Ancient Corinth

This article is about the ancient city of Corinth. For the general informations about the city, see Corinth.

Corinth Κόρινθος
7th century BC–337 BC
The Theban hegemony; power-blocks in Greece in the decade up to 362 BC.
Capital	Corinth
Common languages	Doric Greek
Religion	Polytheism
Government	Monarchy
Historical era	Classical Antiquity
• Established	7th century BC
• Cypselus	657-627 BC
• Macedonian conquest	337 BC
Preceded by Succeeded by Greek Dark Ages Macedonian Empire

Corinth, or Korinth (Greek: Κόρινθος, Kórinthos) was a city-state (polis) on the Isthmus of Corinth, the narrow stretch of land that joins the Peloponnesus to the mainland of Greece, roughly halfway between Athens and Sparta. The modern town of Corinth is located approximately 5km northeast of the ancient ruins.

History

Prehistory and founding myths

Neolithic artifacts show that the site of Corinth had been occupied as early as the fifth millennium BC. According to Hellenic myth, the city was founded by Corinthos, a descendant of the god Helios (the Sun), while other myths suggest that it was founded by the goddess Ephyra, a daughter of the Titan Oceanus, thus the ancient name of the city (also Ephyra). There is evidence that the city was destroyed around 2000 BC.

Some ancient names for the place, such as Korinthos, derive from a pre-Greek, "Pelasgian" language; it seems likely that Corinth was also the site of a Bronze Age Mycenaean palace-city, like Mycenae, Tiryns or Pylos. According to myth, Sisyphus was the founder of a race of ancient kings at Corinth. It was also in Corinth that Jason, the leader of the Argonauts, abandoned Medea. During the Trojan War Corinthians participated under the leadership of Agamemnon.

In a Corinthian myth related in the second century AD to Pausanias Briareus, one of the Hecatonchires, was the arbitrator in a dispute between Poseidon and Helios, between the sea and the sun: his verdict was that the Isthmus of Corinth belonged to Poseidon and the acropolis of Corinth (Acrocorinth) to Helios. Thus Greeks of the Classical age accounted for archaic cult of the sun-titan in the highest part of the site.

The Upper Peirene spring is located within the walls of the acropolis. "The spring, which is behind the temple, they say was the gift of Asopus to Sisyphus. The latter knew, so runs the legend, that Zeus had ravished Aegina, the daughter of Asopus, but refused to give information to the seeker before he had a spring given him on the Acrocorinthus." (Pausanias, 2.5.1).

Before the end of the Mycenaean period the Dorians attempted to settle in Corinth. While at first they failed, their second attempt was successful when their leader Aletes followed a different path around the Corinthian Gulf from Antirio.

Corinth under the Bacchiadae

Main article: Bacchiadae

The Bacchiadae (Ancient Greek: Βακχιάδαι Bakkhiadai), a tightly-knit Doric clan claiming descent from the Dorian hero Heracles through the seven sons and three daughters of a legendary king Bacchis, were the ruling kinship group of archaic Corinth in the eighth and seventh centuries BC, a period of expanding Corinthian cultural power. Corinth had been a backwater in eighth-century Greece. In 747 BC (a traditional date) an aristocratic revolution ousted the Bacchiad kings, when the royal clan of Bacchiadae, numbering perhaps a couple of hundred adult males took power from the last king, Telestes. Practicising strict endogamy which kept clan outlines within a distinct extended oikos, they dispensed with kingship and ruled as a group, governing the city by electing annually a prytanis who held the kingly position for his brief term, no doubt a council (though none is specifically documented in the scant literary materials) and a polemarchos to head the army.

Corinthian stater. Obverse: Pegasus with Qoppa () beneath. Reverse: Athena wearing Corinthian helmet. Qoppa symbolised the archaic writing of the city (όρινθος).

In 657 BC the Bacchiadae were expelled in turn by the tyrant Cypselus, who had been polemarch. The exiled Bacchiadae fled to Corcyra but also to Sparta and west, traditionally to found Syracuse in Sicily, and to Etruria, where Demaratus installed himself at Tarquinia, founding a dynasty of Etruscan kings. The royal line of the Lynkestis of Macedon also claimed Bacchiad descent.

Corinth under the tyrants

Main article: Cypselus

Cypselus or Kypselos (Template:Lang-el) was the first tyrant of Corinth, Greece, in the 7th century BC.

With increased wealth and more complicated trade relations and social structures, Greek city-states tended to overthrow their traditional hereditary priest-kings; Corinth, the richest archaic polis, led the way. Like the signori of late medieval and Renaissance Italy, the tyrants usually seized power at the head of some popular support. Often the tyrants upheld existing laws and customs and were highly conservative as to cult practices, thus maintaining stability with little risk to their own personal security. As in Renaissance Italy, a cult of personality naturally substituted for the divine right of the former legitimate royal house.

Cypselus, the son of Eëtion and a disfigured woman named Labda, who was a member of the Bacchiad kin usurped the power in archaic matriarchal right of his mother, became tyrant and expelled the Bacchiadae.

Temple of Apollo, Ancient Corinth.

Periander (Περίανδρος) (r.627–585 BC).

According to Herodotus the Bacchiadae heard two prophecies from the Delphic oracle that the son of Eëtion would overthrow their dynasty, and they planned to kill the baby once it was born. However, Herodotus says that the newborn smiled at each of the men sent to kill it, and none of them could go through with the plan. An etiological myth-element, to account for the name Cypselus (cypsele, "chest") accounted how Labda then hid the baby in a chest, and when the men had composed themselves and returned to kill it, they could not find it. (Compare the infancy of Perseus.) The ivory chest of Cypselus, richly worked with mythological narratives and adorned with gold, was a votive offering at Olympia, where Pausanias gave it a minute description in his second century AD travel guide.

When Cypselus had grown up, he fulfilled the prophecy. Corinth had been involved in wars with Argos and Corcyra, and the Corinthians were unhappy with their rulers. At the time, around 657 BC, Cypselus was polemarch, the archon in charge of the military, and he used his influence with the soldiery to expel the king. He also expelled his other enemies, but allowed them to set up colonies in northwestern Greece. He also increased trade with the colonies in Italy and Sicily. He was a popular ruler, and unlike many later tyrants, he did not need a bodyguard and died a natural death.

He ruled for thirty years and was succeeded as tyrant by his son Periander in 627 BC. The treasury Cypselus built at Delphi was apparently still standing in the time of Herodotus, and the chest of Cypselus was seen by the traveller Pausanias at Olympia in the second century AD.

During the 7th century BC, when Corinth was ruled by the tyrants, the city sent forth colonists to found new settlements: Epidamnus (modern day Durrës, Albania), Syracuse, Ambracia (modern day town of Lefkas), Corcyra (modern day town of Corfu) and Anactorium. Periander also founded Apollonia in Illyria (modern day Fier, Albania) and Potidaea (in Chalcidice). Corinth was also one of the nine Greek sponsor-cities to found the colony of Naukratis in Ancient Egypt. Naucratis was founded to accommodate the increasing trade volume between the Greek world and the pharaohnic Egypt, during the reign of Pharaoh Psammetichus I of the 26th dynasty.

Just before the beginning of the classical period, the trireme was developed here. This ship design would become widespread in the navies of the Mediterranean area until the late Roman period. Corinth took part in the first naval battle on record, against the Hellenic city of Corcyra. (Thucydides 1:13)

Classical Corinth

Corinthian stater.Obverse:Pegasus with Qoppa () beneath.Reverse:Athena wearing Corinthian helmet.Qoppa symbolised the archaic writing of the city (Ϙόρινθος).

Statues in the Archaeological Museum of Ancient Corinth.

Corinthian order columns in ancient Corinth.

In classical times, Corinth rivaled Athens and Thebes in wealth, based on the Isthmian traffic and trade. Until the mid-6th century Corinth was a major exporter of black-figure pottery to cities around the Greek world. Athenian potters later came to dominate the market. It was once believed that Corinth housed a great temple on its ancient acropolis dedicated to the goddess Aphrodite; yet excavations of the temples of Aphrodite in Corinth reveal them to be small in stature. Despite the mythical story from Strabo of there being more than one thousand temple prostitutes employed at the Temple of Aphrodite, this was likely not accurate as the story rests on a misunderstanding. Corinth was also the host of the Isthmian Games.

Periander was considered one of the Seven Wise Men of Greece. During his reign the first Corinthian coins were struck. He was the first to attempt to cut across the Isthmus to create a seaway to allow ship traffic between the Corinthian and the Saronic Gulf. He abandoned the venture due to the extreme technical difficulties he met, but he created the Diolkos (a stone-build overland ramp) instead. The era of the Cypselids, ending with Periander's nephew Psammetichus, named after the hellenophile Egyptian Pharaoh Psammetichus I (see above), was the golden age of the city of Corinth.

During this era Corinthians developed the Corinthian order, the third order of the classical architecture after the Ionic and the Doric. The Corinthian order was the most complicated of the three, showing the accumulation of wealth and the luxurious lifestyle in the ancient city-state, while the Doric order was analogous to the strict and simplistic lifestyle of the older Dorians like the Spartans, and the Ionic was a balance between those two following the philosophy of harmony of Ionians like the Athenians.

Horace is quoted as saying: "non licet omnibus adire Corinthum", which translates as "Not everyone is able to go to Corinth", due to the expensive living standards that prevailed in the city. The city was renowned for the temple prostitutes of Aphrodite, the goddess of love, who served the wealthy merchants and the powerful officials living in or traveling in and out of the city. The most famous of them, Lais, was said to have extraordinary abilities and charged tremendous fees for her favours.

The city had two main ports, one in the Corinthian Gulf and one in the Saronic Gulf, serving the trade routes of the western and eastern Mediterranean, respectively. In the Corinthian Gulf lay Lechaion, which connected the city to its western colonies (Greek: apoikoiai) and Magna Graecia, while in the Saronic Gulf the port of Kenchreai served the ships coming from Athens, Ionia, Cyprus and the rest of the Levant. Both ports had docks for the large war fleet of the city-state.

Corinthian order.

The city was a major participant in the Persian Wars, offering forty war ships in the sea Battle of Salamis under the admiral Adeimantos and 5,000 hoplites (wearing their characteristic Corinthian helmets) in the following Battle of Plataea but afterwards was frequently an enemy of Athens and an ally of Sparta in the Peloponnesian League. In 431 BC, one of the factors leading to the Peloponnesian War was the dispute between Corinth and Athens over the Corinthian colony of Corcyra (Corfu), which probably stemmed from the traditional trade rivalry between the two cities.

After the end of the Peloponnesian War, Corinth and Thebes, which were former allies with Sparta in the Peloponnesian League, had grown dissatisfied with the hegemony of Sparta and started the Corinthian War against it, which further weakened the city-states of the Peloponnese. This weakness allowed for the subsequent invasion of the Macedonians of the north and the forging of the Corinthian League by Philip II of Macedon against the Persian Empire.

In the 4th century BC, Corinth was home to Diogenes of Sinope, one of the world's best known cynics.

Hellenistic period

335 BC | Alexander appointed the hegemon of the Greek League to unite in the fight against Persia.

332 BC | The Greek League was dead and Alexander was in control of Greece.

249 BC | Revolt of Alexander of Corinth.

243 BC | Corinth taken from Macedonians by Sicyon and the Achaeans.

146 BC | Corinth was completely destroyed in the Battle of Corinth by the Roman general Lucius Mummius.

Roman era

Further information: Roman Greece

The ancient roman fountain.

Ancient roman statue in the Archaeological Museum of Ancient Corinth.

The Romans under Lucius Mummius destroyed Corinth following a siege in 146 BC; when he entered the city Mummius put all the men to the sword and sold the women and children into slavery before he torched the city, for which he was given the cognomen Achaicus as the conqueror of the Achaean League (see Battle of Corinth). While there is archeological evidence of some minimal habitation in the years afterwards, Julius Caesar refounded the city as Colonia laus Iulia Corinthiensis in 44 BC shortly before his assassination. Under the Romans, it became the seat of government for Southern Greece or Achaia (according to Acts 18:12–26) and was noted for its wealth.

Biblical Corinth

Corinth is mentioned in the New Testament in the epistles of Corinthians 1 and 2.

Under the Romans, Corinth became the seat of government for Southern Greece or Achaia (according to Acts 18:12–26). It was noted for its wealth, and for the luxurious, immoral and vicious habits of the people. It had a large mixed population of Romans, Greeks, and Jews.

When the apostle Paul first visited the city (AD 51 or 52), Gallio, the brother of Seneca, was proconsul. Paul resided here for eighteen months (see Acts 18:1-18). Here he first became acquainted with Aquila and Priscilla, and soon after his departure Apollos came from Ephesus.

Paul visited Corinth for a "second benefit" (see 2 Corinthians 1:15), and remained for three months, according to Acts 20:3. During this second visit, believed to have occurred in the spring of 58, it is likely that the Epistle to the Romans was written.

Paul also wrote two of his epistles to the Christian community at Corinth, the First Epistle to the Corinthians and the Second Epistle to the Corinthians. The first Epistle reflects the difficulties of maintaining a Christian community in such a cosmopolitan city.

Based on clues within the Corinthian epistles themselves scholars have concluded that Paul wrote possibly as many as four epistles to the church at Corinth. Only two of them, the 1st Epistle to the Corinthians and the 2nd Epistle to the Corinthians are contained with the Canon of Holy Scripture. The first Epistle reflects the difficulties of maintaining a Christian community in such a cosmopolitan city. The second reaffirms the love Paul has for this young church and his hopes for their continued growth.

Byzantine era

Further information: Byzantine Greece

The city was destroyed by an earthquake in 375 and again in 551. During Alaric's invasion of Greece, in 395–396, Corinth was one of the cities he despoiled, selling many of its citizens into slavery.

During the reign of Byzantine emperor Justinian I, a large stone wall was erected from the Saronic to the Corinthian gulf, protecting the city and the Peloponnesean peninsula from the barbarian invasions of the north. The stone wall was about six miles (10 km) long and was named Examilion (exi=six in Greek). During this era Corinth was the seat of the Thema of Hellas (representing modern day Greece).

In November 856, an earthquake in Corinth killed an estimated 45,000.

In the 12th century (during the reign of the Comnenus dynasty), the wealth of the city, generated from the silk trade to the Latin states of western Europe, attracted the attention of the Sicilian Normans under Roger of Sicily, who plundered it in 1147.

Principality of Achaea

In 1204, Geoffrey I de Villehardouin, nephew of the homonymous famous historian of the Fourth Crusade, was granted Corinth after the sack of Constantinople, with the title of Prince of Achaea. From 1205-1208 the Corinthians resisted the Frankish domination from their stronghold in Acrocorinth, under the command of the Greek general Leo Sgouros. The French knight William of Champlitte led the crusader forces. In 1208 Leo Sgouros killed himself by riding off the top of Acrocorinth, but from 1208 to 1210 the Corinthians continued to resist the enemy forces. After the collapse of the resistance and for the years to come, Corinth became a full part of the Principality of Achaea, governed by the Villehardouin's from their capital in Andravida of Elis. Corinth was the last significant town of Achaea on its northern borders with another crusader state, the Duchy of Athens. The Byzantines reconquered the city and it became part of the despotate of Morea in 1388. The Ottomans captured it in 1395. The Byzantines captured it again in 1403. Theodore II Plaiologos, who was Despot of Morea, built the Hexamilion wall across the Isthmus of Corinth.

Ottoman Rule

In 1458, five years after the final Fall of Constantinople, the Turks of the Ottoman Empire conquered the city and its mighty castle. The Ottomans renamed it Gördes. It became the Sanjak centre of Morea in Rumelia Province. The Venetians captured it in 1687 and it fell under the control of the Republic of Venice according to Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699. Ottomans retook the city in 1715. It was the capital of Mora Province between 1715–1731 and the Sanjak centre between 1731-1821.

Independence

During the Greek War of Independence, 1821-1830 the city was destroyed by the Turkish forces. The city was officially liberated in 1832 after the Treaty of London. In 1833, the site was considered among the candidates for the new capital city of the recently founded Kingdom of Greece, due to its historical significance and strategic position. Athens, then an insignificant town, was chosen instead.

Modern Corinth

Main article: Corinth

In 1858, the village surrounding the ruins of Ancient Corinth was totally destroyed by an earthquake, leading to the establishment of New Corinth 3 km (1.9 mi) NE of the ancient city.

The ancient city and its environs

Acrocorinth, the acropolis

The walled gates of Acrocorinth.

Main article: Acrocorinth

Acrocorinthis, the acropolis of ancient Corinth, is a monolithic rock that was continuously occupied from archaic times to the early nineteenth century. The city's archaic acropolis, already an easily defensible position due to its geomorphology, was further heavily fortified during the Byzantine Empire as it became the seat of the strategos of the Thema of Hellas. Later it was a fortress of the Franks after the Fourth Crusade, the Venetians and the Ottoman Turks. With its secure water supply, Acrocorinth's fortress was used as the last line of defense in southern Greece because it commanded the isthmus of Corinth, repelling foes from entry into the Peloponnesian peninsula. Three circuit walls formed the man-made defense of the hill. The highest peak on the site was home to a temple to Aphrodite which was Christianized as a church, and then became a mosque. The American School began excavations on it in 1929. Currently, Acrocorinth is one of the most important medieval castle sites of Greece.

The two ports: Lechaeum and Cenchreae

Corinth had two harbours: Lechaeum on the Corinthian Gulf and Cenchreae on the Saronic Gulf. Lechaeum was the principal port, connected to the city with a set of long walls of ca. 2 miles length, and was the main trading station for Italy and Sicily, where there were many Corinthian colonies, while Cenchreae served the commerce with the Eastern Mediterranean. Ships could be transported between the two harbours by means of the diolkos constructed by the tyrant Periander.

Corinth in ancient works of history

Aristotle

Economics Book 2.1346a Aristotle is discussing economy and revenue and rulers' various tactics to replenish treasuries and their administration skills. He says that "Cypselus of Corinth had made a vow that if he became master of the city, he would offer to Zeus the entire property of the Corinthians. Accordingly, he commanded them to make a return of their possessions."

Nicomachean Ethics Book 3.8 He is discussing five types of courage and the characteristics of courageous people verses those thought to be courageous. He describes instances in which people face danger in ignorance and are perceived to be courageous, but when they are no longer ignorant, they run away from the fight. He uses the example of the Argives who were forced to confront the Spartans in the battle at the Long Walls of Corinth in 392 BC.

Politics 1274a [Aristotle] discusses law givers. The tells the story of [Philolaus] of Corinth, a Bacchiad who was a lawgiver at Thebes. He became the lover of Diocles, the winner of the olympic games. They both lived for the rest of their lives in Thebes. Their tombs were built near one another and Philolaus' tomb points toward the Corinthian country while Diodes' faces away.

Demosthenes

Philippic I Book 4.24 Demosthenes acknowledges that Philip’s military force exceeds that of Athens and thus they must develop a tactical advantage. He notes the importance of a citizen, army as opposed to one made up of mercenary soldiers, citing a previous mercenary force in Corinth. In this particular force, citizens fought alongside mercenaries and beat the Lacedaemonians.

On The Crown Book 18.96 Athens had marched on Haliartus and Corinth during a time when the Lacedaemonians held many Greek lands. Demosthenes is reminding the Athenians that personal feelings must not affect policy and that others will try to use one’s unchecked spite as a source of control. He notes that “the Athenians of those days had good reason to bear malice against the Corinthians and the Thebans for their conduct during the Decelean War; but they bore no malice whatever.”

Against Leptines Book 20.52 Regarding the Corinthian exiles. Demosthenes is recounting information he heard from elders who we can assume had been alive during the event in question. Athens had fought the Lacedaemonians in a great battle near Corinth. The city decided not to harbor the defeated Athenian troops, but instead sent heralds to the Lacedaemonians.

Book 20.53 The Corinthian heralds opened their gates to the defeated Athenian army and refused to betray them to the victorious Lacedaemonian army. Demosthenes notes that they “chose along with you, who had been engaged in battle, to suffer whatever might betide, rather than without you to enjoy a safety that involved no danger.” These actions saved the Athenian troops and their allies.

Herodotus

In Herodotus Histories: Book 1.24 Harpist Arion is sailing home on a Corinthian vessel when the Corinthians decide to kill him and steal his money. Arion begs them to let him sing a last song and then he will kill himself. He throws himself overboard and escapes to Taernarus on the back of a dolphin. He presents himself to Periander and the sailors are found to be guilty.

Book 3.52 Periander kills his wife Melissa. His son finds out and refuses to talk to him. Periander sends his son away to Corcyra.

Book 3.53 Periander wants his son Lycopron to replace him as sovereign of Corinth. His son is finally convinced to come home on the condition that Periander go to Corcyra while he goes back to Corinth. The Corcyreans hear about this and kill Lycophron in order to keep Periander out of their country.

Book 5.92 B,D Corinthian oligarchy and birth story of Cypselus.

Book 5.92 E Cypselus gets an oracle from Delphi. Interprets it to mean he should take over Corinth. He does, and becomes the first tyrant of Corinth.

Book 5.92F Cypselus reigned for 30 years and was succeeded by his son Periander.

Book 5.93 Athenians and Corinthians entreat Spartans not to harm a Greek city.

Book 7:202 400 Corinthians are listed as fighting with the Spartan 300 against the Persians.

Book 9:88 Men surrendered by Thebas sent to Corinth by Pausanias where they were put to death.

Book 9:105 Corinthians were considered second best fighters to the Athenians.

Isocrates

On the Peace Speech 68, section 68 Isocrates speaks of the formation of the anti-Spartan alliance made in 395 in Corinth.

Thucydides

Book 1.13 Corinthian war against the Corcycraeans was the first naval war in history. According to Thucydides, Corinth was the first place in Hellas to build triremes. The Corinthians were also known for their wealth because of its location on the isthmus. All information to and from the Polyponesis traveled through Corinth, because many travelers came through delivering messages and goods.

Book 6.73 Three Syracusan generals went to Corinth and Lacedaemon to acquire allies for the Sicilian War.

Book 6.88 The Corinthians "voted at once to aid them (the Syracusans) hear and soul themselves". They also sent a group to Lacedaemon where they found Alcibiades. From there the Syracusans, Corinthians and Alcibiades convinced the Lacedaemonians to join their forces. After a convincing speech from Alcibiades, the Lacedaemonians agreed to send troops to aid the Sicilians.

Book 7.39 With the Syracusan troops in Athens, Ariston, a Corinithinan helmsman had the idea to move the market down to the sea which would allow the commanders to have a full meal, and then attack the Athenians while they were least expecting it. A messenger was sent to the market and the plan was carried through. The Athenians, expecting the Syracusan troops to be busy at the market, went upon their daily tasks, unprepared for battle. Suddenly the Athenians realized the Syracrusan troops were waging battle upon them so they scrambled to meet the Syracusans at the sea for battle. In the end, the Syracusan troops claimed victory and the Athenians retreated.

Xenophon

Hellenica, by Xenophon Books 3-7 Detailed description of the events of the Corinthian war.

Notable people

Ancient

• Archias (8th century BC), founder of Syracuse.
• Dinarchus (4th century BC), orator and logographer.
• Eumelus (8th century BC), poet.
• Euphranor (4th century BC), sculptor and painter.
• Periander (7th century BC), listed as one of the Seven Sages of Greece.
• Xeniades (5th century BC), philosopher.

See also

• Corinth, the modern town
• League of Corinth
• Acrocorinth
• Corinthian bronze
• Temple of Isthmia
• Isthmian Games
• Hexamilion wall
• Persian War
• Thucydides
• Herodotus
• Sparta

External links

• Hellenic Ministry of Culture: Fortress of Acrocorinth
• Excavations at Ancient Corinth (American School of Classical Studies at Athens)
• Online database of the Corinth Excavations (American School of Classical Studies at Athens)
• History timeline

Further reading

• Partial text from Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897
• Salmon, J. B. Wealthy Corinth : a history of the city to 338 BC. Oxford: Clarendon press, 1997.
• Will, E. Korinthiaka. Recherches sur l'histoire et la civilisation de Corinthe des origines aux guerres médiques. Paris : de Boccard, 1955.
• "Adkins, Lesley and Roy A. Adkins. Handbook to Life in Ancient Greece New York: Facts on File. 1997."
• Alcock, Susan E. and Robin Osborne (ed.s). Classical Archaeology Malden: Blackwell Publishing. 2007.
• "Del Chiaro, Mario A (ed). Corinthiaca: Studies in Honor of Darrell A. Amyx. Columbia: University of Missouri Press. 1986."
• "Grant, Michael. The Rise of the Greeks. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company. 1987."
• "Hammond, A History of Greece. Oxford University Press. 1967. "History of Greece, including Corinth from "the early civilizations" (6000-850) to "the splitting of the empire and Antipater's occupation of Greece" (323-321).
• "Kagan, Donald. The Fall of the Athenian Empire. New York: Cornell University Press. 1987."
• "Salmon, J.B. Wealthy Corinth: A History of the City to 338 BC. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1984."
• British Admiralty charts:BA1085, BA1093, BA1600