Top-level domain

"TLD" redirects here. For other uses, see TLD (disambiguation).

A top-level domain or domain name (TLD), is the last part of an Internet domain name, that is, the group of letters that follow the final dot of a fully qualified domain name. For example, in the domain name www.example.com, the top-level domain is com (or COM, as domain names are not case-sensitive). When Internet domains are liberalized next year, businesses will be able to use their own name in place of .com or .net, for example. The change would allow a company like "Wigets" to have a domain such as services.wigets or bargins.wigets.

Management of most top-level domains is delegated to responsible organizations by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), which operates the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) and is in charge of maintaining the DNS root zone.

IANA currently distinguishes the following groups of top-level domains:

• infrastructure top-level domain: This group consists of one TLD, the Address and Routing Parameter Area (ARPA). It is managed by IANA on behalf of the IETF for various purposes specified in RFCs.
• country-code top-level domains (ccTLD): Used by a country or a dependent territory. It is two letters long, for example .us for the United States. With some historical exceptions, the code for any territory is the same as its two-letter ISO 3166 code.
• sponsored top-level domains (sTLD): These domains are proposed and sponsored by private agencies or organizations that establish and enforce rules restricting the eligibility to use the TLD. Often they are also grouped with the generic top-level domains.
• generic top-level domains (gTLD): Generic domains are essentially open for registration to anyone in the world.
• generic-restricted top-level domains: Similar to generic group, except eligibility is supposed to be restricted and ascertained more stringently.

In addition, a group of internationalized domain name (IDN) top-level domains has been installed for testing purposes.

The authoritative list of currently existing TLDs in the root zone can be found at the IANA website at http://www.iana.org/domains/root/db/ and a Wikipedia list exists.

Infrastructure TLD

Further information: .arpa

Today arpa is used exclusively for Internet-infrastructure purposes such as in-addr.arpa for IPv4 and ip6.arpa for IPv6 reverse DNS lookup, uri.arpa and urn.arpa for the Dynamic Delegation Discovery System, and e164.arpa for telephone number mapping based on NAPTR DNS records. For historical reasons, arpa is sometimes considered to be a generic TLD.

Reserved TLDs

Main article: internationalized domain name

RFC 2606 reserves the following four top-level domain names for various purposes, with the intention that these should not be used in production networks within the global domain name system:

• example: reserved for use in examples
• invalid: reserved for use in obviously invalid domain names
• localhost: reserved to avoid conflict with the traditional use of localhost as a hostname
• test: reserved for use in tests

In 2007 eleven other internationalized TLDs were created for testing:

1. xn--kgbechtv       Arabic (إختبار)
2. xn--hgbk6aj7f53bba Persian (آزمایشی)
3. xn--0zwm56d        Chinese, simplified (测试)
4. xn--g6w251d        Chinese, traditional (測試)
5. xn--80akhbyknj4f   Cyrillic (испытание)
6. xn--11b5bs3a9aj6g  Hindi (परीक्षा)
7. xn--jxalpdlp       Greek (δοκιμή)
8. xn--9t4b11yi5a     Korean (테스트)
9. xn--deba0ad        Yiddish (טעסט)
10. xn--zckzah         Japanese (テスト)
11. xn--hlcj6aya9esc7a Tamil (பரிட்சை)

Historical TLDs

In the late 1980s InterNIC created the nato domain for use by NATO. NATO considered none of the then existing TLDs as adequately reflecting their status as an international organization. Soon after this addition, however, InterNIC also created the int TLD for the use by international organizations in general, and persuaded NATO to use the second level domain nato.int instead. The nato TLD, no longer used, was finally removed in July 1996.

Other historical TLDs are cs for Czechoslovakia (now cz for Czech Republic and sk for Slovak Republic), dd for East Germany (using de after reunification of Germany), and zr for Zaire (now cd for Democratic Republic of the Congo). In contrast to these, the TLD su has remained active despite the demise of the Soviet Union that it represents.

Debated TLDs

Further information: Proposed top-level domain

About the time that ICANN discussed and finally introduced aero, biz, coop, info, museum, name, and pro TLDs, site owners and USENET users argued that a similar TLD should be made available for adult and pornographic websites to settle the dispute of obscene content on the internet and the responsibility of service providers under the questionable Communications Decency Act of 1996. Several options were proposed including xxx, sex and adult, but so far ICANN has chosen not to create any.

An older proposal consisted of seven new gTLDs arts, firm, info, nom, rec, shop, and web. Later biz, info, museum, and name covered most of these old proposals.

On 26 June 2008, ICANN approved the relaxation of the rules for the introduction of new TLDs. The new rules will allow any public or private entity from anywhere in the world to register any string of letters as a gTLD. Observers believed that the new rule could result in hundreds of new gTLDs to be registered that year. Proposed TLDs include music, berlin and nyc.

On 30 July 2008, the U.S. Department of Commerce reiterated the statement that it has "no plans to transition management of the authoritative root zone file to ICANN."

Pseudo-domains

In the past the Internet was just one of many wide-area computer networks. Computers not connected to the Internet, but connected to another network such as BITNET, CSNET or UUCP, could generally exchange e-mail with the Internet via e-mail gateways. For relaying purposes on the gateways, messages associated with these networks were labeled with suffixes such as bitnet, oz, csnet, and uucp, but these domains did not exist in the public domain name system.

Most of these networks have long since ceased to exist, and although UUCP still gets significant use in parts of the world where Internet infrastructure has not yet become well-established, it subsequently transitioned to using Internet domain names, so pseudo-domains now largely survive as historical relics. One notable exception is the 2007 emergence of SWIFTNet Mail, which uses the swift pseudo-domain.

local deserves special mention as it is required by the Zeroconf protocol. It is also used by many organizations internally, which will become a problem for those users as Zeroconf becomes more popular. Both site and internal have been suggested for private usage, but no consensus has emerged.

TLDs in alternative roots

Further information: Alternative DNS root

ICANN's slow progress in creating new gTLDs, and the high registration costs associated with TLDs, contributed to the creation of alternate root servers with their own sets of TLDs. At times, browser plugins have been developed to allow access to some set of "alternative" domain names even when the normal DNS roots are otherwise used.

The anonymity network Tor has a pseudo-domain onion, which can only be reached with a Tor client because it uses the Tor-protocol (onion routing) to reach the hidden service in order to protect the anonymity of the domain.

See also

• Document classification
• List of Internet top-level domains

References

• Addressing the World: National Identity and Internet Country Code Domains, edited by Erica Schlesinger Wass (Rowman & Littlefield, 2003, ISBN 0-7425-2810-3) [1], examines connections between cultures and their ccTLDs.
• Ruling the Root by Milton Mueller (MIT Press, 2001, ISBN 0-262-13412-8) [2], discusses TLDs and domain name policy more generally.
• RFC 1591 - Domain Name System Structure and Delegation
• RFC 3071 - Reflections on the DNS, RFC 1591, and Categories of Domains

External links

• Articles on CircleID about TLDs
• IANA TLD List
• "Top-Level Domain Names by Host Count". ISC. January 2008. Retrieved 2008-08-07.