2008, p. 47.
- ^ Chee 2002, p. 20.
- ^ Sharp 2008, p. 1.
- ^ Asmah 2004, p. 52.
- ^ Camilleri 1975, p. 27.
- ^ Kam & Chee 2000, p. 39.
- ^ Kam & Chee 2000, p. 47.
- ^ T'ien 1983, p. 278.
- ^ Kee 2013, p. 291.
- ^ a b c d e Ember, Ember & Skoggard 2004, p. 699.
- ^ Lee & Suryadinata 2012, p. 114.
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(help) - Wang, Gungwu (1964). Malaysia: A Survey. F.A. Praeger.
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(help) - Wernham, R. B. (1968). The New Cambridge Modern History: Volume 3, Counter-Reformation and Price Revolution, 1559-1610. CUP Archive. ISBN 978-0-521-04543-8.
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(help) - Yat, Hoong Yip (1969). The Development of the Tin Mining Industry of Malaya. University of Malaya Press.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Ma, Huan; Huan, Ma; Feng, Chengjun (1970). 瀛涯勝覧: 'The Overall Survey of the Ocean's Shores' [1433]. CUP Archive. ISBN 978-0-521-01032-0.
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(help) - Charles, T. Goh; Cheng, Teik Goh (1971). The May Thirteenth Incident and Democracy in Malaysia. Oxford University Press.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Kay, Kim Khoo (1972). The Western Malay States, 1850-1873: the effects of commercial development on Malay politics. Oxford University Press.
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(help) - Journal of the Siam Society (1974). The Journal of the Siam Society. Journal of the Siam Society.
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(help) - Camilleri, Joseph A. (1975). Southeast Asia in China's Foreign Policy. Institute of Southeast Asian. GGKEY:10PX1CT790B.
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(help) - Borneo Research Council (1977). Borneo Research Bulletin. Borneo Research Council.
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(help) - Lin, Sien Chia; Hill, Ronald David (1979). South-East Asia, a systematic geography. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-580398-3.
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(help) - der Kroef, Justus Maria Van (1981). Communism and South-east Asia. Macmillan International Higher Education. ISBN 978-1-349-16462-2.
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(help) - Andaya, Barbara Watson (1982). History Of Malaysia. Macmillan International Higher Education. ISBN 978-1-349-16927-6.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Chaliand, Gérard (1982). Guerrilla Strategies: An Historical Anthology from the Long March to Afghanistan. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04443-2.
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(help) - Gosling, Lee Anthony Peter; Lim, Linda Y. C. (1983). The Chinese in Southeast Asia. Maruzen Asia. ISBN 978-9971-954-10-9.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Lapping, Brian (1985). End of Empire. St Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-25071-3.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Gurney, Gene (1986). Kingdoms of Asia, the Middle East, and Africa: an illustrated encyclopedia of ruling monarchs from ancient times to the present. Crown. ISBN 978-0-517-55256-8.
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(help) - Chee, Beng Tan (1988). The Baba of Melaka: culture and identity of a Chinese peranakan community in Malaysia. Pelanduk Publications. ISBN 978-967-978-155-7.
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(help) - Ching, Fatt Yong; McKenna, R. B. (1990). The Kuomintang Movement in British Malaya, 1912-1949. NUS Press. ISBN 978-9971-69-137-0.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Doran, Charles F.; Dixon, Chris (1991). South East Asia in the World-Economy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-31237-0.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Tarling, Nicholas (1992). The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia: Volume 2, The Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-35506-3.
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(help) - Menkhoff, Thomas (1993). Trade Routes, Trust and Trading Networks: Chinese Small Enterprises in Singapore. Verlag Breitenbach. ISBN 978-3-88156-589-9.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Ramanathan, Indira (1994). China and the Ethnic Chinese in Malaysia and Indonesia: 1949-1992. Sangam Books Limited. ISBN 978-0-86132-337-1.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Peletz, Michael G. (1996). Reason and Passion: Representations of Gender in a Malay Society. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-20070-8.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Simon, Roger D. (1996). The City-building Process: Housing and Services in New Milwaukee Neighborhoods, 1880-1910. American Philosophical Society. ISBN 978-0-87169-865-0.
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(help) - Tze-Ken, Danny Wong (1998). The Transformation of an Immigrant Society: A Study of the Chinese of Sabah. Asean Academic. ISBN 978-1-901919-16-5.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Bulbeck, David; Reid, Anthony; Tan, Lay Cheng; Yiqi, Wu (1998). Southeast Asian Exports Since the 14th Century: Cloves, Pepper, Coffee, and Sugar. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 978-981-3055-67-4.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Guillot, C.; Lombard, Denys; Ptak, Roderich (1998). From the Mediterranean to the China Sea: Miscellaneous Notes. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-04098-3.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Wang, Ling-chi; Wang, Gungwu (1998). The Chinese Diaspora: Selected Essays. Times Academic Press. ISBN 978-981-210-092-4.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Hak, Ching Oong (2000). Chinese Politics in Malaya, 1942-55: The Dynamics of British Policy. Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. ISBN 978-967-942-505-5.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Kam, Hing Lee; Chee, Beng Tan (2000). The Chinese in Malaysia. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-983-56-0056-2.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Kantowicz, Edward R. (2000). Coming Apart, Coming Together. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8028-4456-9.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Drabble, John (2000). An Economic History of Malaysia, c.1800-1990: The Transition to Modern Economic Growth. Palgrave Macmillan UK. ISBN 978-0-230-38946-5.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Purushotam, Nirmala (2000). Negotiating Multiculturalism: Disciplining Difference in Singapore. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-015680-5.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Cohen, Warren I. (2000). East Asia at the Center: Four Thousand Years of Engagement with the World. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-10109-7.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Reid, Anthony; Rodgers, Kristine Alilunas (2001). Sojourners and Settlers: Histories of Southeast China and the Chinese. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-2446-4.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Thurman, Malcolm Joseph; Sherman, Christine (2001). War Crimes: Japan's World War II Atrocities. Turner Publishing Company. ISBN 978-1-56311-728-2.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Kratoska, Paul H. (2001a). South East Asia, Colonial History: Imperialism before 1800. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-21540-4.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Kratoska, Paul H. (2001b). South East Asia, Colonial History: High imperialism (1890s-1930s). Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-21542-8.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Cheah, Boon Kheng (2002). Malaysia: The Making of a Nation. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 978-981-230-175-8.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Chee, Beng Tan (2002). Chinese Minority in a Malay State: The Case of Terengganu in Malaysia. Eastern Universities Press. ISBN 978-981-210-188-4.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Chin, Peng (2003). My Side of History. Media Masters. ISBN 981-04-8693-6.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Ma, Laurence J. C.; Cartier, Carolyn L. (2003). The Chinese Diaspora: Space, Place, Mobility, and Identity. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7425-1756-1.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Akbarzadeh, Shahram; Saeed, Abdullah (2003). Islam and Political Legitimacy. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-38056-5.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Asmah, Omar (2004). The Encyclopedia of Malaysia: Languages and literature. Archipelago Press.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Chee, Beng Tan (2004). Chinese Overseas: Comparative Cultural Issues. Hong Kong University Press. ISBN 978-962-209-661-5.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Tze-Ken, Danny Wong (2004). Historical Sabah: The Chinese. Natural History Publications (Borneo). ISBN 978-983-812-104-0.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Chen, Min (2004). Asian Management Systems: Chinese, Japanese and Korean Styles of Business. Cengage Learning EMEA. ISBN 1-86152-941-4.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Ooi, Keat Gin (2004). Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-770-2.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Ember, Melvin; Ember, Carol R.; Skoggard, Ian (2004). Encyclopedia of Diasporas: Immigrant and Refugee Cultures Around the World. Volume I: Overviews and Topics; Volume II: Diaspora Communities. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-0-306-48321-9.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Borschberg, Peter (2004). Iberians in the Singapore-Melaka Area and Adjacent Regions (16th to 18th Century). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-05107-1.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Stubbs, Richard (2004). Hearts and Minds in Guerilla Warfare: The Malayan Emergency, 1948-1960. Eastern Universities Press. ISBN 978-981-210-352-9.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Andrew, Tian Huat Tan (2004). Security Perspectives of the Malay Archipelago: Security Linkages in the Second Front in the War on Terrorism. Edward Elgar. ISBN 978-1-84376-997-2.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Bunnell, Tim (2004). Malaysia, Modernity and the Multimedia Super Corridor: A Critical Geography of Intelligent Landscapes. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-51971-2.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Porritt, Vernon L. (2004). The Rise and Fall of Communism in Sarawak, 1940-1990. Monash Asia Institute. ISBN 978-1-876924-27-0.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Khoo, Salma Nasution; Lubis, Abdur-Razzaq (2005). Kinta Valley: Pioneering Malaysia's Modern Development. Areca Books. ISBN 978-983-42113-0-1.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Huck, Chin Lim; Jorge, Fernando (2006). Malacca: voices from the street. Lim Huck Chin.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Suryadinata, Leo (2006). Tongmenghui, Sun Yat-sen and the Chinese in Southeast Asia : a revisit. 華裔馆. ISBN 978-981-05-6821-4.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Munoz, Paul Michel (2006). Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula. Continental Sales, Incorporated. ISBN 978-981-4155-67-0.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Gomes, Alberto (2007). Modernity and Malaysia: Settling the Menraq Forest Nomads. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-10077-4.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Kia, Soong Kua (2007). May 13: Declassified Documents on the Malaysian Riots of 1969. SUARAM. ISBN 978-983-41367-6-5.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Gordon, Stewart (2007). When Asia Was the World: Traveling Merchants, Scholars, Warriors, and Monks Who Created the ""Riches of the ""East"". Hachette Books. ISBN 978-0-306-81729-8.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Sharp, Ilsa (2008). The E&O Hotel: pearl of Penang. Marshall Cavendish Editions.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Kuhn, Philip A. (2008). Chinese Among Others: Emigration in Modern Times. NUS Press. ISBN 978-9971-69-414-2.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Jackson, Robert (2008). The Malayan Emergency and Indonesian Confrontation: The Commonwealth's Wars 1948-1966. Casemate Publishers. ISBN 978-1-84415-775-4.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Khoo, Salma Nasution (2008). 孫文 [Sun Wen [Sun Yat-sen]]. Areca Books. ISBN 978-983-42834-8-3.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Oxford Business Group (2008). The Report: Malaysia 2008. Oxford Business Group. ISBN 978-1-902339-88-7.
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(help) - Cheng, Guan Ang (2009). Southeast Asia and the Vietnam War. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-23837-7.
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(help) - Blussé, Leonard (2009). Visible Cities: Canton, Nagasaki, and Batavia and the Coming of the Americans. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-02843-2.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Chee, Kiong Tong (2010). Identity and Ethnic Relations in Southeast Asia: Racializing Chineseness. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-90-481-8909-0.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Lee, Su Kim (2010). Kebaya Tales: : Of matriarchs, maidens, mistresses and matchmakers. Marshall Cavendish International Asia Pte Ltd. ISBN 978-981-4382-85-4.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Wurm, Stephen A.; Mühlhäusler, Peter; Tryon, Darrell T. (2011). Atlas of Languages of Intercultural Communication in the Pacific, Asia, and the Americas: Vol I: Maps. Vol II: Texts. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-081972-4.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Runciman, Steven (2011). The White Rajah: A History of Sarawak from 1841 to 1946. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-12899-5.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Lai, To Lee; Hock, Guan Lee (2011). Sun Yat-Sen, Nanyang and the 1911 Revolution. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 978-981-4345-46-0.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Nolan, Victoria (2011). Military Leadership and Counterinsurgency: The British Army and Small War Strategy Since World War II. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-0-85772-087-0.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Lee, Hock Guan; Suryadinata, Leo (2012). Malaysian Chinese: Recent Developments and Prospects. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 978-981-4345-08-8.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Hartfield, James (2012). Unpatriotic History of the Second World War. John Hunt Publishing. ISBN 978-1-78099-379-9.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Suryadinata, Leo (2012). Southeast Asian Personalities of Chinese Descent: A Biographical Dictionary, Volume I & II. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 978-981-4345-21-7.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Gomez, Terence (2012). Chinese Business in Malaysia: Accumulation, Accommodation and Ascendance. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-11226-3.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Josey, Alex (2013). Lee Kuan Yew: The Crucial Years. Marshall Cavendish International Asia Pte Ltd. ISBN 978-981-4435-49-9.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Cheah, Boon Kheng (2013). Red Star Over Malaya. Flipside Digital Content Company Inc. ISBN 978-9971-69-736-5.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Hale, Christopher (2013). Massacre in Malaya: Exposing Britain's My Lai. History Press. ISBN 978-0-7509-5181-4.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Hayes, Elizabeth S. (2013). Spices and Herbs: Lore and Cookery. Courier Corporation. ISBN 978-0-486-13782-7.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Gentile, Gian (2013). Wrong Turn: America s Deadly Embrace of Counterinsurgency. New Press. ISBN 978-1-59558-896-8.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Kee, Howe Young (2013). The Hakkas of Sarawak: Sacrificial Gifts in Cold War Era Malaysia. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-1-4426-6798-3.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Hamblin, Jacob Darwin (2013). Arming Mother Nature: The Birth of Catastrophic Environmentalism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-991159-2.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Lee, Khoon Choy (2013). Golden Dragon And Purple Phoenix: The Chinese And Their Multi-ethnic Descendants In Southeast Asia. World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-4518-49-9.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Ramakrishna, Kumar (2013). Emergency Propaganda: The Winning of Malayan Hearts and Minds 1948-1958. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-60276-4.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Diamond, Larry; Plattner, Marc F.; Chu, Yun-han (2013). Democracy in East Asia: A New Century. JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-0968-9.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Douw, Leo; Huang, Cen; Ip, David (2013). Rethinking Chinese Transnational Enterprises: Cultural Affinity and Business Strategies. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-86195-6.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Leifer, Michael (2013). Dictionary of the Modern Politics of Southeast Asia. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-12945-3.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - anon. (2014). Hinterlands and Commodities: Place, Space, Time and the Political Economic Development of Asia over the Long Eighteenth Century. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-28390-9.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Singh, Bilveer (2014). Quest for Political Power: Communist Subversion and Militancy in Singapore. Marshall Cavendish International Asia Pte Ltd. ISBN 978-981-4634-49-6.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Jakobsen, Michael (2014). Ethnic Chinese Entrepreneurship in Malaysia: On Contextualisation in International Business Studies. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-59402-4.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Reid, Anthony (2015). A History of Southeast Asia: Critical Crossroads. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-631-17961-0.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Garver, John W. (2015). China's Quest: The History of the Foreign Relations of the People's Republic, revised and updated. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-026107-8.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Ooi, Keat Gin (2015). Brunei – History, Islam, Society and Contemporary Issues. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-65998-3.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Comber, Leon (2015). Templer and the Road to Malayan Independence: The Man and His Time. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 978-981-4620-10-9.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - de Vienne, Marie-Sybille (2015). Brunei: From the Age of Commerce to the 21st Century. NUS Press. ISBN 978-9971-69-818-8.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Razak, Abdullah (2015). China-Malaysia Relations and Foreign Policy. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-57197-1.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Kaur, A. (2016). Economic Change in East Malaysia: Sabah and Sarawak since 1850. Palgrave Macmillan UK. ISBN 978-0-230-37709-7.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Lim, Cheng Leng; Khor, Eng Lee (2016). Waging an Unwinnable War: The Communist Insurgency in Malaysia (1948–1989). Xlibris AU. ISBN 978-1-5245-1863-9.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Brezina, Corona (2016). Zheng He: China’s Greatest Explorer, Mariner, and Navigator. The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. ISBN 978-1-5081-7149-2.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Landa, Janet Tai (2016). Economic Success of Chinese Merchants in Southeast Asia: Identity, Ethnic Cooperation and Conflict. Springer. ISBN 978-3-642-54019-6.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Roy, Kaushik; Saha, Sourish (2016). Armed Forces and Insurgents in Modern Asia. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-23193-6.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Hailong, Ma (2017). The History of Chinese Muslims’ Migration into Malaysia. King Faisal Center for Research and Islamic Studies (KFCRIS). ISBN 978-603-8206-48-5.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Tyson, Adam (2018). The Political Economy of Brain Drain and Talent Capture: Evidence from Malaysia and Singapore. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-429-77316-7.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Price, Antwyn (2018). Colonies in Ruins: Transformed by the Pacific War. iUniverse. ISBN 978-1-5320-5572-0.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Wade, Geoff; James, K. Chin (2018). China and Southeast Asia: Historical Interactions. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-429-95212-8.
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