Croats of Bosnia and Herzegovina: Difference between revisions
editied to fix articles, change passive to active tense, and for clarity |
|||
Line 68: | Line 68: | ||
===Kingdom of Croatia=== |
===Kingdom of Croatia=== |
||
[[File:Oton Ivekovic, Krunidba kralja Tomislava.jpg|thumb|Coronation of King [[Tomislav of Croatia|Tomislav]], painted by [[Oton Iveković]]]] |
[[File:Oton Ivekovic, Krunidba kralja Tomislava.jpg|thumb|Coronation of King [[Tomislav of Croatia|Tomislav]], painted by [[Oton Iveković]]]] |
||
Croats settled the areas of modern Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina in the 7th century. There they assimilated with native [[Illyrians]] and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], during the [[Migration Period|great migration of the Slavs]].{{sfn|Džino|2010|p=1}} Croats adopted [[Christianity]] and began to develop their own culture, art, and political institutions, culminating in their own [[Kingdom of Croatia (medieval)|kingdom]]. The kingdom of consisted of two [[Principality|principalities]]: [[Pannonian Croatia]] in the north, and [[Littoral Croatia]] in the south. [[Red Croatia]], south of Littoral Croatia, was also populated by ethnic Croats. One of the most important events of Croats in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the early medieval age was the First Croatian Assembly held in 753 in [[Tomislavgrad|Županjac]] (present-day [[Tomislavgrad]]). In the same year, Croatian Duke Branimir received Papal legates in his palace in the present-day territory of Tomislavgrad on mount [[Lib (mountain)|Lib]].{{sfn|Mandić|1974|p=109}} A second major event is the coronation of the first King of Croatia [[Tomislav of Croatia|Tomislav]] in cca. 925, on the fields of Županjac.{{sfn|Vulliamy|1994|p=227}} By this act, Pannonian Croatia and Littoral Croatia formed a united Croatian kingdom. This new kingdom included the historical lands of Dalmatia (Dalmatia and most of Bosnia and Herzegovina), Pannonia (eastern Slavonia and northeastern Bosnia), and Savia (western Slavonia).{{sfn|Frucht|2005|p=420}} This period in Croatian history is marked by isolation from European cultural and political ideas which resulted in few secular monuments, an exception being tens of thousands of [[Stećak]]. The territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina was divided into a few independent administrative units: [[Bosnia]], [[Herzegovina|Hum]], [[Travunia]], [[Soli (region)|Soli]], [[Usora (region)|Usora]] and [[Završje (region)|Završje]]. |
Croats settled the areas of modern Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina in the 7th century. There they assimilated with native [[Illyrians]] and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], during the [[Migration Period|great migration of the Slavs]].{{sfn|Džino|2010|p=1}} Croats adopted [[Christianity]] and began to develop their own culture, art, and political institutions, culminating in their own [[Kingdom of Croatia (medieval)|kingdom]]. The kingdom of Croatia consisted of two [[Principality|principalities]]: [[Pannonian Croatia]] in the north, and [[Littoral Croatia]] in the south. [[Red Croatia]], south of Littoral Croatia, was also populated by ethnic Croats. One of the most important events of Croats in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the early medieval age was the First Croatian Assembly held in 753 in [[Tomislavgrad|Županjac]] (present-day [[Tomislavgrad]]). In the same year, Croatian Duke Branimir received Papal legates in his palace in the present-day territory of Tomislavgrad on mount [[Lib (mountain)|Lib]].{{sfn|Mandić|1974|p=109}} A second major event is the coronation of the first King of Croatia [[Tomislav of Croatia|Tomislav]] in cca. 925, on the fields of Županjac.{{sfn|Vulliamy|1994|p=227}} By this act, Pannonian Croatia and Littoral Croatia formed a united Croatian kingdom. This new kingdom included the historical lands of Dalmatia (Dalmatia and most of Bosnia and Herzegovina), Pannonia (eastern Slavonia and northeastern Bosnia), and Savia (western Slavonia).{{sfn|Frucht|2005|p=420}} This period in Croatian history is marked by isolation from European cultural and political ideas which resulted in few secular monuments, an exception being tens of thousands of [[Stećak]]. The territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina was divided into a few independent administrative units: [[Bosnia]], [[Herzegovina|Hum]], [[Travunia]], [[Soli (region)|Soli]], [[Usora (region)|Usora]] and [[Završje (region)|Završje]]. |
||
===High and late middle age=== |
===High and late middle age=== |
Revision as of 22:13, 24 May 2012
![]() | This article may require copy editing for grammar, style, cohesion, tone, or spelling. (March 2012) |
| |||||||||||||||||||
Total population | |||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
571,317 | |||||||||||||||||||
Languages | |||||||||||||||||||
Croatian | |||||||||||||||||||
Religion | |||||||||||||||||||
Predominantly Roman Catholic, atheist | |||||||||||||||||||
Related ethnic groups | |||||||||||||||||||
South Slavs |
Croats of Bosnia and Herzegovina are ethnic Croats living in Bosnia and Herzegovina. They are the third most populous ethnic group in the country, after Bosniaks and Serbs; although they constitute a minority of the total population, as a constitutive nation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, they are not legally considered a minority group.[1] They are also a native ethnic group of Bosnia and Herzegovina, as their presence there dates back to the 7th century. The Croats of Bosnia and Herzegovina have made significant contributions to the culture of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Their mother tongue is Croatian, and most identify as Roman Catholic, though there is a significant minority of atheist Croats in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
From the 15th to the 19th century, many Croats in modern-day Bosnia and Herzegovina were persecuted under the Ottoman Empire, causing many of them to flee the area. In the 20th century, political turmoil and poor economic conditions caused more to emigrate. There are no precise data regarding Bosnia and Herzegovina's population since the Bosnian War. Ethnic cleansing within Bosnia and Herzegovina in the 1990s saw many Croats flee to the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia.[2] It is estimated that there are approximately 571,317 Croats in Bosnia and Herzegovina, down from 835,170 before the war. According to data from 2000 in the CIA World Factbook, the ethnic composition of Bosnia and Herzegovina is 14.3 percent Croat.[3]
History
Kingdom of Croatia
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Oton_Ivekovic%2C_Krunidba_kralja_Tomislava.jpg/220px-Oton_Ivekovic%2C_Krunidba_kralja_Tomislava.jpg)
Croats settled the areas of modern Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina in the 7th century. There they assimilated with native Illyrians and Romans, during the great migration of the Slavs.[4] Croats adopted Christianity and began to develop their own culture, art, and political institutions, culminating in their own kingdom. The kingdom of Croatia consisted of two principalities: Pannonian Croatia in the north, and Littoral Croatia in the south. Red Croatia, south of Littoral Croatia, was also populated by ethnic Croats. One of the most important events of Croats in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the early medieval age was the First Croatian Assembly held in 753 in Županjac (present-day Tomislavgrad). In the same year, Croatian Duke Branimir received Papal legates in his palace in the present-day territory of Tomislavgrad on mount Lib.[5] A second major event is the coronation of the first King of Croatia Tomislav in cca. 925, on the fields of Županjac.[6] By this act, Pannonian Croatia and Littoral Croatia formed a united Croatian kingdom. This new kingdom included the historical lands of Dalmatia (Dalmatia and most of Bosnia and Herzegovina), Pannonia (eastern Slavonia and northeastern Bosnia), and Savia (western Slavonia).[7] This period in Croatian history is marked by isolation from European cultural and political ideas which resulted in few secular monuments, an exception being tens of thousands of Stećak. The territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina was divided into a few independent administrative units: Bosnia, Hum, Travunia, Soli, Usora and Završje.
High and late middle age
In 1102 Croatia entered into a personal union with the Kingdom of Hungary. After this, Bosnians within the Kingdom of Croatia,[8] started to differentiate from Croats. At first, Bosnia become a separate principality under Kulin who managed to solidify Bosnian autonomy at the expense of more powerful neighbours, but only in 14th century did Bosnia become a formidable state. In the 14th century, King Tvrtko of Bosnia conquered part of western Serbia and later part of the Croatian Kingdom.[9] He managed to do this by defeationg various Croatian nobles while supporting Hungary.[10] With this act, Bosnia and Herzegovina became a Bosnian Kingdom, peopled by Bosnians and Croats, although parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina were still in the Kingdom of Croatia. Regarding religion, Bosnia was closer to Croatia rather than Orthodox lands to the east. A Bosnian Diocese is mention as Catholic in the 11th Century, falling under the jurisdiction of the Archdiocese of Split, and later in 12th Century under the jurisdiction of the Diocese of Dubrovnik. Another connection of Bosnia to Croatia is that Bosnian rulers always used a Croatian political title "ban".[11] Specific religions in medieval Bosnia were Bogomilism and Bosnian Church. Some of the notable medieval Bosnian Croats were followers of this religion, like Croatian duke Hrvoje Hrvatinić.[12] However, the majority of the Bosnian medieval population were Catholics who made up about 700,000 out of 900,000 people living in modern-day Bosnia and Herzegovina. Some 100,000 were Bogomils and another 100,000 were Orthodox Christians.[13]
Ottoman Empire
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Zbjeg.jpg)
In the middle of the 15th century, Turks started their invasion of Bosnia. In 1451 they took Vrhbosna province and finally conquered Bosnia in 1463. Herzegovina was conquered in 1481, while northern Bosnia continued under Croatia until 1527, when it was conquered by the Turks.[14] After the Turkish conquest, many Catholic Bosnians converted to Islam,[15] and their numbers shrank as many fled from persecution and forced conversion. The Ottoman conquest changed the demographics of Bosnia and Herzegovina, vastly reducing the number of Catholics.[13] Present-day boundaries of Bosnia and Herzegovina emerged when the Treaty of Karlowitz was signed in 1699 establishing peace between Austria and the Ottoman Empire. Another significant event for Bosnian Croats was a boundary established by an agreement between the Republic of Ragusa and the Ottoman Empire, where Ragusans promised to give part of their territory in Neum to Ottomans to secure protection from the Venetian Republic.[16]
The activity of the Catholic Church was curtailed, although tolerated, while, on the other hand, Ottomans preferred the Orthodox Church. The reason for this was because Catholicism was the faith of Ottoman enemies - Austria, while Orthodoxy was not well established in Bosnia, and thus it was more acceptable to the Ottomans. In the first 50 years of Ottoman rule, many Catholics fled Bosnia.[17] A number of Catholics also converted to Orthodox Christianity.[18] Franciscans were only Catholic priests active in Bosnia. Before the Ottomans arrived in Bosnia, there were 35 Franciscan monasteries in Bosnia and four in Herzegovina. Some monasteries were destroyed, while some were converted to mosques. In 1680s there was only 10 Franciscan monasteries left in Bosnia. The Catholic Church in Bosnia divided its administration into two dioceses, one being Croatian Bosnia (in areas not conquered by the Ottomans), and the other the Bosna Srebrena diocese.[19]
Between 1516 and 1524, increased persecution and forced conversion to Islam of Catholics occurred in Bosnia and Herzegovina.[20] In that year, Franciscan monasteries were destroyed in Kraljeva Sutjeska, Visoko, Fojnica, Kreševo and Konjic, and later in Mostar. It is believed that during that time, some 100,000 Croats converted to Islam. In 1528 Ottomans conquered Jajce and Banja Luka, penetrating the Croatian defence line on the Vrbas river. After that conquest, Croatia was reduced to around 37,000 km².
During the 18th century, Turkish rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina started to weaken, while after the Napoleonic Wars, their rule rapidly decreased, as Ottoman territory was conquered by the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
From 1815 to 1878 Ottoman authority in Bosnia and Herzegovina was decreasing. After the reorganization of the Ottoman army and abolition of Jannisaries, Bosnian nobility revolted, led by Husein Gradaščević who wanted to establish an autonomous Bosnia and Herzegovina and to stop any further social reforms. During 19th Century, various reforms were made in order to increase freedom of religion which actually worsened relations between Catholics and Muslims in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Soon, economic decay and increasing nationalist accross Europe resulted in the Ottoman Empire losing control over Bosnia and Herzegovin, since state administration was very disorganized and national consciousness was growing strong among the Christian population. On 19 June 1875 Catholic Croats, led by Don Ivan Musić,[21] revolted because of high taxes in West Herzegovina. Their goal was to subordinate Bosnia to the rule of Croatia (controlled then by Austria). During the revolt, for the very first time Bosnian Croats used the flag of Croatia.[22] Soon after, Orthodox population also revolted in East Herzegovina, in the Herzegovina Uprising. The Turks were unable to defeat the rebels, so, taking advantage of their weakness, Serbia and Montenegro joined in attacking the Ottoman Empire. In 1876 the Russian Empire does the same. The Ottomans are defeated in 1878, resulting in over 150,000 refugees migrating to Croatia.[23] After theCongress of Berlin was held in the same year, Bosnia and Herzegovina was transferred to Austria-Hungary.[24]
Austria-Hungary
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Mostar%2C_T%C3%BCrken_Viertel-LCCN2002710853.jpg/220px-Mostar%2C_T%C3%BCrken_Viertel-LCCN2002710853.jpg)
Even after the end of Ottoman rule, the population of Bosnia and Herzegovina was divided and antagonistic.[25] In the Kingdom of Croatia, Croatian politicians oversaw the unification of the Kingdom of Dalmatia and Istria with Croatia. Another ambition of Croatian politicians was to incorporate the Condominium of Bosnia and Herzegovina into the Kingdom of Croatia. Bosnian Governor Béni Kállay sought the support of religious institutions to strengthen his rule. Soon, the Austrian Emperor began to name Orthodox Metropolitans and Catholic Bishops as well choosing a Muslim hierarchy.[26] The first Catholic Archbishop was Josip Stadler.[27] Both apostolic vicarates of Bosnian and Herzegovina were abolished, and instead three dioceses were founded, Vrhbosna diocese with its seat in Sarajevo, Banja Luka diocese centered in Banja Luka, and Mostar-Duvno diocese in Mostar.
At the time, Bosnia and Herzegovina was facing modernization. Between 180,000 and 200,000 people inhabited Bosnia and Herzegovina, a majority of which were Croats, and a smaller percent Slovenes, Czechs and others.[26] During this period, the most significant event is Bosnia's entry into European political life and the shaping of ethnic Croats in Bosnia and Herzegovina into a modern nation. At the end of 19th century, Bosnian Croats founded various reading, cultural and singing societies, and at the beginning of 20th century, a new Bosnian Croat intelligentsia would play a major role in the political life of Croatia. The Croatian Support Society for Students of Middle Schools and High Schools in Bosnia and Herzegovina was founded in 1902, and in 1907 it merged with the Croatian Society for the Education of Children in Crafts and Trades, also founded in 1902, into Croatian Cultural Society Napredak (Progress). Napredak educated and gave scholarships to more than 20,000 students. Students of Napredak weren't only Bosnian Croats, but also Croats from other regions.[28]
Kallay tried to unify all Bosnians into a single nation of Bosniaks, but the reality was reflected in new Bosnian political parties.[26] In the days before the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908, the Croat People's Union (HNZ) become a political party who's ideology was very similar to that of the Croatian-Serbian Coalition in Croatia. In 1909, Stadler opposed that policy and founded a new political party, Croat Catholic Association (HKU), an opponent of the HNZ which was secular unlike the HKU. The HKU emphasized clerical ideals and religious exclusivity.[29] However, Bosnian Croats mostly supported the secular nationalist policy of the HNZ.[30] The HNZ and the Muslim National Organization formed a coalition which ruled the country from 1911 until the dissolution of the Bosnian parliament in 1914.[31]
Kingdom of Yugoslavia
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Stjepan_Radic_in_Mostar%2C_1925.jpg/220px-Stjepan_Radic_in_Mostar%2C_1925.jpg)
After the World War I, Bosnia and Herzegovina become part of the internationally unrecognized State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs which existed between October and December 1918. In December 1918, this state joined with the Kingdom of Serbia as the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes,[32], renamed as the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929.[33] This new state was characterized by Serbian nationalism, resembling in fact the idea of "Greater Serbia". Serbs held control over the armed forces and politics of the new state.[34] With a Serbian minority of around 40% of those living in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Serbian leadership of the state wanted to implement Serbian hegemony in this region. Bosnian Croats made up around 25% of the total Bosnian population, however they didn't have a single municipality president.[35] The regime of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia was characterized by limited parliamentarism; drastic elective manipulations and later King Alexander's 6 January Dictatorship; state-supported paramilitaries acting outside of Serbia; political killings (Milan Šufflay, Ivo Pilar), and corruption. Yugoslavia was preoccupied with political struggles, leading to the collapse of the state after a coup in March 1941 led by Dušan Simović resulted in the Nazis invading Yugoslavia.
After King Alexander was killed in 1934, ending the dictatorship, in 1939, faced with killings, corruption scandals, violence and the failure of centralized control, the Serbian leadership agreed to compromise with the Croat minority. On 24 August 1939, the president of the Croatian Peasant Party, Vladko Maček and Dragiša Cvetković made an agreement (Cvetković-Maček agreement) according to which the Banovina of Croatia was created on territory of Sava and Littoral Banovina and the districts of Dubrovnik, Šid, Brčko, Ilok, Gradačac, Derventa, Travnik and Fojnica. By this, around 30% of the present-day territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina become part of the Banovina of Croatia. Those districts held a Croatian majority. The creation of the Banovina of Croatia was one of the solutions to the "Croatian issue".[36]
World War II
After the 1941 collapse of Yugoslavia, a majority of Croats supported the establishment of an Independent State of Croatia (NDH). NDH was established on 10 April 1941. However, later during the war, Croats were divided, one side supporting NDH, while the other, Yugoslav Partisans, supporting the creation of a communist Yugoslavia. Serbian Chetniks were also at war against both NDH and the Partisans. Soon after it was created, NDH faced a brutal civil war, with fierce fighting in Bosnia and Herzegovina. After NDH and Axis Forces lost the war in May 1945, Croatian soldiers and civilians retreated to British occupational zone of Austria in Bleiburg. Along the way at least 250,000 of them were brutally massacred by Yugoslav Partisans during the "Way of the Cross" (Križni put).[37] This event is remembered as Bleiburg massacre.
Communist Yugoslavia
During the communist era, Bosnia and Herzegovina was led by a privileged elite, controlling the army, police, politics and education, most of whom were Serbs, and who got their influential positions based on their victimization during World War II supported by a centralized regime in Belgrade. Muslim Bosniaks were also privileged since they remained politically neutral to Croatian and Serbian ambitions of the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina to their lands. Besides, Bosniaks helped to establish a connection with third-world countries, and later to establish the Non-Aligned Movement. Croats in Bosnia and Herzegovina were persecuted, labeled as Catholic reactionaries, and shared accusations of a genocidal policy with the Independent State of Croatia. Croatian ethnic areas were economically neglected. Croats were under constant police surveillance and, moreover, many were forced to leave Bosnia and Herzegovina. Economic emigrants made up 1/5th of the population of Bosnia and Herzegovina, while 2/3rds of that population were Croats. The Croatian language was repressed in schools and media. Croats saw the end of Yugoslavia in those circumstances. During the first democratic elections, the majority of Croats chose a nationalist party, Croatian Democratic Union of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Nationalist parties also won elections representing the other two peoples of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bosniaks woted for the Party of Democratic Action, while Bosnian Serbs voted for the Serbian Democratic Party.
Bosnian War
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/D-30J_howitzer.jpg/220px-D-30J_howitzer.jpg)
A majority of citizens of the Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina voted for the independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the referendum that was held between 29 February and 1 March 1992.[38] The referendum question was: "Are you in favor of a sovereign and independent Bosnia-Herzegovina, a state of equal citizens and nations of Muslims, Serbs, Croats and others who live in it?"[39] Independence was strongly favoured by Bosniak and Bosnian Croat voters, but the referendum was largely boycotted by Bosnian Serbs. The total turn out of voters was 63.6% of which 99.7% voted for the independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina.[40]
On 5 April 1992, Serb forces started the Siege of Sarajevo. On 12 May, not long after the referendum was held, the Yugoslav People's Army left Bosnia and Herzegovina and left most of the arms to the Army of Republika Srpska, headed by Ratko Mladić.
The first organized units to oppose Serb forces in Bosnia and Herzegovina were those of the Croatian Defence Forces (HOS) founded by the Croatian Party of Rights of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 18 December 1991.[41] The Croatian Community of Herzeg-Bosnia established its own force, the Croatian Defence Council (HVO) on 8 April 1992. HVO forces constituted 20-30% Bosniaks who joined because local Muslim militias were unable to arm themselves.[42] The Croatian Community of Herzeg-Bosnia was founded on 18 November 1991 as a community of municipalities where the majority population was ethnic Croat. In its founding acts, Herzeg-Bosnia had no separatist character. The Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia was declared by Bosnian Croat leaders to be a temporary region, which would, after the war, again become part of united Bosnia and Herzegovina.[43]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/DaytonAgreement.jpg/220px-DaytonAgreement.jpg)
At the beginning of the Bosnian War, Bosnian Croats were first to organize themselves against Serbian forces, especially Croats in western Herzegovina who were already armed. At the end of May 1992, Croats launced a counter-offensive, liberating Mostar after a month of fighting.[44] Also, in central Bosnia and Posavina, Croatian forces stopped the Serbian advance and, in some places, went on the offensive, repelling the enemy. On 16 June 1992, the President of Croatia, Franjo Tuđman and the President of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Alija Izetbegović signed an alliance according to which Bosnia and Herzegovina allowed the entrance of the Croatian Army and Croatian Defence Council onto its territory. Bosnian Croat political leadership and the leadership of Croatia urged Izetbegović to form a confederation between Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia, but Izetbegović denied this since he wished to represent Serbian interests as much as those of Bosniaks and Croats. Bosnian Croat leadership was irritated by Izetbegović's neutrality, so Mate Boban threatened to pull back the HVO forces from Bosnia.[43] Since the UN-implemented arms embargo applied to Bosnia and Herzegovina as well as Serbia, Bosniak and Croat forces had a hard time fighting well-equipped Serbian units. However, after Croat and Bosniak forces reorganized in late May 1992, the Serbian advence was halted and their forces mostly remained in position throughout the war.[45] The tensions between Croats and Bosniaks became apparent on 19 June 1992, leading to war in October. The Croat-Bosniak War was at its peak during 1993, easing in 1994. In March 1994 Bosniak and Croat leadership signed the Washington agreement according to which the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (ARBiH)-controlled and HVO-controlled areas were united into the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. After the Washington agreement was signed, the Croatian Army, HVO and ARBiH liberated southwestern Bosnia and Herzegovina in 7 miitary operations. In December 1995, the Bosnian War ended with the signing of the Dayton agreement. The Dayton Accords effectively ended the war, however the disagreements which started the war remain a problem in Bosnia and Herzegovina, limiting the effectiveness of the peace thus established. According to information published by the Research and Documentation Centre of Sarajevo, 7,762 Croats were killed or are missing. From the territory of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 230,000 Croats were expelled, while from territory of Republika Srpska, 152,856 Croats were expelled.[46]
Present-day
Since Croats are often outvoted by Bosniaks in the Federation, some political parties, most significantly the Croatian Democratic Union of Bosnia and Herzegovina, advocate the creation of a third entity in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Even though the idea of a third entity is popular among Bosnian Croats, large numbers of them don't accept it. The Croat minority of Bosnia and Herzegovina is further weakened by large-scale emigration, a major problem for securing their rights within Bosnia.
Demographics
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/BiH_-_UH_N_1991.gif/220px-BiH_-_UH_N_1991.gif)
Croats made majority in next municipalities, Mostar, Široki Brijeg, Ljubuški, Livno, Čitluk, Tomislavgrad, Čapljina, Orašje, Posušje, Žepče, Grude, Vitez, Kiseljak, Novi Travnik, Prozor-Rama, Jajce, Odžak, Stolac, Busovača, Neum, Domaljevac-Šamac, Usora, Kreševo, Kupres, Dobretići and Ravno.
Municipalities in which Croats made 1/3 of the population are Travnik, Uskoplje, Vareš, Fojnica and Glamoč. Municipalities in which Croats made around 15% of the population are Tuzla, Brčko, Bugojno, Kakanj, Drvar and Grahovo.
Municipalities with Croatian majority (14 of them) are in a continuous area from Kupres in the northwest to Ravno in the southeast of Bosnia and Herzegovina, while 12 municipalities represent enclaves with a Croatian majority. Mostar is the city with the largest population of Croats in Bosnia-Herzegovina.
According to estimates in the CIA World Factbook, there are 571,317 Croats making up 15% of a total population of 3,921,200 in Bosnia and Herzegovina. According to the Ordinary, there are 459,102 Catholics living in Bosnia and Herzegovina, of whom almost all are Croat. There are also around 40,000 Croats (10%) who aren't Catholics or aren't in contact with the Catholic Church. So, according to those estimates, there are around 500,000 Croats, or around 13% of total population of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Demographical history
Part of a series on |
Croats |
---|
![]() |
Ethnic totals and percentages | |||||||||||||
Year/Population | Croats | % | Total BiH Population | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
15th century | cca. 750,000 | 85,22% | 850,000-900,000 | ||||||||||
1558/59 | cca. 360,000 | 57% | cca. 635,000 | ||||||||||
1624 | cca. 150,000 | 22% | cca. 675,000 | ||||||||||
1879 | 209,391 | 18.08% | 1,158,164 | ||||||||||
1885 | 265,788 | 19.88% | 1,336,091 | ||||||||||
1895 | 334,142 | 21.31% | 1,361,868 | ||||||||||
1910 | 434,061 | 22.87% | 1,898,044 | ||||||||||
1921 | 444,308 | 23.50% | 1,890,440 | ||||||||||
1931 | 547,949 | 23.58% | 2,323,555 | ||||||||||
1948 | 614,123 | 23.93% | 2,565,277 | ||||||||||
1953 | 654,229 | 22.97% | 2,847,790 | ||||||||||
1961 | 711,666 | 21.71% | 3,277,948 | ||||||||||
1971 | 772,491 | 20.62% | 3,746,111 | ||||||||||
1981 | 758,140 | 18.39% | 4,124.008 | ||||||||||
1991 | 760,852 | 17.38% | 4,377,053 | ||||||||||
Official Population Census Results - note: some Croats declared themselves as Yugoslavs in some censuses |
Medieval Bosnia and Ottoman Empire
Some estimates state that there were 850,000 - 900,000 inhabitants of medieval Bosnia, of which 750,000 were Catholic (85%), 80,000 Bogomil (9%) and 50,000 Orthodox Christians (6%). During Ottoman rule, the number of Catholic Croats drasticly decressed. When the Turks conquered Bosnia in 1463, according to their data, they took away 100,000 captured Croats as slaves and kept 30,000 Croat boys to serve as jannisaries. In the years 1958/59, in present-day Bosnia and Herzegovina there were360,000 Catholics (57%), 220,000 Muslims (34%) and 55,000 Orthodox Christians (9%). In 1624, there were around 450,000 Muslims (67%), 150,000 Catholics (22%) and 75,000 Orthodox Christians (11%).[47] In 1776, according to Klaić, there was around 50,000 Catholics in Bosnia. However, the problem with Turkish censuses is they were biased, and second problem is that they only numbered the houses and later exclusively the male population.[48]
Austria-Hungary and Kingdom of Yugoslavia
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Catholic_man_from_Central_Bosnia%2C_1901.jpg/150px-Catholic_man_from_Central_Bosnia%2C_1901.jpg)
During Austrian-Hungarian rule, the number of Croats started to increase as 180,000 to 200,000 people migrated to Bosnia and Herzegovina, of which a majority were Croats. According to Croatian author Vjekoslav Klaić in 1878, there were 1,291,393 Croats (96-97% ot total migration). He considered present-day Bosniaks and Serbs of Bosnia and Herzegovina as well as Croats to be part of Croatian nationality. According to him, there was 646,678 Orthodox Christians (48,4%), 480,596 Muslims (35,9%), and 207,199 Catholics (respectively Croats, 15,5%) and 3,000 Jews (0,2%).[25] In 1895, Bosnia and Herzegovina had 1,336,091 inhabitants, of which 571,250 were Orthodox Christian (42,76%), 492,710 Muslim (36,88%), 265,788 Catholic (19,89%), 5,805 Jews (0,43%) and 53 others (0,04%).
A major policy of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia was an attempt to implement Serbian hegemony by Serbianizing the rest of the population. According to the 1931 census, Bosnia and Herzegovina had 2,323,787 inhabitants of which Serbs made 44,25%, Muslims 30,90%, Croats 23,58% and others made 1,02% of the total population.
Communist Yugoslavia
The 1948 Yugoslav census saw decressing numbers of Croats. From this first census to the last one in 1991, the Croat minority fell from 23% to 17%, even though their total number increased. According to the 1953 census, Croats were a majority on territories which become part of Banovina of Croatia in 1939. Their total number was 654,229, that is 23% of total Bosnian population. According to the 1961 census, Croats were 21.7% of the total population, or 711,660. After that, districts were divided into smaller municipalities. According to the 1971 census, Croats made 20,60% of total population, and their number was 772,491. According to the 1981 census, Croats made 18,60% of total population, and their number was 767,247. In the 1971 census, for the first time, the percentage of Croats fell below 20%, and after 1981, their percentage continued to decline. From 1971 to 1991, the Croat percentage fell due to emigration into Croatia and elsewhere in Europe. This fact should be taken into account for any estimation, regional or for Bosnia and Herzegovina as a whole.[49][50] Nevertheless, the emigration of Croats was less severe in western Herzegovina municipalities where Croats account for more than 98% of the population. According to the 1991 census, Croats made 17,30% of total population, and their number was 755,895.
Bosnian War
The total number of Croats in Bosnia and Herzegovina continued to reduce, especially after the Bosnian War broke out in 1992. Soon an exodus of Bosnian Croats occurred, as large numbers of Croats from central Bosnia and Posavina were expelled. According to the 1996 census, made by UNHCR (officially unrecognized) there was 3,919,953 inhabitants, of which Croats made 571,317 (14,57%). On the territory of Croatian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, percentage of Croats slightly changed, though, their total number reduced.
Culture
Art
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/13st_Radimlja.jpg/220px-13st_Radimlja.jpg)
Along the Neretva river, the hellenized Illyrian tribe Darosi spread Greek influence. Their capital Daorson on Oršćani near Stolac is today the most significiant center of ancient culture in the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina. A complex of terraced shrines near Gradac Posušje were dedicated to a deified Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius, built in 183. Late Roman art in Bosnia and Herzegovina was characterized by building of vilas, Christian mausoleums, basilicas and oratories like Vila "Mogorjelo" near Čapljina (early 4th century). The influence of romanesque arrived to Bosnia and Herzegovina across Croatia, but it was never completely accepted, only it's elements were used. Such builgings are St. Luke's Tower in Jajce (15th century) or motifs of stećak tombstones. The inheritance of Goths are stećci tomstones. Valuable manuscripts of Bosnian origin occur at this time.
Hrvoje's Missal is the most significiant art of medieval Bosnian Croats, written in 15th century. During the 15th and 16th century, Bosnia and Herzegovina was under Ottoman rule, preventing the influence of Rennesaince and Baroque, whose impact was only present in Francisian monsateries in Visoko, Kreševo, Fojnica, Kraljeva Sutjeska etc. The first Bosnian Croat painters were educated in European academies in Vienna, Munich, Prague, Krakow, Budapest and Paris. Their education was funded by HKD Napredak. The most famous Bosnian Croat painters are Gabrijel Jurkić, Karlo Mijić, Branko Radulović and Petar Šain. Statuary was reduced to memorial portraits, of which the most famous is the one of Robert Frangeš Mihanović and Sputani genije a statue on the grave of Silvije Strahimir Kranjčević built by Rudolf Valdec. After World War II, the Association of Artists of Bosnia and Herzegovina was founded along with a State School of Painting, and the Sarajevo Art Gallery. Architectural Regionalism is seen in the 1970s on buildings such as department stores Razvitak in Mostar (1970) and in Jajce (1976). The best example of Functionalism is the multiple award-winning hotel Ruža in Mostar (1979).
Literature
Bosnian Croat literature is literature written in the Croatian language, and forms a part of Croatian literature. It is composed of pre-Ottoman literature (first written monuments, Bogomil texts, diplomatic and law documents, manuscripts, and on tombstones), Bosna Srebrena literature (prayer books, catechisms, collections of sermons, biographies of saints, monastery yearbooks, early historical works, poems and memoirs, travel books, grammars of the Latin and Croatian languages and lexicographic works), national awakening literature (foundation of various associations, reading rooms, libraries in which writing courses were held), literature of Bosnian Muslims (various Bosniak writers made a significiant impact on Croatian literature and were influenced by other Croat authors) and modern Bosnian Croat literature.
The most known contributors to the Bosnian Croat literature are Ivo Andrić, Ivan Aralica, Toma Babić, Safvet-beg Bašagić, Enver Čolaković, Musa Ćazim Ćatić, Matija Divković, Mak Dizdar, Asaf Duraković, Fadil Hadžić, Nusret Idrizović, Lucijan Kordić, Veselko Koroman, Mirko Kovač, Ivo Kozarčanin, Silvije Strahimir Kranjčević, Jakša Kušan, Tomislav Ladan, Filip Lastarić, Vitomir Lukić, Grgo Martić, Matija Mažuranić, Ahmed Muradbegović, Alija Nametak, Zvonimir Remeta, Novak Simiž, Antun Branko Šimić, Lovro Šitović Ljubušak, Nikola Šop and Anđelko Vuletić.
Music
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Gusle_Zelovo_kod_Sinja_Juki%C4%87_260109.jpg/220px-Gusle_Zelovo_kod_Sinja_Juki%C4%87_260109.jpg)
Traditional music of the Croats of Bosnia and Herzegovina is related to ganga, klapa, gusle, tamburica and šargija. These traditional styles of singing and musical instruments are part of the Bosnian Croat national identity. Ganga, klapa and gusle are most widespread on the territory of western Herzegovina, though these can also be seen in eastern Herzegovina and Bosnia. Tamburica is popular in Posavina and central Bosnia. Šargija is widespread in northern Bosnia, from Posavina to Olovo and Vareš.
With a mixture of traditional and modern music, recent Bosnian music is represented by Indexi, Bijelo dugme, Ambasadori and others. The most known Croat musicians of modern Bosnia are Đorđe Novković, Željko Bebek and Jura Stublić. New artists include Mate Bulić, Ivan Mikulić, Nikša Bratoš, Mija Martina Barbarić, Ivana Marić, groups Feminem, Adastra and others. Some other well known Croat singers originate from Bosnia and Herzegovina, they are Krunoslava Kićo Slabinc, Ivo Fabijan, Boris Novković, Vesna Pisarović and others. There are two significiant music festivals, Melodije Mostara (Melodies of Mostar) and Etnofest Neum on which musicians from Croatia also participate. Alongside traditional music, some other musical genres also developed, like heavy metal, hip hop, house and techno.
Education
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Napredak_Palace_Construction_Board.jpg/220px-Napredak_Palace_Construction_Board.jpg)
The first educational institutions of Bosnian Croats were monasteries, of which the most significiant are those in Kreševo, Fojnica, Kraljeva Sutjeska and Tolisa, and later monasteries in Herzegovina, of which most significiant are those in Humac and Široki Brijeg. The most significiant persons for the elementary education of Bosnian Croats in 19th century were Ivan Franjo Jukić and Grgo Martić, they founded and organized elementary schools accross the whole territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 1887, many elementary schools were founded in Bosnia and Herzegovina along with the Order of the Sisters of St. Francis. Their class were led methodologically and professionally, so Bosnian Croat schools were, at the end of Ottoman era and beginning of Austrian-Hungarian occupation, largely the same as elementary schools in the rest of Europe. The educational system of Bosnia and Herzegovina during the communist era was based on a mixture of nationalities and the suppression of Croat identity. With the foundation of the Croatian Community of Herzeg-Bosnia, Bosnian Croat schools took their educational system from Croatia.
At the same time, University Džemal Bijedić of Mostar was renamed the University of Mostar. This university is the only one in Bosnia and Herzegovina to use Croatian as its official language. After signing the Dayton accords, jurisdiction over education in Republika Srpska was given to RS Government, while in the Federation, jurisdiction over education was given to the cantons. In municipalities with a Croat majority or significiant minority, Croatian language schools also exist, while on territories were there is only a small number of Croats, Catholic centres perform education. Other education institutes are HKD Napredak, the Scientific Research Institute of the University of Mostar, the Crotian Lexicographic Institute of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Institute for Education in Mostar.
Language
Croats of Bosnia and Herzegovina speak the Croatian language. A large majority of Croats of Bosnia and Herzegovina speaks the Croatian Ijekavian dialect, there are smaller percent of those who speak in Ikavian dialect. Ikavian was, during the 14th and 15th century widespread in parts of Bosnia.[51]
Religion
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Church_in_Me%C4%91ugorje%2C_B-H%2C_June_4th_2007_%283%29.jpg/200px-Church_in_Me%C4%91ugorje%2C_B-H%2C_June_4th_2007_%283%29.jpg)
Croats form the core of the Catholic Church in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The metropolitan diocese is the Archdiocese of Vrhbosna. There are also dioceses centered in Banja Luka and in Mostar, which is the largest. Vinko Puljić is the current Cardinal and Archbishop of Vrhbosna.
The parish of Međugorje is a significant Marian shrine which attracts approximately one million visitors annually. It became a popular site of religious pilgrimage due to reports of apparitions of the Virgin Mary to six local Catholics in 1981.[52] Over a thousand hotel and hostel beds are available for religious tourism.
The Cathedral of Jesus' Heart in Sarajevo is the largest cathedral in Bosnia and Herzegovina,[53] and is the seat of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Vrhbosna. The other three Roman Catholic cathedrals in Bosnia and Herzegovina are: the Cathedral of Saint Bonaventure in Banja Luka, the Cathedral of Mary the Mother of the Church in Mostar, and Cathedral of the Birth of Mary in Trebinje.
There are numerous monasteries throughout the region. The oldest is the 14th century Monastery of the Holy Spirit located in Fojnica in central Bosnia. It houses a large library filled with many historical documents dating back to medieval Bosnia. Two other well-known monasteries are the Guča Gora Monastery and Kraljeva Sutjeska Monastery. Both are located in central Bosnia, near Travnik and Kakanj respectively. The rest of the monasteries in the region are: the Monastery of St. Anthony in Sarajevo, the Monastery of St. Mark in Derventa, Gorica Monastery in Livno, and the Assumption of Mary Monastery in Prozor-Rama.
Sport
Croatian-run clubs in Bosnia and Herzegovina number among the country's most successful. They are well-represented in terms of national championships in relation to the percentage of Croats in the population. In football NK Zrinjski Mostar, NK Široki Brijeg, NK Žepče, NK Posušje, and HNK Orašje are some of the most successful. Collectively, they have won three national Cup and five national Championships since national competition began in 2000. Other Croatian-run clubs are NK Brotnjo, NK SAŠK Napredak, HNK Ljubuški, HNK Sloga Uskoplje and others. The clubs themselves are often among the nation's most multi-ethnic.
Prior to 2000, the Croats ran their own First League of Herzeg-Bosnia in football. However, they have joined the UEFA-approved Football Association of Bosnia and Herzegovina's league system. Bosnia and Herzegovina has produced many successful internationals, both for the Croatian national team and the national team of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Politics
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Flag_of_the_Croatian_Republic_of_Herzeg-Bosnia.svg/150px-Flag_of_the_Croatian_Republic_of_Herzeg-Bosnia.svg.png)
Historically, the Croats formed their own parties with the end of Ottoman rule. The Croatian National Community and the Croatian Catholic Association took part in the country's first elections in 1910.[54]
Currently, there are several Croatian political parties in Bosnia and Herzegovina, many corresponding to parties within Croatia itself. The Croatian Democratic Union, Croatian Democratic Union 1990, and the Croatian Party of Right are the most popular parties. The Croatian Peasant Party, New Croatian Initiative, Croatian Right Bloc, People's Party Work for Betterment are relatively minor Croatian parties.
In 2005, a conference on the Constitutional-law position of Croats in Bosnia and Herzegovina was held in Neum. It addressed ways to fix the political system.
References
- Notes
- ^ "[[Constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]" (PDF). Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Retrieved 30 December 2011.
{{cite web}}
: URL–wikilink conflict (help) - ^ Kacowicz & Lutomski 2007, p. 89.
- ^ CIA Factbook: Bosnia and Herzegovina
- ^ Džino 2010, p. 1.
- ^ Mandić 1974, p. 109.
- ^ Vulliamy 1994, p. 227.
- ^ Frucht 2005, p. 420.
- ^ Pinson 1996, p. 3.
- ^ Frucht 2005, p. 421.
- ^ Pinson 1996, p. 6.
- ^ Malcolm 1995, p. 15.
- ^ Ibrahimagić 1996, p. 100.
- ^ a b Zlopaša 2005, p. 23.
- ^ Pinson 1996, p. 11.
- ^ Duhan-Kaplan 1995, p. 293.
- ^ Zlopaša 2005, p. 24.
- ^ Malcolm 1995, p. 73.
- ^ Malcolm 1995, p. 76.
- ^ Malcolm 1995, p. 74.
- ^ Malcolm 1995, p. 70.
- ^ Grandits, Clayer & Pichler 2011, p. 121.
- ^ Klaić 1878, p. 98.
- ^ Mikaberidze 2011, p. 366.
- ^ Herb & Kaplan 2008, p. 1529.
- ^ a b Klaić 1878, p. 72.
- ^ a b c Bilandžić 1999, p. 35.
- ^ Maletić 1993, p. 419.
- ^ Dizdar 2004, p. 1081.
- ^ Donia & Van Antwerp Fine 1994, p. 104.
- ^ Donia 2006, p. 105.
- ^ , Donia & Van Antwerp Fine 1994, p. 104-109.
- ^ Klemenčić, Pratt & Schofield 1994, p. 7.
- ^ Lukic & Lynch 1999, p. 57.
- ^ Bideleux & Jeffries 2007, p. 237.
- ^ Bilandžić 1999, p. 82.
- ^ Klemenčić & Schofield 2001, p. 10.
- ^ Malcolm 1995, p. 155.
- ^ Nohlen & Stöver 2010, p. 330.
- ^ Velikonja 2003, p. 237.
- ^ Nohlen & Stöver 2010, p. 334.
- ^ "HOS - Povijest" (in Croatian). HSP Čepin. Retrieved 16 April 2012.
- ^ Mulaj 2010, p. 53.
- ^ a b Malcolm 1995, p. 313.
- ^ Malcolm 1995, p. 311-312.
- ^ Malcolm 1995, p. 315.
- ^ Krešić, Zoran (15 March 2012). "Iz Federacije prognano 230.000, iz RS-a 152.856 Hrvata katolika". Večernji list (in Croatian). Retrieved 27 March 2012.
- ^ Malcolm 1995, p. 71.
- ^ Klaić 1878, p. 71.
- ^ "Bosniaks or Muslims" (PDF). Southeast European Politics Online. Retrieved 2009-07-11.
{{cite web}}
: External link in
(help)|publisher=
- ^ "Academician Dalibor Brozovic interview". Hrvatska rijeć. Retrieved 2009-07-11 "chapter title: Important Croats Deserve Special Treatment - (second question) second paragraph)".
{{cite web}}
: Check date values in:|accessdate=
(help); External link in
(help)|publisher=
- ^ Klaić 1878, p. 75.
- ^ Medjugorje.org – Overview of Medjugorje
- ^ Katolička Tiskovna Agencija
- ^ Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations: Europe. Gale Group, 2001. p69.
- Bibliography
- Bideleux, Robert; Jeffries, Ian (2007). The Balkans: A Post-Communist History. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-22962-3.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Bilandžić, Dušan. Hrvatska moderna povijest (in Croatian). Golden marketing. ISBN 953-6168-50-2.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Bove, Laurence F.; Duhan-Kaplan, Laura. From the Eye of the Storm: Regional Conflicts and the Philosophy of Peace. Atlanta. ISBN 90-5183-870-0.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Dizdar, Zdravko (2004). "Djelovanje HKD "Napredak" u Hrvatskoj (1902. - 1941.)". Časopis za suvremenu povijest (in Croatian). Vol. 36. Hrvatski institut za povijest.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Donia, Robert J.; Van Antwerp Fine, John (1994). Bosnia and Hercegovina: A Tradition Betrayed. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 978-1-85065-211-3.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Donia, Robert J. Sarajevo: A Biography. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-11557-X.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Džino, Danijel. Becoming Slav, Becoming Croat: Identity Transformations in Post-Roman and Early Medieval Dalmatia. Koninklijke Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-18646-0.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Franolić, Branko (1984). A Short History of Literary Croatian. Nouvelles éditions latines.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Frucht, Richard C. (2005). Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture. Vol. 1. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-57607-800-0.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Herb, Guntram H.; Kaplan, David H. (2008). Nations and Nationalism: A Global Historical Overview. ABC-CLIO. ISBN [[Special:BookSources/978185109078 |978185109078 [[Category:Articles with invalid ISBNs]]]].
{{cite book}}
: Check|isbn=
value: invalid character (help); Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Grandits, Hannes; Clayer, Nathalie; Pichler, Robert (2011). Conflicting Loyalties in the Balkans: The Great Powers, the Ottoman Empire and Nation Building. I. B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84885-477-2.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Ibrahimagić, Omer (1996). Bosanska srednjovjekovna država i suvremenost (in Bosnian). Faculty of Political Science of University of Sarajevo.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Kacowicz, Arie M.; Lutomski, Pawel (2007). Population Resettlement in International Conflicts: A Comparative Study. Lexington Book. ISBN 978-0-7391-1607-4.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Klaić, Vjekoslav (1878). Bosna (Zemljopis) (in Croatian). Matica hrvatska.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Klemenčić, Mladen; Pratt, Martin; Schofield, Clive H. (1994). Territorial Proposals for the Settlement of the War in Bosnia-Hercegovina. International Boundaries Research Unit. ISBN 978-1-897643-15-0.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Klemenčić, Mladen; Schofield, Clive H. (2001). War and Peace on the Danube: The Evolution of the Croatia-Serbia Boundary. University of Durham, International Boundaries Research Unit. ISBN 978-1-897643-41-9.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Lukic, Rénéo; Lynch, Allen (1999). Europe from the Balkans to the Urals: The Disintegration of Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-829200-5.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Malcolm, Noel (1995). Povijest Bosne. Novi Liber. ISBN 953-6045-03-6.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Maletić, Franjo (1993). Who is Who in Croatia. Golden marketing. ASIN B0000D6QL5.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Mikaberidze, Alexander (2011). Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-59884-336-1.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Mulaj, Klejda (2010). Politics of Ethnic Cleansing: Nation-State Building and Provision of In/Security in Twentieth-Century Balkans. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0-7391-1783-5.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Nohlen, Dieter; Stöver, Philip (2010). Elections in Europe: A Data Handbook. Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft Mbh & Co. ISBN 978-3-8329-5609-7.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help); Unknown parameter|autorlink1=
ignored (help) - Pinson, Mark (1996). The Muslims of Bosnia and Herzegovina: Their Historic Development from the Middle Ages to the Dissolution of Yugoslavia. Harvard CMES. ISBN 978-0-932885-12-8.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Velikonja, Mitja (2003). Religious Separation and Political Intolerance in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 978-1-58544-226-3.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Vulliamy, Ed (1994). Seasons in Hell: Understanding Bosnia's War. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-71345-0.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Zlopaša, Ivan (2005). Politička sudbina Hrvata u BiH (in Croatian). Hrvatski blok.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help)