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Raccoon

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For the other species called raccoon of the genus Procyon, see Procyon (genus). For other uses, see Raccoon (disambiguation).

Raccoon
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Chordata
Class:
Mammalia
Order:
Carnivora
Family:
Procyonidae
Genus:
Procyon
Species:
P. lotor
Binomial name
Procyon lotor
Native range in red, feral range in blue.
Synonyms

Ursus lotor Linnaeus, 1758

The Raccoon (Procyon lotor), also known as Common Raccoon, North American Raccoon, Northern Raccoon, Washing Bear or informal Coon, is a medium-sized mammal native to North America and the most widespread species of the family Procyonidae. Since the mid-20th century they have also been introduced to the European mainland[1] and in the Caucasus region[2] after having escaped from fur farms or being deliberately released to the wild.

Two of the most distinctive characteristics of the raccoon are its facial mask around the eyes and extremely sensitive front paws;[3] they are also known for their good memory.[4] Often raccoons live together in small, loose groups.[5] Their original habitats are deciduous or mixed forests, but due to their adaptability, they are also found in urban areas where some house owners consider them to be pests.[6] Furthermore, raccoons are omnivorous and usually most active during the night.

Nomenclature

The word raccoon is derived from the word ahrah-koon-em – other transcripts exist – which was the pronunciation used by Algonquin Chief Powhatan and his daughter Pocahontas for the animal, meaning [the] one who rubs, scrubs and scratches with its hands.[7] Similarly, Spanish-speaking colonists adopted their word mapache from the Nahuatl word mapachitli, meaning [the] one who takes everything in its hands.[8] In the first decades after its discovery by the members of the expedition of Christopher Columbus (who was also the first person ever to leave a written record about the species[9]), the raccoon was thought to be related to many different species by early taxonomists, including dogs, cats, badgers and especially bears.[10] One of them was Carolus Linnaeus who initially placed the raccoon in the genus Ursus,[11] while genetical analyses have revealed today that their evolutionary relationship is relatively loose.[citation needed] In many languages, the raccoon is named for its characteristic dousing behavior in conjunction with that language's term for bear: [Waschbär] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) in German, [wasbeer] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) in Dutch, [orsetto lavatore] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) in Italian and araiguma (洗熊) in Japanese to name a few.

Description

Physical characteristics

Close-up of face
Bottom side of the front paw
Track


Along the body raccoons measure between 41 and 71 cm[12] (16.1–28.0 in), not including their bushy tail which can measure between 19.2 and 40.5 cm[13] (7.6–15.9 in), but is usually not much longer than 25 cm[14] (9.8 in). The shoulder height is between 22.8 and 30.4 cm (9.0–12.0 in).[15] The body weight of an adult raccoon varies strongly with habitat and can range from 1.8 to 13.6 kg (4.0–30.0 lb), but is usually between 3.9 and 9.0 kg (8.6–19.8 lb).[16] The smallest species are found in Southern Florida, while those near the Northern limits of the raccoon's range tend to be the largest.[17] Male specimen are usually 15 to 20% heavier than females.[18] Due to their fat storage raccoons can weigh as much as 50% more at the beginning of winter than in spring. The largest recorded raccoon weighed 28.4 kg (62.6 lb), by far the largest size recorded for a family member of the Procyonidae.[19]

The most characteristic physical feature of a raccoon is the area of black fur around the eyes. This reminiscent of a “bandit's mask” has enhanced its reputation for mischief. The mask, which slowly fades with increasing age, sets itself apart from the surrounding white face coloring. The slightly rounded ears are also bordered by white fur. It is assumed that a raccoon recognizes the posture and mimic of conspecifics much faster thanks to this noticeable face coloring and the alternating light and dark rings on the tail;[20] the dark mask might also reduce glare and thus enhance night vision.[21] With the exception of the rare albinos, the coat on the other parts of the body consists of gray and brown hairs. Raccoons with a very dark coat are more common in the German population because animals with such a coloring were among the ones being initially released to the wild.[22]

The raccoon is a plantigrade species,[23] and can sit on its hind legs to examine objects with its front paws. With their short legs compared to their compact torso raccoons are not able to run fast or to jump far. The dentition of raccoons – 40 teeth with the dental formula 3142/3142 – is adapted to their omnivorous lifestyle. The chewing surface is not as wide as for herbivores, but the teeth are not as sharp and pointed as those of a carnivore. The penis bone of male raccoons is around 10 cm (3.9 in) long and strongly bent at the front end.[citation needed]

Rebeca Recinos ;)

Senses

The most important sense for the raccoon is its sense of touch.[24] The “hyper sensitive”[25] front paws with five freestanding fingers are surrounded by a thin layer of callus for protection. Almost two thirds of the area responsible for sensory perception in the cerebral cortex is specialised for the interpretation of tactile impulses, more than in any other animal.[26] With their vibrissae above their sharp, not retractable claws they are able to identify objects before touching them.[27] It is still unexplained why it has no negative effects to its tactile perception when a raccoon stands in cold water below 10° C for hours.[28] However, the paws lack an opposable thumb and thus the agility of the hands of primates.[29]

The eyes of raccoons, which are color blind, work especially well for green light.[30] Although they are able to see well in the twilight thanks to their Tapetum lucidum behind the retina[31] and their accommodation of 11 Dioptre is comparable to that of humans,[32] the visual perception is of subordinate importance to raccoons.[33] Apart from being useful for the orientation in the dark their olfaction is particularly important for communicating with other raccoons.[34] Urine, feces, and gland secretions, usually distributed with their anal glands, are used for marking.[35] With their audition they are able to perceive very low noices like those produced by earthworms underground.[36] Concerning high tones, their hearing limit is located at around 50–85 kHz.[37]

Intelligence

Very few studies, most built upon their sensory perception, have been done to determine the mental abilities of raccoons. In 1908, ethologist H. B. Davis compared their learning speed with those of Rhesus Macaques after they opened eleven of 13 complex locks in less than ten tries.[38] Studies in 1963, 1973, 1975 and 1992 concentrated on their memory and showed that raccoons remember the solution to once learned tasks up to three years later.[39] Stanislas Dehaene reports in his book The number sense that raccoons can distinguish boxes containing two or four grapes from those containing three.[40]

Behavior

On the roof of a house in Albertshausen, Hesse, Germany

Daily life

Raccoons are nocturnal, but can also be active at daylight to take advantage of available food sources.[41] Sheltered tree hollows of old oaks are their favorite sleeping places, especially in bad weather.[42] If raccoons are out of reach of their preferred main sleeping places, they will chose places like quarries, badger setts, the undergrowth or the top of tree crotches.[43] If threatened, raccoons will quickly climb up the next available tree. This is why they avoid open terrain and areas with many beech trees or similar trees as they can't climb up smooth tree trunks.[44] Raccoons often travel along lakes or rivers to catch fish, amphibians and other animals at the shore. They can swim with an average speed of about 4.8 km/h (3.0 m/h) and stay in the water for several hours.[45] In the northern parts of its distribution range, the raccoon will reduce its activity in a winter rest drastically as long as a permanent snow cover makes searching for food impossible.[46]

Diet

On an apple tree

The diet of the omnivorous raccoon consists of about 40% of invertebrates, 33% of plant foods and 27% of vertebrates.[47] According to zoologist Samuel I. Zeveloff, the raccoon “may well be one of the world's most omnivorous animals”.[48] While eating mostly insects, worms and other animals already available as food source in spring,[49] raccoons prefer fruit and nuts rich in calories in autumn to build up a fat storage for winter.[50] Fish and amphibians are their main prey animals regarding vertebrates and easily caught with their front paws.[51] Contrary to popular belief, birds and small mammals are only occasionally eaten since raccoons rarely bother to hunt them down.[52] If food is plentiful in one area, raccoons can develop strong individual preferences for specific foods.[53]

Dousing

Captive raccoons sometimes “wash”, or douse, their food in water before eating it.[54] While all raccoons sample objects with their front paws to get a picture of it and to remove unwanted parts and it increases the sensibility of their front paws if the callus is softened underwater,[55] wild raccoons never carry their food to a watering hole to “wash” it.[56] French naturalist Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon (1707–1788) believed that raccoons do not have adequate salivary glands to moisten food;[57] however, this is certainly incorrect.[58] Captive raccoons douse their food more frequently, when a watering hole with a ground similar to a stream bottom is no further away than 3.0 m (10 ft).[59] It is widely believed that dousing is a vacuum activity to mimic foraging at shores.[60] This theory is supported by the observation that aquatic foods are doused more frequently.[61] Cleaning dirty food most likely doesn't play a role for “washing”.[62] Some experts point out that even wild raccoons may dunk very dry food,[63] a view opposed by others.[64]

Social behavior

Group eating

Studies done in the 1990s by the ethologists Stanley D. Gehrt and Ulf Hohmann have shown that raccoons are not typically loners, as previously thought.[65][66] Instead they show a gender-specific social behavior.[67] Related females often live in a so-called fusion-fission-society, that is, they share a common area, and occasionally meet at feeding grounds or main sleeping berths.[68] Unrelated male raccoons often live together in male social groups so that they can better sustain their position against invaders and in particular against foreign conspecifics during the mating season.[69] Such a group normally does not consist of more than four individuals. On the other hand, mothers will separate from other raccoons until their kits are big enough to be able to defend themselves.[70] This society system is called a three class society by Hohmann.[71]

If the food supply is sufficient the home ranges of raccoons can overlap drastically without conflict. However, some male raccoons may show aggressive behavior against unrelated kits.[72] For information exchange about rich feeding grounds or sheltered sleeping places raccoons meet with other conspecifics at gathering places or leave messages in the form of odor marks.[73] Raccoons also meet for collective eating, sleeping and playing.

Reproduction

Kit (estimated eight weeks old)

Raccoons usually mate between late January and mid-March[74] in a period triggered by increasing daylight.[75] However, there are large regional differences not completely explainable by solar conditions: Raccoons in southern states typically mate later, and it is known that the mating season of raccoons living in Manitoba peak in March but may occur as late as June.[76] If a female does not get pregnant or loses her kits early, she sometimes gets ready for conception again 80 to 140 days later.[77] During the mating period, the males restlessly roam their home ranges and court the females, whose three to four days long conception periods coincide,[78] at central meeting places.[79] Copulation, including foreplay, can last over an hour and is repeated over several nights.[80] It is assumed that weaker members of a male social group also get the chance for mating, since stronger ones cannot mate with all available females in their home range.[81]

After around 63 to 65 days of pregnancy (54–70 days possible),[82] a litter of typically two to five young is born.[83] The average litter size varies strongly with habitat, ranging from 2.5 in Alabama to 4.8 in North Dakota.[84] Larger litter sizes are more common in areas with a high mortality rate, for example due to hunting[85] or long and cold winters.[86] Males have no part in raising the young. The kits are blind and deaf at birth, but their mask already stands out on their light fur.[87] The birth weight of the 9.5 cm (3.7 in) long kits is between 60 and 75 g (2.1–2.6 oz).[87] They open their eyes for the first time after around 21 days.[87] Weighing around 1 kg (2.2 lb), the kits leave the den and consume solid food for the first time after 6 to 9 weeks.[88] After that, their mother lactates them with decreasing intensity, usually not longer than 16 weeks in total.[89] In fall, after their mother has shown them dens and feeding grounds, the juveniles split up.[90] While many females stay close to the home range of their mother,[91] males often move away more than 20 km (12.4 mi).[92] This is considered to be an instinctive behavior to prevent incest.[93] However, in colder areas mother and offspring may share one den during the first winter.[94]

Life expectancy

While raccoons in the wild can get as old as 16 years, most live only a few years.[95] It is not unusual that just half of the young born in one year survive until their first birthday.[96][97] After that, the yearly mortality rate drops to 10 to 30%.[98] One of the main natural causes of death for recently born raccoons besides losing their mother is starvation during the next winter, especially if it's a cold and long one.[99] The most frequent natural cause of death in North America is the disease distemper which can get epidemic and kill most raccoons living in one area.[100] In areas with much traffic and where raccoons are hunted heavily, those two causes can account for up to 90% of all deaths of adult raccoons.[101] Getting killed by bobcats, coyotes and other predators usually doesn't play a significant role as death cause for raccoons, especially since many bigger predators have been exterminated in many areas by humans.[102] In conclusion, the species' life expectancy in the wild is only about 1.8 to 3.1 years, dependent on the local conditions in terms of traffic volume, hunting and extreme weather conditions.[103]

Range

Distribution in North America

Raccoons are common throughout North America from Canada to Panama.

Distribution outside North America

All raccoons living outside North America are the offspring of animals which escaped from fur farms or were deliberately released to the wild. Today, stable populations exist in most parts of Germany as well as areas of the bordering countries. Other populations are located in the South of Belarus, the Caucasus region and in the North of France where several were released by American soldiers near Laon in 1966.

Distribution in Germany

Distribution in Germany: Raccoons killed or found dead by hunters in the hunting years 2000/01, 01/02 and 02/03 in the administrative districts of Germany

On April 12 1934, two pairs were released into the German wilderness at the Edersee in the north of Hesse by forest superintendent Wilhelm Freiherr Sittich von Berlepsch upon request of their owner, the poultry grower Rolf Haag.[104] He released them two weeks before getting permission from the Prussian hunting office to "enrich the fauna" by doing so.[105] Although there had been several prior attempts to introduce raccoons into the local environment, none had been successful.[106][107]

A second population originated in East Germany in 1945 when 25 raccoons escaped from a fur farm at Wolfshagen to the east of Berlin after an air strike. The two populations are parasitologically distinguishable: 70% of the raccoons of the Hessian population are infected with the parasite Baylisascaris procyonis, but none of the Brandenburgian population. The estimated number of raccoons was 285 animals in 1956 and over 20,000 animals in 1970 in the Hessian region[108] and between 200,000 and 400,000 animals in 2008 in the whole of Germany.[100]

The raccoon was a protected species in Germany until having been declared a game animal in 14 states since 1954.[109] Hunters and environmentalists argue that the raccoon spreads uncontrollably, having a devastating effect on protected birds and other species.[22] This view is opposed by zoologists Ulf Hohmann and Frank-Uwe Michler. Hohmann argues that the absence of natural predators does not justify extensive hunting since predation does also not play a significant role as death cause in North America.[110] Michler outlines that there are no signs that a high population density of raccoons has negative effects to the biodiversity of the area.[22] Both acknowlede that raccoons can decimate local bird populations, but denounce unscientific finger pointing at raccoons as “scapegoats”.[111][22]

Urban raccoons

Due to its adaptability, the raccoon has been able to use urban areas as a habitat. The first sightings occurred in a suburb of Cincinnati, Ohio, in the 1920s. Since the 1950s, raccoons have been present in metropolises like Washington, D.C., Chicago, and Toronto.[112] Since the 1960s, Kassel hosts Europe's first and densest population in a large urban area with about 50 to 150 animals per square kilometer (129–388 animals per square mile), a figure comparable to those in urban habitats in North America.[113][112] Home range sizes of urban raccoons drop to about 0.03 to 0.38 km² (0.01–0.15 mi²) for females and 0.08 to 0.79 km² (0.03–0.31 mi²) for males.[114] In small towns and suburbs, many raccoons sleep in a nearby forest after foraging in the settlement area.[115][112] Fruit and insects in gardens and leftovers in the garbage are easily available food sources.[116] There also exists a large number of additional sleeping places like tree hollows in old garden trees, cottages, garages, abandoned houses and attics. The number of raccoons sleeping in houses varies, ranging from 15% in Washington, D.C. (1991)[117] to 43% in Kassel (2003).[118]

Diseases

Baylisascaris procyonis larvae

Raccoons can carry Baylisascaris roundworm, canine distemper, parvovirus and rabies.[119] Of the 6,844 documented rabies cases reported in the United States in 2004, 37.5% were in raccoons (Krebs et al. 2005, pp. 1912–1925). Raccoon rabies is as dangerous to humans as any other strain, even though there is only one documented case in which it has led to a fatal case of human rabies.[120] Saliva and other bodily fluids may carry the rabies virus. Rabies is so prevalent in some populations of wild raccoons that several states and the U.S. federal government, as well as authorities in Canada, have developed programs of oral vaccination to try to reduce the spread of this lethal disease.[121][122][123] In Europe, raccoons have not yet been found to play a notable role in the spread of rabies or canine distemper; however, the Baylisascaris roundworm is widely present in the population originating in Hesse, Germany.[124]

Among the main indicators for rabies in raccoons are appearing sick, impaired mobility, abnormal vocalization and acting aggressive.[125] On the other hand, most won't show the aggressive behavior known from red foxes and other canidaes[126] and will retire to their den instead.[22] There may also be no visible signs of sickness.[125] It is recommended not to approach conspicuous looking or acting animals and to notify proper authorities like an animal control officer from the local health department.[127] Seeing a raccoon at daylight is also thought to be an indicator of rabies, but healthy animals, especially nursing mothers, occasionally also forage in the daytime.

Subspecies

Mammal Species of the World, Third Edition, lists 21 subspecies (one extinct) of Procyon lotor:

  • Procyon lotor lotor
  • Procyon lotor auspicatus
  • Procyon lotor elucus
  • Procyon lotor excelsus
  • Procyon lotor fuscipes
  • Procyon lotor gloveralleni †
  • Procyon lotor grinnelli
  • Procyon lotor hernandezii
  • Procyon lotor hirtus
  • Procyon lotor incautus
  • Procyon lotor inesperatus
  • Procyon lotor insularis
  • Procyon lotor litoreus
  • Procyon lotor marinus
  • Procyon lotor maynardi
  • Procyon lotor megalodous
  • Procyon lotor pacificus
  • Procyon lotor pallidus
  • Procyon lotor psora
  • Procyon lotor pumilus
  • Procyon lotor simus
  • Procyon lotor vancouverensis

Raccoons and people

A skunk and raccoon share cat food morsels in a Hollywood, California back yard

Conflicts

The increasing number of raccoons in urban areas has resulted in extremely diverse reactions ranging from absolute rejection to intensive feeding.[128] Some wildlife experts caution against feeding wild animals, because they might get increasingly obtrusive and dependant on humans as food source.[129] Other challenge such arguments and give advice for feeding wildlife in their books.[130][131] Showing no fear of humans is most likely not an indicator for rabies, but a behavior adjustment after living in the city for many generations.[132] Raccoons usually don't prey on domestic cats and dogs, but individual cases of killings have been reported.[133]

While overthrown trash cans and raided fruit trees are merely regarded as a nuisance by house owners, it can cost thousands of dollars to repair damages caused by the use of attics as dens.[134] However, relocating or killing single animals often only solves problems with particularly wild or even aggressive individuals, since adequate dens are either known to several raccoons or will be rediscovered soon.[135] Instead, counter meassures like cutting tree branches to prevent raccoons from getting into the house are much more effective and cheaper.[136] Since raccoons are able to increase their reproduction rate accordingly, extensive hunting does often not solve problems with raccoon populations (see the chapter about “Reproduction”). Older males also claim larger home ranges, resulting in a lower population density.[22] The costs of large-scale measures to drive out all raccoons from one area temporarily are usually many times higher than the costs of the damages done by the raccoons.[22]

In mythology and culture

Depicted on a shell drawing from the pre-Columbian civilization at Spiro Mounds, Oklahoma.

In the mythology of the indigenous peoples of the Americas the raccoon was the subject of folk tales.[137] Stories like How raccoons catch so many crayfish from the Tuscarora centered on its skills at foraging.[138] In other tales, the raccoon played the role of the trickster who outsmarts other animals like coyotes and wolves.[139] Among others, the Dakota Sioux believed that the raccoon has spirit powers due to its facial mask which resembled the facial paintings used during sacred rituals.[140] The Aztecs linked supernatural forces especially to females.[141]

In Western culture, several autobiographical novels about living with a raccoon exist, mostly written for children. The most well known is Sterling North's Rascal in which he tells how he raised a kit during the time of the First World War. In the last years, anthropomorphic raccoons played a main role in the animated television series The Raccoons, the computer-animated film Over the Hedge and the video game series Sly Cooper. (→ List of fictional raccoons)

As pets

Pen

Raccoons are sometimes kept as pets, though this is discouraged by many experts because the raccoon is not a domesticated species and may act unpredictably and aggressively in certain situations.[142][143] In many states it is illegal to keep raccoons as pets, in other states[144] as well as in Germany[145] an exotic pet permit is required. It is also possible for a pet raccoon to be taken out by local authorities for a rabies test after biting another person. However, a raccoon acquired from a reputable breeder can make a suitable pet if kept according to its needs by a responsible owner.

Many raccoons which have reached their sexual maturity will show aggressive natural behaviors like biting during mating season.[146] Neutering them at around five or six months of age decreases the chance of this happening.[147] They can develop obesity and other disorders due to unnatural diet, like feeding cat food over a long time period,[148] and lack of exercise. They may also grow lonely if not having contact to conspecifics.[149] Due to its inborn curiosity, a raccoon will most likely wreak havoc in the household.[150] Often, it is already required by law to keep them in a pen. Captive raccoons can be trained to be active during the day and sleep at night,[citation needed] but usually it's impossible to teach raccoons to obey commands.[151]

Young orphan raccoons born in the wild are usually not kept as pets, but cared for and released back into the wild through professional wildlife rehabilitation. However, raccoons raised in captivity and released do not typically adapt well to life in the wild.[citation needed] It can be dangerous for raccoon kits which are still in the need for a liquid food source to be fed with cow milk instead of Kitten Milk Replacer or similar products.[152][153]

As food

While being primarily hunted for their fur, raccoons were also a source of food for many indigenous peoples,[154] as well as for early American pioneers.[155] Today, several thousand raccoons are eaten each year in the United States.[156] Its culinary use is mainly identified with certain regions of the American South like Arkansas where the Gillett Coon Supper is an important political event.[157] The first edition of The Joy of Cooking, released in 1931, had a recipe for preparing raccoon. It is suggested that removing the scent glands and fat before roasting will help tone down the strong game flavor.[158]

Notes

  1. ^ Hohmann, p. 9–13
  2. ^ Lagoni-Hansen, p. 90–91
  3. ^ Hohmann, p. 55–62
  4. ^ Hohmann, p. 71–74
  5. ^ Hohmann, p. 133–155
  6. ^ Bartussek, p. 30–31
  7. ^ Holmgren, p. 23
  8. ^ Holmgren, p. 52
  9. ^ Holmgren, p. 47
  10. ^ Holmgren, p. 42–67
  11. ^ Holmgren, p. 64
  12. ^ Lagoni-Hansen, p. 15
  13. ^ Zeveloff, p. 58
  14. ^ Hohmann, p. 77
  15. ^ Lagoni-Hansen, p. 16
  16. ^ Zeveloff, p. 58–59
  17. ^ Zeveloff, p. 59
  18. ^ Lagoni-Hansen, p. 18
  19. ^ Zeveloff, p. 59
  20. ^ Hohmann, p. 65–66; MacClintock, p. 5; Zeveloff, p. 63
  21. ^ MacClintock, p. 6; Zeveloff, p. 63
  22. ^ a b c d e f g Michler, Frank-Uwe (2008). "Ökologische und ökonomische Bedeutung des Waschbären in Mitteleuropa – Eine Stellungnahme". „Projekt Waschbär“ (in German). Retrieved 2008-06-26. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help) (See the photo of Rolf Haag together with a black raccoon.)
  23. ^ Müller, Gaby. Raccoon walk! (mpg) (Videotape). Retrieved 2008-06-26. {{cite AV media}}: Unknown parameter |date2= ignored (help) (codec: mpegv, length: 2 min 47 sec, file size: 87.4 MByte)
  24. ^ Hohmann, p. 55
  25. ^ Hohmann, p. 55
  26. ^ Hohmann, p. 56
  27. ^ Hohmann, p.57
  28. ^ Hohmann, p. 60,62
  29. ^ Zeveloff
  30. ^ Hohmann, p. 63
  31. ^ Hohmann, p. 63
  32. ^ Hohmann, p. 65
  33. ^ Hohmann, p. 65
  34. ^ Hohmann, p. 67
  35. ^ Hohmann, p. 68–70
  36. ^ Hohmann, p. 72
  37. ^ Hohmann, p. 66
  38. ^ Davis, H. B. (1907). "The Raccoon: A Study in Animal Intelligence". The American Journal of Psychology. 18 (4). Champaign, Illinois: University of Illinois Press: 447–489. Retrieved 2008-06-29. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  39. ^ Hohmann, p. 71– 72
  40. ^ Dehaene, Stanislas (1997). The number sense. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 12. ISBN 0-19-511004-8. [...] researchers have proved that raccoons, when presented with several transparent boxes with grapes inside, can learn to systematically select those that contain three grapes and to neglect those that contain two or four. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |chapterurl= (help)
  41. ^ Zeveloff, p. 99
  42. ^ Hohmann, p. 97–100
  43. ^ Zeveloff, p. 95–96
  44. ^ Hohmann, p. 94
  45. ^ MacClintock, p. 33
  46. ^ MacClintock, p. 108–113
  47. ^ Hohmann, p. 82
  48. ^ Zeveloff, p. 102
  49. ^ Hohmann, p. 85–86
  50. ^ Hohmann, p. 88
  51. ^ Hohmann, p. 83
  52. ^ Hohmann, p. 83
  53. ^ MacClintock, p. 44
  54. ^ MacClintock, p. 56–57
  55. ^ Hohmann, p. 55; Zeveloff, p. 7
  56. ^ Lagoni-Hansen, p. 41; MacClintock, p. 57
  57. ^ Holmgren, p. 70
  58. ^ Holmgren, p. 70; Lagoni-Hansen, p. 41; MacClintock, p. 57; Zeveloff, p. 7
  59. ^ MacClintock, p. 57
  60. ^ Hohmann, p. 44–45; Lagoni-Hansen, p. 41–42; Zeveloff, p. 7
  61. ^ MacClintock, p. 57
  62. ^ MacClintock, p. 57
  63. ^ Holmgren, p. 22
  64. ^ Lagoni-Hansen, p. 41
  65. ^ Stanley D. Gehrt: Raccoon social organization in South Texas. 1994 (dissertation at the University of Missouri)
  66. ^ Hohmann, p. 133–155
  67. ^ Hohmann, p. 139–141
  68. ^ Hohmann, p. 141–142
  69. ^ Hohmann, p. 152–154
  70. ^ Hohmann, p. 155
  71. ^ Hohmann, p. 133
  72. ^ Hohmann, p. 124–126
  73. ^ Hohmann, p. 142–147
  74. ^ MacClintock, p. 81
  75. ^ Hohmann, p. 150; Zeveloff, p. 122
  76. ^ Zeveloff, p. 122
  77. ^ Hohmann, p. 124; Lagoni-Hansen, p. 45
  78. ^ Hohmann, p. 131, 149–150
  79. ^ Hohmann, p. 148–149; Lagoni-Hansen, p. 47; MacClintock, p. 81–82
  80. ^ Hohmann, p. 150–151
  81. ^ Hohmann, p. 153–154
  82. ^ Hohmann, p. 131; Zeveloff, p. 121
  83. ^ Zeveloff, p. 126
  84. ^ Lagoni-Hansen, p. 50; Zeveloff, p. 126
  85. ^ Bartussek, p. 32
  86. ^ Zeveloff, p. 126
  87. ^ a b c Zeveloff, p. 127
  88. ^ Hohmann, p. 119
  89. ^ Zeveloff, p. 129
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  91. ^ Hohmann, p. 130; Zeveloff, p. 132–133
  92. ^ Zeveloff, p. 132
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  115. ^ Bartussek, p. 20
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  119. ^ Rabies - Natural History
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  121. ^ Cornell-Quebec project aims to turn back raccoon rabies from international border
  122. ^ Preventing Spread of Raccoon Rabies West of North Carolina: Oral Rabies Vaccine Program
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  137. ^ Holmgren, p. 25–46
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References

  • Zeveloff, Samuel I. (2002). Raccoons: A Natural History. Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Books. ISBN 978-1588340337.
  • Holmgren, Virginia C. (1990). Raccoons in Folklore, History and Today's Backyards. Santa Barbara, California: Capra Press. ISBN 978-0884963127.
  • MacClintock, Dorcas (1981). A Natural History of Raccoons. Caldwell (New Jersey): The Blackburn Press. ISBN 978-1930665675.
  • Bartussek, Ingo (2004). Die Waschbären kommen (in German). Niedenstein, Germany: Cognitio. ISBN 978-3932583100.
  • Hohmann, Ulf (2001). Der Waschbär (in German). Reutlingen, Germany: Oertel+Spörer. ISBN 978-3886273010. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Lagoni-Hansen, Anke (1981). Der Waschbär (in German). Mainz, Germany: Verlag Dieter Hoffmann. ISBN 3-87341-037-0.

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