Jump to content

Sri Lankan Tamils

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by 47.248.0.45 (talk) at 12:59, 26 June 2008. The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

For other uses, see Sri Lanka Tamils.
Sri Lankan Tamils
ஈழத் தமிழர்

Regions with significant populations
 Sri Lanka1,871,535 (1981)[1]
 Canada~300,000 (2007)[2]
 India~150,000 (2005)[3]
 United Kingdom~120,000 (2007)[4]
 Germany~60,000 (2008)[5]
 France~50,000 (2008)[6]
  Switzerland~35,000 (2007)[7]
 Malaysia~27,000 (2008)[8]
 Netherlands~20,000 (2008)[9]
 Norway~10,000 (2000)[10]
 Denmark~9,000 (2003)[11]
Languages
Tamil, English, Sinhala, French, German, Malay
Religion
Predominantly Hinduism of Saivite sect; minorities are Christianity
Related ethnic groups
Indian Tamils, Portuguese Burghers, Sinhalese, Veddas

Sri Lankan Tamil people (Tamil: ஈழத் தமிழர், īḻat tamiḻar) or Ceylon Tamils, are Tamil speaking people of Sri Lanka who derive their ancestry from the descendants of the former Jaffna kingdom in the north of the island and Tamil people of the east of the island. They constitute a majority in the northern and sizable numbers in the eastern regions of Sri Lanka, and are minority in the rest of the country. Up to 80% Of Sri Lankan Tamils are Hindus generally following the Saivaite sect. The rest are Christians or non believers with Roman Catholics predominating and a small protestant minority. The Sri Lankan Tamil history is politically contested but is attested from the 2nd century BCE.

Sri Lankan Tamils are culturally and linguistically distinct from the other two Tamil language speaking minorities in Sri Lanka, namely Upcountry Tamils and Moors. They are divided into three distinct regional sub groups based on regional domicile, cultural norms and dialects used, namely Western or Negombo Tamils, Northern or Jaffna Tamils and Eastern or Batticaloa Tamils. The society is further divided along caste distinctions with Vellalar dominating the northern areas and Mukkuvar dominating the eastern areas. Caste distinctions are no longer as strong as they used to be.

During the colonial period many Sri Lankan Tamils, specifically those from the Jaffna peninsula, availed themselves of educational facilities established by the missionaries and came to dominate the civil service and other professions. When Sri Lanka became independent in 1948, majority of government jobs were held by Tamils, who were a minority in the country. The elected leaders of the country saw it as an outcome of the British strategy to control the majority Sinhalese that needed to be redressed. These measures deteriorated the already frail political relationship between the communities. Rising ethnic and political tensions since 1948 couped with riots against the Sri Lankan Tamils such as 1958, 1977 and 1983 riots -Black July led to the formation and strengthening of number of militant groups articulating independence for Tamils. The ensuing civil war primarily between the rebel group Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam and the government forces have resulted in the death of over 70,000 people. The war has also led to the enforced disappearance of a large number of people.

Sri Lankan Tamils had traditionally migrated to countries like Malaysia and Singapore for work during the British colonial period but the war has created a Tamil diaspora around the world with Canada and Europe being the largest recipients of immigrants and refugees with neighboring India housing over 150,000 refugees. The war has displaced 800,000 people internally.


Tamil-speaking communities

Percentage of Sri Lankan Tamils per district based on 2001 or 1981 (cursive) census.

There are two groups of Tamils in Sri Lanka: the Sri Lankan Tamils (or Ceylon Tamils), who are either descendants of Tamils of the old Jaffna kingdom or east coast feudal divisions called Vannimais, and the Indian Tamils or Hill Country Tamils, who are descendants of bonded laborers sent from Tamil Nadu to Sri Lanka in the 19th century to work in tea plantations.[12] Most Sri Lankan Tamils live in the Northern and Eastern provinces and in the capital of Colombo, whereas most Hill Country Tamils inhabit the central highlands.[13] The Hill Country Tamils and Ceylon Tamils have historically seen themselves as separate communities. In 1949, the United National Party government, which included G. G. Ponnambalam, a leader of the Tamil Congress, stripped the Indian Tamils of their nationality, including their right to vote, although the Federal party, lead by S. J. V. Chelvanayakam, and most Tamil people opposed this move.[14]

In accordance with an agreement between the Sri Lankan and Indian governments in the 1960s, about 40 percent of the Hill Country Tamils were granted Sri Lankan nationality, and many of the remainder were repatriated to India.[15] Today, both Tamil communities have a greater sense of common Tamil identity and are more supportive of each other as a result of the ethnic conflict between the Sinhalese and Tamil populations.[16] By the 1990s most Indian Tamils had received Sri Lankan citizenship.[17] There is a significant Tamil-speaking Muslim population in Sri Lanka; however, unlike Tamil Muslims from India, they do not identify themselves as ethnic Tamils and are therefore usually listed as a separate ethnic group in official statistics.[18][19]

History

Main articles: Jaffna Kingdom, History of Eastern Tamils, and Vannimai
Dakhinathupa in Anuradhapura is currently identified as a Buddhist temple but was considered, up until the 1900s CE, as the tomb of 2nd century BCE Tamil king Elara by the locals. The identification and reclassification is considered controversial.[20][21]

There is little consensus on the history of the Tamil-speaking regions of Sri Lanka, also known as Eelam in early Tamil literature, prior to the medieval Chola period (circa 10th century CE). One theory states that there was no organized Tamil presence in Sri Lanka until the invasions from modern southern India in the 10th century CE, yet another theory contends that Tamil people were the original inhabitants of the island. The indigenous Veddha population of the island are physically related to Dravidian language-speaking early tribal people in Southern India and early populations of Southeast Asia, although they no longer speak their early native languages.[22] According to historian K. Indrapala, cultural diffusion spread the Sinhalese and Tamil languages from peninsular India into an existing Mesolithic population, with minimal population transfer from the activities of traders and others, centuries before the Christian era.[23][24] The earliest known settlements of people culturally similar to those of Sri Lanka and Tamil Nadu in modern India were excavated at megalithic burial sites at Pomparippu on the western coast and in Kathiraveli on the eastern coast of modern Sri Lanka. These have been dated between 5th century BCE and 2nd century CE.[25][26] Although it is not clear when ethnic Tamils first settled in Sri Lanka, early settlements existed after repeated invasions from modern South India (circa 1st to 13th centuries CE), in addition to the presence of Tamil-speaking fishing communities along the northern and eastern seacoasts from early on. Historical records establish that Tamil kingdoms in modern India were closely involved in the island's affairs from about the 2nd century BCE.[27][28] There is epigraphic evidence of traders and others identifying themselves as Damelas or Damedas (the Prakrit word for Tamil people) in Anuradhapura and other areas of Sri Lanka as early as the 2nd century BCE.[29] In Mahavamsa, a historical poem, ethnic Tamil adventurers such as Elara invaded the island around 235 BCE.[30] Soldiers from modern day South India were brought to Anuradhapura in large numbers between the 7th and 11th centuries CE, leading to the reliance on them by local chiefs and kings who were trying to establish legitimacy. By 850 CE the local Tamils were a factor of political dynamics of Anuradhapura, the capital city.[31] During this period there was also large scale mercantile activity from peninsular modern India, primarily from the Coromandel Coast. Furthermore, there is epigraphic evidence that by the 8th century CE, Tamil villages collectively known as Demel-kaballa (Tamil allotment), Demelat-valademin (Tamil villages), and Demel-gam-bim (Tamil villages and lands) were in existence.[32] In the 9th and 10th centuries CE, Pandya and Chola wars against Sri Lanka culminated in the Chola annexation of the island, which lasted until the latter half of the 11th century CE.[33][34][35][31]

Inscription dated to 1100 CE left by Tamil soldiers in Polonnaruwa

The decline of Chola power in Sri Lanka was followed by the restoration of the Polonnaruwa monarchy in the late 11th century CE.[36] In 1215, following Pandya invasions, the Tamil-dominant Arya Chakaravarthi dynasty established an independent Jaffna kingdom[37] in the Jaffna peninsula and parts of northern Sri Lanka. The Arya Chakaravarthi expansion into the south was halted by Alagakkonara,[38] a man generally thought to be from a family of merchants from Kanchipuram in present day Tamil Nadu, who had become the chief minister of the Sinhalese king Parakramabahu V (1344–59 CE). Vira Alakeshwara, a descendant of Alagakkonara, later became king of the Sinhalese,[39] but this succession was overthrown by the Ming admiral Cheng Ho in 1409 CE. The Arya Chakaravarthi dynasty ruled over large parts of modern day northeast Sri Lanka until 1619 CE, when it was conquered by the Portuguese. The coastal areas of the island were taken over by the Dutch and, in 1796 CE, became part of the British Empire.

There were also chieftains, rulers of the Vanni lands, who emigrated from Tamil Nadu during the medieval period. These Vanniya chiefs, or Vannihuru, ruled over the rate-atto (meaning cultivators in Sinhalese), following local customs and supported by a group of local officials. This domination has had a lasting influence on the local populace as evident from the language and manner of speaking of this once subservient population.[40] The caste structure of the majority Sinhalese has also accommodated the recent Hindu immigrants from South India, including what is today Tamil Nadu, leading to the emergence of three new Sinhalese caste groups: the Salagama, the Durava and the Karava.[41][42][43] This migration and assimilation continued until the eighteenth century.[41]

Society

Sri Lankan Tamils are subdivided into three distinct subgroups based on regional distribution, dialects, and culture. They are: Negombo Tamils from the western part of the island, Jaffna or Northern Tamils from the northern part of the island, and Eastern Tamils from the eastern part of the island.

Regional groups

Negombo Tamils
Main article: Negombo Tamils
Traditional fishing boat at Negombo beach. Negombo area fishermen are bilingual in Tamil and Sinhala

Negombo Tamils, or Puttalam Tamils, is a term usually used for native Sri Lankan Tamils who live in the western Gampaha and Puttalam districts of Sri Lanka. It does not apply to Tamil immigrants in these areas who have come from other parts of the island.[44] They are distinguished from other Tamils of the island by their dialects, one of which is known as the Negombo Tamil dialect, and by other aspects of their culture such as customary laws.[44][45][46] The Negombo Tamils have shown a continuous cultural assimilation into the Sinhalese ethnic group, a process known as Sinhalisation. This has been facilitated by a number of caste myths and legends (See Sanskritisation). Negombo is the principal coastal city in the Gampaha District, while Puttalam is the largest city in the neighbouring Puttalam District. In the Gampaha district, Tamils have historically inhabited the coastal region. In the neighboring Puttalam district, until the first two decades of the 20th century, there was a substantial ethnic Tamil population, of whom a majority were Catholics and the rest were Hindus.[47][48][49]

Some residents of these districts are bilingual, especially the traditional fishermen, establishing that the Tamil language survives as a lingua franca among migrating fishing communities across the island.[45] It is estimated that the Negombo dialect is spoken by about 50,000 people who otherwise identify themselves as Sinhalese. This number does not include others, north of Negombo city (towards Puttalam), who speak various local varieties of the Tamil language.[45] Today, most of those who value their Tamil identity are Hindus and live in a coastal village called Udappu. This village has approximately 15,000 inhabitants and has become a refuge for Tamils displaced from the rest of the island by the Sri Lankan civil war.[50] There are some Tamil Christians, chiefly Roman Catholics, who have preserved their heritage in the major cities such as Negombo, Chilaw, Puttalam and also in villages such as Mampuri.[47] Tamil place names have been retained in these districts. Excluding the Tamil-dominated northeast, Puttalam District has the highest percentage of place names of Tamil origin in Sri Lanka. Composite or hybrid place names are also seen in these districts. The juxtaposition of Sinhala and Tamil place names is evidence of the peaceful coexistence of the two groups as well as the gradual assimilation process.[51]

Eastern Tamils
The Koneswaram Hindu Temple in Trincomalee, mentioned in Saiva literature circa 700 CE by Thirugnana Sambanthar[52]

Eastern Tamils inhabit a region that is presently divided into Trincomalee District, Batticaloa District, and Ampara District.[53] Their history and traditions are inspired by local legends, native literature, and other colonial documents.[54] After the 1500s CE the area came under the control of the Kandyan kingdom, and from that time Eastern Tamil social development diverged from that of the Northern Tamils. A largely agrarian-based society, the Eastern Tamils follow a caste system similar to the South Indian or Dravidian kinship system, dominated by the Mukkuvar caste, but with less rigid distinctions. The main feature of their society is the kuti system.[55] Although the Tamil word kuti means a house or a settlement, in Batticloa it is related to matrimonial alliances. It is found among all the major caste groups, and in every context it refers to the exogamous matrilineal clans.[56] Thus, no one man carries with him the kuti of his birth and one always joins the wife’s kuti on marriage. It also allows control of the places of worship which are Hindu temples.[56] The kuti system is also found among the Tamil speaking Muslims of Batticaloa who consider themselves to be a separate ethnic group.[57] There are always seven kutis within a caste and their names vary. Aside from castes with an internal kuti system, there are seventeen caste groups, called Ciraikutis, or imprisoned kutis, whose members are considered to be in captivity, confined to specific services such as washing, weaving and toddy tapping. Currently, however, such restrictions do not apply. The Eastern Tamil agrarian economy is dominated by feudal lords known as Potiyar or Poti. [58] The Tamils of the Trincomalee District have somewhat different social customs from their southern neighbors due to the influence of the Jaffna kingdom to the north.[56] The indigenous Veddha people of the east coast also speak Tamil and have become assimilated into the Eastern Tamil caste structure.[59] Most Eastern Tamils follow customary laws called Mukkuva laws codified during the Dutch colonial period.

Northern Tamils
File:Sangili2.JPG
Statue of King Cankili I (d. 1565) of Jaffna, who held off the Portuguese

Jaffna's history of being an independent kingdom lends legitimacy to the political claims of the Sri Lankan Tamils, and has provided a focus for their constitutional demands.[60] Northern Tamil society is generally divided into two distinct groups: those who are from the Jaffna peninsula to the north, and those who are residents of the Vanni districts to the immediate south. The Jaffna society is separated by caste divisions, with social dominance attained by means of caste myths and legends. Historically, the Vellalar, who form approximately 50% of the population, were involved in agriculture, using the services of castes collectively known as Panchamar (group of five). The Panchamar consisted of the Nalavar, Pallar, Parayar, Vannar, and Ambattar.[60] Fishermen, collectively known as Karaiyar, existed outside the agriculture-based caste system.[61] Tamil Brahmins officiated in Hindu Temples and were rarely involved in activities beyond the Temples.[61] People in the Vanni districts considered themselves as distinct from Tamils of the Jaffna peninsula but did intermarry. Most of these married couples moved into the Vanni districts where land was available. Vanni, consisting of a highland settlement with jungle beyond, is an area of developed villages using irrigation tank-based cultivation. An 1890 census listed 711 such tanks in this area. Hunting and livestock raising such as water buffalos and cattle is a necessary adjunct to the agricultural occupations. The Tamil inhabitted Vanni consists of Vavuniya, Mullaitivu, and Eastern Mannar districts. Historically, the Vanni area has been in direct contact with what is now South India, including during the medieval period (see Vanniar).[60] Northern Tamils follow customary laws called Thesavalamai, codified during the Dutch colonial period.

Genetic affinities

See also: History of Sri Lanka and Sinhalisation

According to the mythological and historical records of Sri Lanka, the local population is of heterogeneous ethnic origins. Buddhist chronicles such as Mahavamsa and the medieval Tamil chronicle Yalpana Vaipava Malai relate the legend of Prince Vijaya, who, traveling from northeast or northwest India with a band of settlers, is supposed to have arrived on the northwest coast of the island in 543 BCE. He is considered to be an eponymous founder of the Sinhalese people. Because of Sri Lanka‘s important position on seaways, it has received an influx of people from various parts of the world, such as the Middle East, Europe, and South East Asia as well. [62]

A study by G.K. Kshatriya et al. compared the degree of gene diversity and genetic admixture among the Sri Lankan population groups with the populations of southern, northeastern, and northwestern India, the Middle East, and Europe. The genetic distance analysis was conducted using 43 alleles controlled by 15 codominant loci in 8 populations and 40 alleles controlled by 13 codominant loci in 11 populations. Both analyses give similar results, indicating that present-day Sinhalese and Tamils of Sri Lanka are closer to Indian Tamils and South Indian Muslims. They are farthest from the indigenous Veddahs and quite distant from Gujaratis and Punjabis of northwest India and Bengalis of northeast India.[62]

The study of genetic admixture revealed that the Tamils of Sri Lanka have received a higher contribution from the Sinhalese of Sri Lanka (55.20% +/- 9.47) than from the Tamils of India (16.63% +/- 8.73) and the Sinhalese of Sri Lanka have a higher contribution from the Tamils of southern India (69.86% +/- 0.61) than from the Bengalis of northeast India (25.41% +/- 0.51). The study did not find any correlation with population groups in Northwest India but indicated a close relationship with South and East Indians.[62]A further study by Papiha et al. also confirmed the Sri Lankan Tamil population's close genetic affinity to the Sinhalese.[63]

Religion

Main articles: Hinduism in Sri Lanka, Christianity in Sri Lanka, and Village deities of Tamils of Sri Lanka
Ruins of Hindu temples from Polonnaruwa built during the Chola occupation of the island circa 11 century[64]
Our Lady of St. Anne's Church originally built during the Portuguese colonial period, an important landmark in Vankalai a Tamil village in the Mannar district

In 1981 about 80% of Sri Lankan Tamils were Hindus who followed the Saiva sect.[65] The rest were mostly Roman Catholics who converted after the Portuguese conquest of Jaffna Kingdom and coastal Sri Lanka. There is a small minority of Protestants due to the eighteenth century missionary efforts of organizations such as the American Ceylon Mission.[66] Most Tamils who inhabit the Western province are Roman Catholics, while those of the Northern and Eastern provinces are mostly Hindu.[67] Pentecostal and other churches such as Jehovah's Witnesses are active amongst the internally displaced and refugee populations.[68]

The Hindu elite follow the religious ideology of Shaiva Siddhanta (Shaiva school) while others practice folk Hinduism, upholding their faith to local village deities not found in formal Hindu scriptures. The places of worship could vary in terms of the object of worship and how it is housed. It could be in the form of a proper Hindu temple known as a Koyil, constructed according to the Agamic scripts, (set of scriptures regulating the temple cult). Very often the temples are not completed per Agamic scriptures but consist of the barest essential structures housing a local deity.[67] These temples observe daily Puja (prayers) hours and are attended by locals. Both types of temples have a resident ritualist or priest known as Kurukkal. A Kurukkal may belong to the Iyer community or to someone from a prominent local lineage.[67] Other places of worship do not have icons for their deities. The sanctum could house a trident (culam), a stone or a large tree. Temples of this type are common in the Northern and Eastern provinces with a typical village having up to 150 such structures. The offering would be done by an elder of the family who owns the place. On Fridays, a coconut oil lamp would be lit and special rice cooking also known as pongal done on a day considered auspicious by the family, or there would be a pongal done on the Thai Pongal day and/or on Tamil New Year Day. The deities worshipped could be one of the following: Ayyanar, Annamar, Vairavar, Kali, Pillaiar, Murukan or Pattini. At the village temples, it is the Pillaiyar temples, patronised by local farmers that are the largest in number.[67]Tamil Roman Catholics along with members of other faiths venerate the Madhu church[69] whereas Hindus have a number of temples with historic importance such as those at Ketheeswaram, Koneswaram, Naguleswaram, Munneswaram and Nallur Kandaswamy temple. Kataragama temple along with Adams Peak are venerated by all religious communities.

Language

Main article: Sri Lankan Tamil dialects
See also: Loan words in Sri Lankan Tamil and Sinhala words of Tamil origin

Tamil dialects are differentiated by the phonological changes and sound shifts in their evolution from classical or old Tamil (300 BC - 700 CE). The Sri Lankan Tamil dialects form a group that is distinct from the dialects of modern Tamil Nadu and Kerala states of India. It is broadly categorized into three sub groups; the Jaffna Tamil, the Batticaloa Tamil and the Negombo Tamil dailects. These dialects are also used by ethnic groups other than Tamils such as Muslims, Veddhas and Sinhalese who consider them to be distinct. Tamil loan words in Sinhala also follow characteristics of Sri Lankan Tamil dialects.[70]

As Tamil is a diglossic language the differences between the standard written languages across the globe is minimal but the spoken varieties differ considerably. The spoken varieties in Sri Lanka although different from those of Tamil Nadu share some common features between the southern dialects of Tamil Nadu and the northern Sri Lankan Tamil dialect, the dialect of Jaffna. Sri Lankan Tamil dialects retain many words and grammatical forms that are not in everyday use in India,[71] and use many other words slightly differently.[72] The Sri Lankan Tamil dialects are less influenced by Sanskrit and the western languages, although there are western and Sanskrit loan words in day to day usage.In general Sri lankan Tamil dialects are considered to be more conservative than the continental Tamil dialects.[73]

The Negombo Tamil dialect used in Negombo area by bilingual fishers who otherwise identify them as Sinhalese. It has undergone considerable morphosyntactic convergence with spoken or colloquial Sinhala, as a consequence of contact with it.[45][46]Batticalao Tamil dialect is shared between Tamils, Muslims, Veddhas and Portuguese Burghers in the eastern province. The Tamil dialect used by residents of the Trincomalee district has many similarities with the Jaffna Tamil dialect.[70]According to Kamil Zvelebil a linguist, the Batticaloa Tamil dialect is the most literary like of all spoken dialects of Tamil, and it has preserved several very antique features, and has remained more true to the literary norm than any other form of Tamil while developing a few striking innovations. Although Batticaloa Tamil has some very specific features of vocabulary, it is classified with other Sri Lankan Tamil dialects as it is related to them by characteristic traits of its phonology. It also maintains some words that are unique to present day Malayalam a Dravidian language from Kerala that is considered to have begun as a dialect of old Tamil.[74][75]

The dialect used in Jaffna is the oldest and most archaic and is claimed to be closest to old Tamil. It is considered to preserve many antique features of old Tamil that predates Tolkappiyam[70], the grammatical treatise of Tamil which is dated from third century BCE and 10th CE[76][77] with some modern scholars preferring to date it not as a single entity but in parts or layers which are estimated as written between the third century BCE and the fifth century CE[78] . According to F B J Kuiper an Indologist, the Jaffna dialect with voiceless plosives preserves an antique feature of the language because the Jaffna Tamils, long isolated and noted as having retained many archaic Tamil customs long since lost by their continental kindred employ a form of ordinary speech closely approaching the classical Tamil.[70] The Jaffna Tamil dialect is not mutually intelligible with Indian Tamil dialects, though both share a diglossic `H' variety in literary Tamil.[79] It is frequently mistaken for Malayalam by native Indian Tamil speakers.[80] There are number of Prakrit loans words that are unique to the Jaffna Tamil.[81] A sub dialect retained by traditional drummers of Karainagar still retains a number of proto-Dravidian and a few Prakrit words, not found in any other dialects of Tamil. These drummers had historically played an important role as ritual players of drums at funerals and folk temples and as heralds and traditional weavers. They also maintained the family records of their feudal lords and even practiced medicine and astrology in folk traditions.[82]

Education

See also: Education in Sri Lanka and American Ceylon Mission
A group of ACM missionaries in Jaffna (circa 1890 CE)

Amongst the Northern Tamils, patronage to literature and education was given by of the kings of the Aryacakravarti dynasty of the northern based Jaffna Kingdom. Temple schools and traditional gurukulam classes in verandahs (known as Thinnai Pallikoodam in Tamil language) spread basic education in languages such as Tamil and Sanskrit and religion to the upper classes.[83]Western style education was introduced with the conquest of the Jaffna kingdom by the Portuguese in 1619. Number of churches and seminaries were opened by the Jesuits only to be destroyed by the Dutch when they took over Tamil speaking regions of Sri Lanka. The Dutch too opened a number of schools attached to Dutch reformed churches that catered to local educational needs. With the opening up of education in the British period and education itself became the gateway to white collar jobs in the colonial governments in Sri Lanka, India, Malaysia and Singapore.

The primary impetus for educational opportunity came with the establishment of the American Ceylon Mission' (ACM) in Jaffna, which started with the arrival in 1813 of missionaries sponsored by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM). The British colonial office in India and Ceylon restricted the Americans to the relatively small Jaffna Peninsula for geopolitical reasons for almost 40 years. The critical period of the impact of the missionaries was from the 1820s to early 1900s. During this time, they engaged in original translations from English to Tamil, printing, and publishing, establishing primary, secondary and tertiary educational institutions and providing health care for residents of the Jaffna Peninsula. Their intrusion into Jaffna also had other unintended consequences. The concentration of efficient Protestant mission schools in Jaffna produced a revival movement among local Hindus led by Arumuga Navalar, who responded by building many more schools within the Jaffna peninsula. Local Catholics too started their own schools as a countermeasure. The state also had its share of primary and secondary schools. Thus saturated with educational opportunities, many Tamils became literate. This was used by the British colonial government to hire Tamils as government servants in British-held Ceylon, India, Malaysia and Singapore.

By the time Sri Lanka became independent in 1948, about 60% of government jobs were held by Tamils, who formed hardly 15% of the population. The popularly elected leaders of the country saw it as an outcome of a strategy by the British to control the majority Sinhalese that needed to be redressed. These measures deteriorated the already frail political relationship between the communities and many experts believe it as one of the main caused of the Sri Lankan Civil War.[84][85]

Literature

Main article: Sri Lankan Tamil Literature
Arumuga Navalar (1822-1879) a prominent literary figure of colonial era

According to legends, the origin of Sri Lankan Tamil literature dates back to the Sangam age, from 300 BCE to 600 CE. The Tamil poet known as Eelattu Poothanthevanar (or Poothanthevanar from Sri Lanka) is generally attributed to this period.[86] Verses in praise of Hindu deities are known to have been written in Hindu temples built by the Chola empire circa 11 CE. The medieval phase Tamil literature was produced in the courts of the native Jaffna kingdom. During the reign of Jayaveera Singaiariyan, a writing on medical sciences (Segarajasekaram), astrology (Segarajasekaramalai)[87][83] and mathematics (Kanakathikaram) were authored by Karivaiya.[83] During the rule of Kunaveera Singaiariyan, a work on medicine known as Pararajasekaram was completed.[83] During Singai Pararasasekaran's rule, an academy for the propagation of Tamil language on the model of ancient Tamil Sangam's was established in Nallur. This academy performed a useful service in collecting and preserving ancient works in the form of manuscripts in a library[83] called Saraswathy Mahal. Singai Pararasasekaran's cousin Arasakesari is credited with translating the Sanskrit classic Raghuvamsa into Tamil.[87] Among other literary works of historic importance compiled before the arrival of European colonizers, Vaiyapatal, written by Vaiyapuri Aiyar, is well known.[83][88]

Portuguese and the Dutch colonial periods (1619–1796) brought its own local literary responses; Muttukumara Kavirajar (1780–1851) is the earliest known among those who used literature to respond to Christian missionary activities. This was followed by the literary activities of Arumuga Navalar (1822–1879) who wrote and published a number of books. [86] The period of joint missionary activities by the Anglican, American Ceylon and Methodist Missions saw the spread of modern education and the expansion of translation activities which concluded by the close of the 19th century.

The modern phase of literature started in the 1960s with the establishment of modern universities and a free education system in the post independent Sri Lanka. The 1960s also saw a social revolt against the caste system in Jaffna which had an impact on Tamil literature. Dominic Jeeva was a product of this period.[86] Tamil literature was comparatively ahead of its mainland counter part in modern Tamil Nadu with respect to Dalit issues. After the commencement of the civil war in 1983, a number of poets and fiction writers became active, focussing on issues such as death, destruction and rape. Such writings have no parallels in any previous Tamil literature.[86] The war produced writers from across the globe who reminised their longing for their lost homes as well as a need for integration with mainstream communities in Europe and North America. Sri Lankan Tamils have produced number of plays during the modern period.[86]

Cuisine

See also: Tamil cuisine, Kerala cuisine, and Sri Lankan cuisine
Appam also known as Hoppers in English, is a popular breafast and dinner menu

The cuisine of Sri Lankan Tamils draws influence from that of India, as well as colonialists and foreign traders. The Sri Lankan Tamil cuisine is noted for its emphasis on a minimal use of ingredients to turn out simple, wholesome fare with nutrition for the family, rather than gourmet for a sophisticated palate. Rice, which is usually consumed daily, can be found at any special occasion, while spicy curries are favorite dishes for dinner and lunch. A popular alcoholic drink in rural areas is toddy, made from palm tree sap. Rice and curry refers to a range of Sri Lankan Tamil dishes. It is unique compared to Indian Tamil cuisine, with regional variations between the Northern and Eastern regions, from the fan-shaped leaves to the root, the palmyra palm forms an intrinsic part of the life and cuisine of northern region.[89]

Breakfast and dinner dishes include a simple combination string hoppers which look like knitted vermicelli neatly laid out in circular pieces of about 12 centimeters in diameter made of rice flour. It is served with tomato sothi or soup and curries.[90] Another common item is puttu that can be transformed into varieties such as ragi, spinach, and tapioca puttu. Puttu, a granular, dry but soft steamed item is made in a bamboo cylinder with the base wrapped around with cloth so that the bamboo flute can be set upright over a clay pot with boiling water. There are also sweet and savoury puttus.[91] Another popular breakfast or dinner item is called Appam, a thin crusty pancake made with rice flour, with a perfectly round soft crust in the middle.[92] It has variations such as egg or milk Appam.[89]

Rice with curries is the popular lunch menu but combinations such as curd, tangy mango and the tomato rice are also served. Jaffna, being a peninsula, has an abundance of seafood such as crab, shark, fish, prawn or squid. Meat dishes such as mutton, chicken, pork and beef also have their own niche. The vegetable curries cooked tend to be from the home garden such as pumpkin, yam, jackfruit seed, hibiscus flower and various green leaves. They also tend to use coconut milk and hot chilly powder. Appetizers, such as a range of achars, pickles and vadahams are used. Snacks and sweets border on the "homemade rustic" variety, relying on jaggery, sesame seed, coconut and gingelly oil, to give them their distinct regional flavour. Snacks, savouries, sweets and porridge produced from the Palmyra form a separate but unique category.[89]

Politics

Main article: Sri Lankan Tamil nationalism
See also: Politics of Sri Lanka, Origins of the Sri Lankan civil war, and Sri Lankan civil war

Sri Lanka's modern history is highlighted by the continuous political rancor between the majority Sinhalese and the minority Tamils. According Jonathan Spencer, a social anthropologist from the School of Social and Political Studies of the University of Edinburgh[93], the Sri Lankan Civil War is an outcome of how modern ethnic identities have been made and re-made since the colonial period, with the political struggle between minority Sri Lankan Tamils and the Sinhala-dominant government accompanied by rhetorical wars over archeological sites and place name etymologies, and the political use of the national past.[94][95]

Before Independence

File:SJF Chelvanayagam.jpg
S. J. V. Chelvanayakam (1898-1977) A Tamil political leader who represented Tamil rights from 1956 until his death

Primary contributor to the development of political awareness amongst Tamils was the advent of Protestant missionaries on a large scale from 1814. Missionary activities by missionaries of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, Methodists and Anglican churches led to a revival amongst Hindu Tamils who built their own schools, temples, societies and published literature to counter the missionary activities. The success of this effort led to the Tamils to think confidently of themselves as a community and prepared the way for self consciousness as a cultural, religious and linguisitic community in the mid nineteenth century.[96][97]

Great Britain that had come to control the whole of the island in 1815 insituited a legislative council in 1833 with three Europeans and one each for Sinhalese, Sri Lankan Tamils and Burghers. This council's primary requirement was to play an advisory role to the Governor. These positions eventually came to be elected. From the introduction of advisory council to the Donoughmore Commission in 1931 until the Soulbury Commission in 1947 the main dispute between the elite of Sinhalese and Tamils was over the question of representation not on the structure of the government. The issue of power sharing was used by the nationalists of both communities to create an escalating inter ethnic rivalry which has continually gained momentum ever since.[98]

There was initially little tension amongst Sri Lanka's two largest ethnic groups, the Sinhalese and the Tamils, when Ponnambalam Arunachalam, a Tamil, was appointed representative of the Sinhalese as well the Tamils in the national legislative council. However, the British Governor William Manning actively encouraged the concept of "communal representation" and created the Colombo seat which was dangled between the Tamils and the Sinhalese.[99] Subsequently, the Donoughmore Commission strongly rejected communal representation, and brought in universal franchise. The decision was strongly opposed by the Tamil political leadership, who realized that they would be reduced to a minority in parliament, according to the proportion of the population they make up. G. G. Ponnambalam, a leader of the Tamil community, proposed to the Soulbury Commission that roughly equal numbers of seats be assigned to Tamils and Sinhalese in the proposed independent Ceylon - a proposal that was rejected. The Second World War served as an interregnum where the adroit politics of D. S. Senanayake successfully balancing the extremist tendencies of the Sinhala as well as Tamil nationalists.

After Independence

File:Tamil eelam stamp.jpg
A "stamp" issued by a Tamil militant group in 1983 representing an independent country for Tamils

Following independence in 1948 G. G. Ponnambalam and his Tamil congress joined D. S. Senanayake's moderate, western-oriented United National Party. The Ceylon citizenship act of 1948 which denied citizenship to Sri Lankans of Indian origin spilt the Tamil Congress and G. G.Ponnambalam and D. S. Senanayake were strongly criticized by the opposition Marxist groups and the newly formed Sri Lankan Tamil nationalist Federal Party (FP). S. J. V. Chelvanayakam the leader of the new party contested the citizenship act before the Supreme Court, and then in the Privy council in England, on grounds of discrimination towards minorities but did not prevail in overturning the act. The FP took two seats in the 1952 election, against the Tamil Congress's four; but in the 1956 election it became the dominant party in the Tamil districts and remained so for two decades. The FP's came to be known for its uncompromising stand on Tamil rights.[100]In response to the parliamentary act that made Sinhala the sole official language in 1956, Federal MPs staged a non violent sit in (satyagraha) protest, but it was violently broken up by a mob. The FP was blamed and briefly banned after the mini pogrom of May - June 1958 that targeted Tamils in which many were killed and thousands forced to flee their homes.[101]Another point of conflict between the communities was state sponsored colonization schemes that had the effect of changing the demographic balance in the Eastern province in favor of majority Sinhalese that the Tamil nationalists considered to be their traditional homeland. It has been perhaps the most immediate cause of inter-communal violence.[102][103]

In the 1970s importing Tamil language films, books, magazines, journals, etc. from the cultural hub of Tamil Nadu, India was banned. Sri Lanka also banned local groups affiliated with groups such as the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagham and the Tamil Youth League. Foreign exchange for the long established practice of Tamil students going to India for university education was stopped. Equally, examinations for external degrees from the University of London were abolished. This had the effect of culturally cutting off the links between Tamil Sri Lankan and Tamils from India. The then government insisted that these measures were part of a general program of economic self-sufficiency as part of its socialist agenda and not targeted against the Tamil minority.

In 1973 the policy of standardization was implemented by the Sri Lankan government to what they believed was to rectify disparities created in university enrollment in Sri Lanka under British colonial rule. It was in essence an affirmative action scheme to assist geographically disadvantaged students to gain tertiary education. The resultant benefits enjoyed by Sinhalese students also meant a significant fall in the number of Tamil students within the Sri Lankan university student populace.[104]

Shortly, on 1973, the Federal Party decide to demand for a separate state. To further their nationalistic cause they merged with the other Tamil political parties to become the Tamil United Liberation Front(TULF) in 1975. On 1976, after the first National convention of the Tamil United Liberation Front, the Ceylon Tamils moved towards a morphed nationalism which meant that they were now unwilling to live within a confined single island entity[105] . Chelvanayakam and the Federal Party had always campaigned for a unitary country and thought that partitioning of the country would be “suicidal” up until 1973. However policies by the various governments that was considered to be discriminatory by Tamil leadership[102] modified the stand to Tamil Nationalism.

Rise of militancy

Main articles: Sri Lankan Tamil militant groups and List of Sri Lankan Tamil militant groups
See also: Human rights in Sri Lanka and Allegations of State terrorism by Sri Lanka
Tamil rebels in a pickup truck in Killinochchi in 2004

Since 1948 when Sri Lanka became independent, successive governments have adopted policies that had the effect of net preference to the majority Sinhalese at the expense of the minority Sri Lankan Tamils.[106]The governments adopted these policies in order to assist the Sinhalese community in such areas as education and public employment. But these policies severely curtailed the middle class Tamil youth, who found it more difficult during the 1970s and 1980s to enter a university or secure employment. These individuals belonging to this younger generation, often referred to by other Tamils as "the boys" (Potiyal in Tamil language) formed many militant organizations.[106] The most important contributor to the strength of the militant groups was the Black July pogrom which was perceived have been an organized event in which over 1000 Sri Lankan Tamil civilians were killed prompting many youth to prefer the armed path of resistance.[106][107]

By the end of 1987, they had fought not only the Sri Lankan security forces but also the Indian Peace Keeping Force. They also fought among each other with equal if not greater brutality with each other with main Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) rebel group decimating most of the others. They represented intergenerational tensions as well as caste and ideological differences. Except the LTTE many of the remaining organizations have morphed into minor political parties within the Tamil National Alliance or as standalone political parties. Some also function as paramilitary groups within the Sri Lankan military.[106]

As part of the Sri Lankan civil war, major human rights groups such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch, as well as the United States Department of State[108] and the European Union,[109] have expressed concern about the state of human rights in Sri Lanka. Both the government of Sri Lanka and the rebel LTTE are accused of violating human rights. Although Amnesty International stated in 2003 that there was a considerable improvement in the human rights situation attributed to the peaceful context of a ceasefire and peace talks between the government and the LTTE.[110] however by 2007, they reported that

"escalating political killings, child recruitment, abductions and armed clashes created a climate of fear in the east, spreading to the north by the end of the year"

.

Migrations

Main article: Sri Lankan Tamil diaspora
See also: Tamil Canadian and Tamil British

Pre independence

Sri Kamadchi Ampal temple in Hamm, Germany built primarily by Sri Lankan Tamil expatriates[5].

Earliest known Tamil speakers from Sri Lanka to make their presence recorded in foreign lands was a merchant guild calling itself Tenilankai Valanciyar (Valanciyar from Lanka of the South) who were known in South India from inscriptions in the thirteenth century.[111] In the late 19th century, educated Tamils from Jaffna peninsula migrated to the British colonies of Malaya (Malaysia and Singapore) and India to assist the colonial bureaucracy. They worked in almost every branch of public administration and in plantation and industrial sectors such as railway, postal and civil service. Number of prominent Malaysians such as Forbes list of billionaires, Ananda Krishnan and economist Ramon Navaratnam are of Sri Lankan Tamil descent.[112]Singapore's former foreign minister and deputy prime minister S. Rajaratnam (1915-2006) is of Sri Lankan Tamil descent.[113]C. W. Thamotharampillai (1832-1901) an Indian based Tamil language revivalist was born in Jaffna peninsula and settled in India after taking a position with the colonial authorities.

Post civil war

File:Grace trilingual sign.jpg
Scarborough Grace Hospital in, Toronto, Canada has signs that include Tamil language

After commencement of the civil conflict between the Sri Lankan government and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam saw mass migration of Tamils to escape the hardships and bitter life of a country torn at war. Initially, it was middle class professionals such as doctors and engineers who emigrated, this was followed by the poorer segments of the community who sold everything they had to be able to get a passport and ticket and seek asylum in foreign lands. The ethnic fighting has driven over 800,000 within Sri Lanka as internally displaced refugees and many overseas prompting UNHCR to identify them in 2004 as the largest asylum seeking group.[3][114]

The country with the largest share is Canada with over 200,000 legal residents found mostly within the Greater Toronto Area. Tamil Canadians are a well integrated group[2] with number of prominent Canadians of Sri Lankan Tamil descent such as Shyam Selvadurai an author and James Appathurai a NATO spokesperson and Indira Samarasekera president of the University of Alberta. Neighboring India has provided refuge to over 100,000 in special camps and another 50,000 outside of the camps.[3] In western European countries the refugees and immigrants have integrated as part of the society where permitted. Tamil British singer M.I.A also known as Mathangi Arulpragasam[115] and BBC journalists George Alagiah and James Coomarasamy amongst others are notable people of Sri Lankan Tamil descent. Hindus amongst Sri Lankan Tamils have built number of prominent Hindu temples across North America and Europe notably in Canada, France, Germany, Denmark and U.K.[11][5]

See also

Notes

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sri Lankan Tamil people.
  1. ^ Karthigesu, S, Sri Lankan Tamil society and politics, p.4
  2. ^ a b Foster, Carly. "Tamils: Population in Canada". Ryerson University. Retrieved 2008-06-25.
  3. ^ a b c "Ethnic conflict and refugees in Sri Lanka" (html). Arun Kumar Acharya. Retrieved 2008-03-17.
  4. ^ "Britain urged to protect Tamil Diaspora" (html). BBC. Retrieved 2008-03-19.
  5. ^ a b c "Immigrant Hinduism in Germany: Tamils from Sri Lanka and Their Temples" (html). Martin Baumann. Retrieved 2008-03-17.
  6. ^ "Politically French, culturally Tamil: 12 Tamils elected in Paris and suburbs" (html). Tamilnet. Retrieved 2008-03-17.
  7. ^ "Swiss Tamils look to preserve their culture". Swissinfo. 2006-02-18. Retrieved 2008-06-25. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  8. ^ "Jaffna Tamils of Malaysia" (html). Joshua Project. Retrieved 2008-03-17.
  9. ^ "History of Tamil diaspora" (html). Tamil library. Retrieved 2008-03-17.
  10. ^ "Sri Lanka: The dilemma" (html). B. Raman. Retrieved 2008-03-17.
  11. ^ a b Mortensen. Viggo, Theology and the Religions: A Dialogue, p.110
  12. ^ de Silva, C.R. (1987, 2nd ed. 1997). Sri Lanka — A History, pp.177, 181
  13. ^ Department of Census and Statistics of Sri Lanka. "Population by Ethnicity according to District and Sector". statistics.gov.lk. Retrieved 2007-05-03.
  14. ^ Lanka. "Missed Opportunities and the Loss of Democracy". uthr.org. Retrieved 2007-05-03.
  15. ^ de Silva, C.R. (1987, 2nd ed. 1997). Sri Lanka — A History, p.262
  16. ^ Suryanarayan, V. (2001). "In search of a new identity", Frontline 18(2).
  17. ^ de Silva, C.R. (1987, 2nd ed. 1997). Sri Lanka — A History, p.262
  18. ^ de Silva, C.R. (1987, 2nd ed. 1997). Sri Lanka — A History, p.3–5, 9
  19. ^ Department of Census and Statistics of Sri Lanka. "Population by Ethnicity according to District and Sector". statistics.gov.lk. Retrieved 2007-05-03.
  20. ^ Harichandra, The sacred city of Anuradhapura, p.19
  21. ^ Indrapala, K The Evolution of an ethnic identity: The Tamils of Sri Lanka, p.368
  22. ^ "Vedda". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 2008-04-13.
  23. ^ Indrapala. K, The Evolution of an ethnic identity: The Tamils of Sri Lanka, p.53–54
  24. ^ "A composite vision of history" (html). A.R. Venkatachalapathy. Retrieved 2008-02-13.
  25. ^ de Silva, A History of Sri Lanka, p.129
  26. ^ Indrapala, K The Evolution of an ethnic identity: The Tamils of Sri Lanka, p.91
  27. ^ de Silva, C.R. (1987, 2nd ed. 1997). Sri Lanka — A History, p.30–32
  28. ^ Mendis, G.C. (1957, 3rd ed. 1995). Ceylon Today and Yesterday, pp.24–25
  29. ^ Indrapala, K The Evolution of an ethnic identity: The Tamils of Sri Lanka, p.157
  30. ^ Gnanaprakasar, Nallur Swami. "Beginnings of tamil rule in ceylon". lankalibrary.com. Retrieved 2006-12-05.
  31. ^ a b Spencer, George W. "The politics of plunder: The Cholas in eleventh century Ceylon". The Journal of Asian Studies. 35 (3). Association for Asian Studies: 408. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  32. ^ Indrapala, K The Evolution of an ethnic identity: The Tamils of Sri Lanka, p.214-215
  33. ^ de Silva, C.R. (1987, 2nd ed. 1997). Sri Lanka — A History, p.46, 48, 75.
  34. ^ Mendis, G.C. (1957, 3rd ed. 1995). Ceylon Today and Yesterday, pp.30–31.
  35. ^ Smith, V.A. (1958). The Oxford History of India, p.224
  36. ^ de Silva, C.R. (1987, 2nd ed. 1997). Sri Lanka — A History, p.76
  37. ^ de Silva, C.R. (1987, 2nd ed. 1997). Sri Lanka — A History, pp.100–102
  38. ^ de Silva, C.R. (1987, 2nd ed. 1997). Sri Lanka — A History, pp.102–104. New Delhi, Vikas Publishing House. ISBN 81-259-0461-1
  39. ^ de Silva, C.R. (1987, 2nd ed. 1997). Sri Lanka — A History, p.104
  40. ^ "Book review of Spoken Language of Nuwarakalaviya" (html). D.G.B.de Silva. Retrieved 2008-02-04.
  41. ^ a b de Silva, A History of Sri Lanka (2005), p.121
  42. ^ Spencer, J, Sri Lankan history and roots of conflict, p. 23
  43. ^ Indrapala, K The Evolution of an ethnic identity: The Tamils of Sri Lanka, p.275
  44. ^ a b "Roman-Dutch law versus Tesavalamai (Fernando versus Proctor et al)" (html). Lawnet.lk. Retrieved 2008-05-08.
  45. ^ a b c d "Contact-Induced Morphosyntactic Realignment in Negombo Fishermen's Tamil (South Asian Language Analysis Roundtable XXIII (October 12, 2003)" (html). Bonta Stevens. University of Texas at Austin. Retrieved 2008-05-08.
  46. ^ a b "Negombo fishermen's Tamil: A case of contact-induced language change from Sri Lanka" (html). Bonta Stevens. Cornell University. Retrieved 2008-05-08.
  47. ^ a b "Participation, Patrons and the Village: The case of Puttalam District" (html). Jens Foell. University of Sussex. Retrieved 2008-05-08.
  48. ^ "Pearling, fishing and military heritage of Chilaw residents from India" (html). Granville Fernando. Retrieved 2008-05-08.
  49. ^ Susantha Goonetilleke, Sinhalisation: Migration or Cultural Colonization? Lanka Guardian Vol. 3, No. I, May I, 1980, p. 22-29, and May 15 1980, p. 18-19.
  50. ^ Corea, Henry (1960-10-03). "The Maravar Suitor". The Sunday Observer. Retrieved 2008-06-24.
  51. ^ Kularatnam, K (April 1966). "Tamil Place Names in Ceylon outside the Northern and Eastern Provinces". Proceedings of the First International Conference Seminar of Tamil Studies, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia vol.1. International Association of Tamil Research. pp. pp.486-493. {{cite conference}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Unknown parameter |booktitle= ignored (|book-title= suggested) (help)
  52. ^ Indrapala, K, Evolution of an ethinic identity.., p.230
  53. ^ Kartithigesu, Sri Lankan Tamil society and politics, p.2-4
  54. ^ Subramaniam, Folk traditionas and Songs..., p.1-13
  55. ^ Yalman, N., Under the bo tree: studies in caste, kinship, and marriage in the interior of Ceylon, p.282-335
  56. ^ a b c Kartithigesu, Sri Lankan Tamil society and politics, p.5-6
  57. ^ Hussein, Asiff (2003-6-23). "The land of the matri-clans". Sunday Observer. Retrieved 2008-06-24. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  58. ^ "Kokkadichcholai" (html). UTHR. Retrieved 2008-03-20.
  59. ^ "East coast Veddhas" (html). Seligmann. Retrieved 2008-03-20.
  60. ^ a b c Kartithigesu, S, Sri Lankan Tamil society and politics, p.4-12
  61. ^ a b Gunasingam, M Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism, p.62
  62. ^ a b c Kshatriya, G.K. (1995). "Genetic affinities of Sri Lankan populations". Human Biology. 67 (6). American Association of Anthropological Genetics: 843–66. Retrieved 2008-06-16.
  63. ^ Papiha, S. S (1996). "Genetic Variations in Sri Lanka". Human Biology. 68 (5). American Association of Anthropological Genetics: 735. Retrieved 2008-06-21. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  64. ^ Indrapala, K, Evolution of an ethinic identity.., p.251
  65. ^ "Sri Lanka:Country study" (html). Russell Ross. Retrieved 2008-03-05.
  66. ^ Hudson, Religious Controversy in British India: Dialogues in South Asian Languages, p.29
  67. ^ a b c d Karthigesu, Sri Lankan Tamil society and politics, p.34-89
  68. ^ "Overview: Pentecostalism in Asia" (html). The pew forum. Retrieved 2008-03-24.
  69. ^ "Tamil Tigers appeal over shrine" (html). BBC. Retrieved 2008-04-14.
  70. ^ a b c d Kuiper, L.B.J (March 1964). "Note on Old Tamil and Jaffna Tamil". Indo-Iranian Journal. 6 (1). Springer Netherlands: 52–64. doi:10.1007/BF00157142.
  71. ^ Thomas Lehmann, "Old Tamil" in Sanford Steever (ed.), The Dravidian Languages Routledge, 1998 at p. 75; E. Annamalai and S. Steever, "Modern Tamil" in ibid. at pp. 100-128
  72. ^ Kamil Zvelebil, "Some features of Ceylon Tamil" Indo-Iranian Journal 9:2 (June 1996) pp. 113-138.
  73. ^ Indrapala, K The Evolution of an ethnic identity: The Tamils of Sri Lanka, p.46
  74. ^ Subramaniam, Folk traditionas and Songs..., p.9-10
  75. ^ Zvlebil, Kamil (June 1966). "Some features of Ceylon Tamil". Indo-Iranian Journal. 9 (2). Springer Netherlands: 113–138. doi:10.1007/BF00963656.
  76. ^ "The date of tolkappiyam has been variously proposed as lying between 5320 BC and 8th century AD", Takahashi, Takanobu (1995), p18
  77. ^ Swamy, B.G.L. (1975). "The Date Of Tolksppiyam-a Retrospect". Annals of Oriental Research. Silver Jubilee Volume: 292–317.
  78. ^ Ramaswamy, Vijaya (1993). "Women and Farm Work in Tamil Folk Songs". Social Scientist. 21 (9/11): 113–129. doi:10.2307/3520429. As early as the Tolkappiyam (which has sections ranging from the 3rd century BC to the 5th century AD) the eco-types in South India have been classified into ... {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); line feed character in |quote= at position 80 (help)
  79. ^ Schiffman, Harold (1996-10-30). "Language Shift in the Tamil Communities of Malaysia and Singapore: the Paradox of Egalitarian Language Policy" (html). University of Pennsylvania. Retrieved 2008-04-04. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  80. ^ Indrapala, K The Evolution of an ethnic identity: The Tamils of Sri Lanka, p.45
  81. ^ Indrapala, K The Evolution of an ethnic identity: The Tamils of Sri Lanka, p.389
  82. ^ Ragupathy, Tamil Social Formation in Sri Lanka: A Historical Outline, p.1
  83. ^ a b c d e f Gunasingam, M Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism, p.64-65
  84. ^ Pfaffenberger, B. The Sri Lankan Tamils, p.110
  85. ^ Ambihaipahar, Scientific Tamil Pioneer, p.29
  86. ^ a b c d e "50 years of Sri Lankan Tamil literature" (html). Karthigesu Sivathamby. Retrieved 2008-03-25.
  87. ^ a b Coddrington, H., Ceylon Coins and Currency, p.74
  88. ^ Nadarajan, V History of Ceylon Tamils, p.80-84
  89. ^ a b c "From the land of the Yaal Padi" (html). Rohini Ramakrishnan. Retrieved 2008-04-06. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  90. ^ Pujangga, A requiem for Jaffna, p.75
  91. ^ Pujangga, A requiem for Jaffna, p.72
  92. ^ Pujangga, A requiem for Jaffna, p.73
  93. ^ The University of Edinburgh. "Staff profile:Jonathan Spencer". Retrieved 2008-03-14.
  94. ^ Spencer, J, Sri Lankan history and roots of conflict, p. 23
  95. ^ "Sri Lanka Summary" (html). Jonathan Spencer. Retrieved 2008-05-08.
  96. ^ Gunasingam, Sri Lankan Tamil nationalism, p.108
  97. ^ Gunasingam, Sri Lankan Tamil nationalism, p.201
  98. ^ Gunasingam, Sri Lankan Tamil nationalism, p.76
  99. ^ K. M. de Sila, History of Sri Lanka, Penguin 1995
  100. ^ "Tamil Politics" (html). Russell R. Ross. Retrieved 2008-05-08. {{cite web}}: Text "publisher" ignored (help)
  101. ^ Roberts, Michael (November 2007). "Blunders in Tigerland: Papes muddles on suicide bombers". Heidelberg papers on South Asian and comparative politics. 32. University of Heidelberg: 14.
  102. ^ a b "Tamil Alienation" (html). Russell R. Ross. Retrieved 2008-05-08. {{cite web}}: Text "publisher" ignored (help)
  103. ^ Peebles, Patrick (February 1990). "Colonization and Ethnic Conflict in the Dry Zone of Sri Lanka". Journal of Asian Studies. 49 (1). Association for Asian Studies: 30–55. doi:10.2307/2058432.
  104. ^ Jayasuriya, J. E. (1981). Education in the Third World. Pune: Indian Institute of Education. OCLC 7925123.
  105. ^ Wilson, A.J. Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism: Its Origins and Development in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, p.101-110
  106. ^ a b c d "Tamil Militant Groups" (html). Russell R. Ross. Retrieved 2008-05-08. {{cite web}}: Text "publisher" ignored (help)
  107. ^ Marschall, Wolfgang (2003). "Social Change Among Sri Lankan Tamil Refugees in Switzerland". Retrieved 2007-12-22.
  108. ^ Sri Lanka "2000 Human Rights Report:Sri Lanka" (html). United States State Government. Retrieved 2008-05-08. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
  109. ^ "The EU's relations with Sri Lanka - Overview" (html). European Union. Retrieved 2008-05-08.
  110. ^ Amnesty International "2003 Amnesty International report:Sri Lanka" (html). Amnesty International. Retrieved 2008-05-08. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
  111. ^ Indrapala. K,The Evolution of an ethnic identity...,p.253-4
  112. ^ "Community: Making love, not war at gathering of Jaffna Tamils and Singhalese" (html). New Straight times. Retrieved 2008-03-21.
  113. ^ "Former DPM Rajaratnam dies of heart failure at age 90" (html). Lee Foong Ming. Retrieved 2008-03-25.
  114. ^ "Amnesty International report on internally displaced in Sri Lanka". Amnesty International.org. Retrieved 2007-04-22.
  115. ^ "Fighting Talk" (html). Dorian Lynskey. The Guardian. Retrieved 2008-05-08.

References

  • Ambihaipahar, R (November 11, 1998). Scientific Pioneer: Dr. Samuel Fisk Green. Colombo: Dhuhlasi Publications. p. 130. ISBN 955-8193-00-3.
  • de Silva, C.R. (1987, 2nd ed. 1997). Sri Lanka - A History, New Delhi, Vikas Publishing House. ISBN 81-259-0461-1
  • de Silva, K. M. (2005). A History of Sri Lanka. Colombo: Vijitha Yapa. p. 782. ISBN 9-55-809592-3.
  • Gunasingam, Murugar (1999). Sri Lankan Tamil nationalism. Sydney: MV. p. 238. ISBN 0-646-38106-7.
  • Hudson, Dennis (January 1992). Arumuga Navalar and Hindu Renaissance amongst the Tamils (Religious Controversy in British India: Dialogues in South Asian Languages). State University of New York. ISBN 0791408272.
  • Indrapala, K (2007). The evolution of an ethnic identity: The Tamils in Sri Lanka C. 300 BCE to C. 1200 CE. Colombo:Vijitha Yapa. ISBN 978-955-1266-72-1.
  • Karthigesu, Sivathamby (1995). Sri Lankan Tamil society and politics. New Century Book House. p. 189. ISBN 812340395X.
  • Mendis, G.C. (1957, 3rd ed. 1995). Ceylon Today and Yesterday, Colombo, Lake House. ISBN 955-552-069-8
  • Mortensen, Viggo (2004). Theology and the Religions: A Dialogue. Copenhagen: Wm.B. Eerdman's Publishing. p. 481. ISBN 0-80-2826-74-1.
  • Nadarajan, Vasantha (1999). History of Ceylon Tamils. Toronto: Vasantham. p. 146.
  • Pfaffenberg, Brian (1994). The Sri Lankan Tamils. Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-8845-7.
  • Pujangga, Putra (1997). A requiem for Jaffna. London: Anantham Books. p. 268. ISBN 1-902098-00-5.
  • Radhakrishnan, V. "Indian origin in Sri Lanka:Their plight and struggle for survival". Proceedings of First International Conference & Gathering of Elders. International Center for Cultural Studies, USA. Retrieved 2008-01-23. {{cite conference}}: Unknown parameter |booktitle= ignored (|book-title= suggested) (help)
  • Ross, Russell (1988). Sri Lanka: A Country Study. USA: U.S. Library of Congress.
  • Smith, V.A. (1958). The Oxford History of India, p.224. Oxford, Oxford University Press. ISBN 01-956-1297-3
  • Spencer, Jonathan (1990). Sri Lanka: History and the Roots of Conflict. Routledge. p. 253. ISBN 04-150-4461-8.
  • Subramaniam, Suganthy (2006). Folk Traditions and Songs of Batticaloa District (in Tamil). Kumaran Publishing. p. 99. ISBN 095494-40-5-4.
  • Tambiah, H. W (2001). Laws and customs of Tamils of Jaffna (revised edition). Colombo: Women’s Education & Research Centre. p. 259. ISBN 9-55-9261-16-9.
  • Wilson, A.J. (2000). Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism: Its Origins and Development in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. C. Hurst \& Co. Publishers. ISBN 1-85065-338-0.

External links


Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sri_Lankan_Tamils&oldid=221866364"