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Syrian Malabar Nasrani

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Syrian Malabar Nasrani people
File:Manisir.JPG File:Kunchako Boban.jpg File:Catholica Bava.jpg
A. K. Antony, K.M Mani, Asin Thottumkal, John Abraham, Kim Thayil, Kunchako Boban, Baselios Thomas I
Religion
Christianity
Related ethnic groups
Cochin Jews, Paradesi Jews, Knanaya, Malayalis

The Syrian Malabar Nasrani people, also known as Saint Thomas Christians are an ethnoreligious group from Kerala, India, adhering to the various churches of the Saint Thomas Christian tradition. They are also known as Syrian-Malabar Christians, Suriyani Christiaanikal, Mar Thoma Nasrani, or more popularly as Syrian Christians in view that they use Syriac liturgy since the early days of Christianity in India.

The Syrian Malabar Nasranis are the descendants of the natives and those of the Jewish diaspora in Kerala [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9] who became Christians in the Malabar Coast in the earliest days of Christianity. [1][2][3][4][5][6] The possibility of the early converts being partially from the ten Lost Tribes of Northern Kingdom of ancient Israel can not also be ruled out. [10] The community also comprises several ancient Aramaic Christian settlements in Kerala which included Nestorians who were fleeing persecution. The most prominent immigrations took place after the 9th century. It has been suggested that the term Nasrani derives from the name Nazarenes used by ancient Jewish Christians in the Near-East who believed in the divinity of Jesus but clung to many of the Mosaic ceremonies.[10] They follow a unique Hebrew-Syriac Christian tradition which includes several Jewish elements although they have absorbed some Hindu customs. Their heritage is Syriac-Keralite, their culture South Indian with semitic and local influences, their faith St. Thomas Christian, and their language Malayalam.[1][2][3][4][5][6] Much of their Jewish tradition has been forgotten, especially after the Portuguese invasion of Kerala in the early 1500s.[1][2][3][4][5][6]

Terminology

Semitic Christians are also called Nasrani Mapillas.[11] According to Hermann Gundert (who wrote the first Malayalam dictionary), the term 'mapilla' was a title used to denote semitic immigrants from West Asia. [11] Thus the term Mapilla was used to denote both Arab and Christian-Jewish descendants and followers in Kerala. [12] So the descendants of Syrian-Jewish Christians are called Nasrani Mappilas. [11][13][14]

History

Main article: History of the Saint Thomas Christian tradition

Origins

Muziris, near the tip of India, in the Peutinger Table.

On the south western side of the Indian peninsula; between the mountains and the Erythraean Sea (now Arabian Sea); stretching from Kannoor to Kanyakumari was the land called Cherarajyam, which was ruled by local chieftains. Later this land came to be known as Malabar and (now) Kerala. Muziris (now known as Pattanam near Cochin) was the important entry port. After the discovery of Hippalus, every year 100 ships arrived there from various parts of the then known world, including Red Sea ports [15].

During the time of Moses and King Solomon, the Malabar coast traded spices and luxury articles with Israel.[16] Excavations carried out at Pattanam in 2008 provided evidence that the maritime trade between Kerala and the Mediterranean ports existed back in 500 BC or earlier [17]. It is possible that some of those traders who arrived from the west, including Jews, remained in Kerala.[18]

While Augustus Caesar (31 BC- 14 AD) was the Emperor of Rome and Herod the Great (37-4 BC) was King of Judea, ambassadors from Malabar visited the Emperor Augustus [19].[20]. Nasranis believe that these ambassadors were The Wise Men From the East, of the Bible.[21][22] Thus the Malabar Nasranis are some of the earliest people who joined Christianity in India.

In the first century map Tabula Peutingeriana (see the map) a temple of Augustus is clearly visible near Muziris shows the close relation between Rome and Malabar in the first century BC.

The ancient navigation route from the Judeo-Roman world to the Malabar coast

The possibility of the early converts being partially from the ten Lost Tribes of Northern Kingdom of ancient Israel can not also be ruled out .[10]. The community also comprises several ancient Aramaic Christian settlements in Kerala which included Nestorians who were fleeing persecution. The most prominent immigrations took place after the 9th century. The Knanaya Nasranis claim to be the descendants of one such group of 4th century immigrants.[1][2][3][5][23][24] while Christianity in India originated in the first century CE, after St Thomas landed in Kerala at 52 AD[25]. Besides several of the locals who joined early Christianity returned to their earlier faith during a Shaivite revival by the Shaivite scholar Manikkavacakar[26].very much clearly indicating what groups consisted of early Christianity and the faith was very much inside vedic Hinduism till the beginning of the 9th century.[clarification needed]

Thus the community consists of people from many ethnic groups of Kerala including different trading diaspora of Jews; Dravidian people; and Christian settlers of successive centuries like Knanaya people.[1][3][5][6][23][27][24]

Thus the community consists of people from many ethnic groups of Kerala including the pre-Christian era, different trading diaspora of Jews [1][3][5][6][23][27][24]

The southern coast of the Indian subcontinent (hypothesized by the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus to be the place mentioned as Ophir in the Old Testament) inevitably became a gateway from the Mediterranean world to Kerala. The people there traded in teak, ivory, spices and peacocks, and the area was endowed with a magnificent coastline with numerous ports from Mangalapuram to Kodungallur, also known as Cranganore.[28][29] In the ancient times it was called as Muziris in Latin and Muchiri in Malayalam.[30][31]

The trade routes brought with them not just riches but also stateless nations and nascent worldviews.[32][33] Cranganore became one of the earliest settlements of the Jewish diaspora from the later Old Testament period. They continued trade with the Mediterranean world, thus establishing a strong link between the southern coast of the Indian peninsula and the Judeo-Roman world.[34][35][36] Laying the links or foundations for what would later be the early 'Judeo-Nazaraean' diaspora. The early Aramaic-speaking Christians who came to Kerala from the Middle East (whose kin already had a Jewish settlement in Kodungulloor) were of largely ethnically Jewish origin.[1][2][3][8]

British researcher William Dalrymple travelled across the Arabian Sea to Kerala in a boat similar to those mentioned in ancient Jewish and Roman texts and showed how the Nasrani-Jewish people had travelled from the Middle East to Kodungulloor. He followed the same course as mentioned in the Acts of Thomas, a copy of which survives in a monastery on Mount Sinai.[37][38][39]

The term Syrian-Malabar Nasranis is a composite form of the elemental aspects of the ancient tradition. In it the term Syrian actually refers to the Aramaic speaking Jewish people rather than the country of Syria, while the term Malabar is the name of an ancient region of the present day state of Kerala in India. The term Syrian-Malabar Nasrani therefore means people of Christian-Jewish tradition and descent who follow Jesus of Nazareth and are from the Malabar coast of South India.[1][2][3][5][6][27][31]

The Tamil epic of Manimekkalai written between 2nd and 3rd century CE of Sangam Literature era mentions the Nasrani people by the name Essanis referring to one of the early sects within the Nasranis called Essenes. [40] In AD 883, Alfred the Great (849-899), King of Wessex, England reportedly sent gifts to Mar Thoma Christians of India through Sighelm, bishop of Sherbon.[41]. Around 1292 AD, Marco Polo (1254-1324) on his return journey from China visited Kerala, mentions that, "The people are idolaters, though there are some Christians and Jews among them".[42][43]

Epigraphy

File:Signatures.jpg
Front and Reverse of third Quilon copper plate with Pahlavi, Kufic and Hebrew signatures.Kept at Mar Thoma Church in Tiruvalla

The Rulers gave the Nasranis various rights and privileges which were written on copper plates. These are known as Cheppeds, Royal Grants, Sasanam etc.[44]

There are a number of such documents (Thazhekad Sasanam, The Quilon Plates (Tharisappalli Cheppeds), Mampally Sasanam and Iraviikothan Chepped (Copper Plate) etc.) in the possession of the Syrian Churches or the Kerala State. Some of these plates are said to be dated around 774 CE. Dr. Burnell, Burkatt F C, Sir Baily Harold, C P T Wenkwirth studied the inscriptions and produced varying translations. The language used is Tamil in Tamil letters with some Grantha script intermingled and Pahlavi, Kufic and Hebrew signatures.

These plates detail privileges awarded to the community by the then rulers. These influenced the development of the social structure in Kerala and privileges, rules for other communities such as Jews at a later date. These are considered as some of the most important legal documents in the history of Kerala.[45]

Christian Jewish tradition

An old church in Kerala

These early Christian Jews believed in Jesus as the Messiah, while continued following many of the Jewish traditions and Mosaic laws and called themselves Nazaraeans or Nazrani, meaning Jews who followed the Nazarene Messiah (Jesus). The term Nazaraean was first mentioned in the New Testament in Acts 24:5. The term Nasrani was used essentially to denote Jewish followers of Jesus from Nazareth, while the term Khristianos "Christian" was initially used largely to refer to non-Jewish peoples ("gentiles") who followed the Christ (Acts 11:26).[1][2][3][23][24][46] Until the advent of the Portuguese in the 1500s, the proto-Jewish-Nasrani ethos in Kerala thrived with Jewish customs and the Syrian-Persian tradition.[23]

They preserved the original rituals of the early Jewish Christians, such as covering their heads while in worship. Their ritual services (liturgy) was and still is called the Qurbana (also spelled Kurbana), which is derived from the Hebrew Korban (קרבן), meaning "Sacrifice". Their ritual service used to be held on Saturdays in the tradition of the Jewish Sabbath. The Nasrani Qurbana used to be sung in the Suryani (Syriac) and Aramaic languages. They also believed that it was the Romans who killed Jesus[1][2][3][23][24][31][47] because, historically, Jesus was crucified; the official form of execution of the Jews was typically stoning to death, while the official form of execution of the Romans was crucifixion.[47] The architecture of the early church reflected a blend of Jewish and Kerala styles.[47]

Persecution by Portuguese

Further information: Goa Inquisition
A Syro-Malabar Catholic Church in Kerala, with the Holy of Holies containing the Nasrani Menorah or Mar Thoma Sliba (St. Thomas Cross) veiled by a red curtain in the tradition of ancient Jewish synagogue.

The Judeo-Nasrani tradition of the Syro-Malabar Nasranis was wiped out when the Portuguese invaded Kerala, and denounced the Nasrani account of Christian faith as false. They imposed their European rituals and liturgy and obliterated the Jewish legacy from the Nasrani tradition. The Portuguese described the Nasranis as Sabbath-keeping Judaizers.[48]

Archbishop Menezes of Goa, convened the Synod of Diamper in Kerala in 1599.[1][2][3][49] There he ordered all the texts of the Syrian Nasranis to be burnt.[1][2][3][50] The Portuguese burned the Gospel of Thomas and the Acts of Thomas. The purpose stated by Menezes was to erase all legacies of antiquity and Jewishness.[48] Amongst several accusations, the Nasranis were accused of not venerating images of saints and biblical figures.[48] They completely obliterated the records of early Nasrani life and Hebrew-Syriac tradition and imposed on the Nasranis that they were local people who were converted and not descendants of early Jewish settlers converted to Christianity by the Apostle Thomas. This despite the fact that the Acts of Thomas (a copy of which still survives in a monastery on Mount Sinai), states that the early Christian converts by the apostle Thomas in Kerala were early Jewish people settled in the Malabar coast.[38][39]

Most of all, the Portuguese burned the Nasrani Aramaic Peshitta Bible known today as the Lost Aramaic Bible that was based on the Jewish Targum and included the Gospel of the Nazoraeans. The Portuguese imposed the teaching that the Jews killed Jesus. The Nasranis, who were, until then, the "living fossils" of the Christian-Jewish tradition, lost their very defining ethos.[48] The only Nasranis who managed to preserve some elements of their Jewish origin were the Knanaya people, because of their tradition of being endogamous within their own community and therefore preserving their Jewish tradition.[23][24][47][51]

Division and defiance

In 1653, several thousand defiant Nasrani gathered at Mattancherry, and took the Coonan Cross Oath, vowing that neither they or their descendants to come would have anything to do with the Portuguese, and that they would never bow down before them. Those who took, or supported, the oath became the Puthenkoottukar or New party, while those who remained faithful to the Catholic Church became the Pazhayakoottukar or Old party. Today they are known as Syro-Malabar Church.

In 1665, Mar Gregorios Abdul Jaleel, a Syrian Orthodox bishop, arrived in the area, and was welcomed by the Malankara Syrian Church. This was the beginning of much contact between the two churches, and it lead to the Malankara Syrian Church adopting the Antiochian liturgy. But by the 18th century, parts of the church began to have qualms over the distance to which the influence of the Patriarch of Antioch extended; in 1742, the church split, fairly amicably, into those who disliked the Patriarch's influence (the Malabar Independent Syrian Church) and those who wanted it to continue (they continued using the name Malankara Syrian Church).

In 1814, several members of the Syro-Malabar Church changed their minds about allegiance with the Roman Catholics, and sought to rejoin the other Nasrani. However, this attempt failed, as they wished to continue using their liturgy, rather than the Antiochian liturgy. Still wanting to leave Roman Catholicism, they instead sought, and gained, communion with the Assyrian Church of the East, becoming the Chaldean Syrian Church.This is the historic Melus and Ropos Schism that split the Syro Malabar church mainly in and around Thrissur.

Meanwhile, in the early 19th century Malankara Syrian Church, Abraham Malpan attempted a Protestant-style reformation; he alleged that he was returning the church to its earlier roots, prior to Portuguese influence. The reform was unpopular in the Malankara Syrian Church, and within a few decades, its supporters split away to form the Mar Thoma Church.

The issue of the limits of the Patriarch of Antioch's authority came back to the forefront in the early 20th century. Two major factions developed in the Malankara Syrian Church; both agreed that the Patriarch had liturgical authority over the church, but one faction also believed that the Patriarch had administrative authority as well, while the other favoured autocephaly. In 1912 the church split into these two factions:

Having completely submitted to the Patriarch of Antioch, a few members of the Malankara Jacobite Syrian Church under Mar Ivanious argued in favour of submission to the Roman Pope. In 1926 these dissenters split to form the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church, in communion with Roman Catholicism.

In 1958, the two Antiochian factions - Orthodox and Jacobite - were reconciled, but due to differences emerging in 1975, they have not yet been re-united.

Relationship of the Nasrani groups

Nasrani people today

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St.Marys Palli (Church) in Kottayam, Kerala containing ancient Nasrani symbols and Sassanid Pahlavi inscriptions.

Though much of the Jewish tradition was lost, some of the important traditions and Mosaic law observances lived on. The symbol of the Nasrani people is still the Nasrani menorah. Another surviving Jewish tradition still followed by the Nasranis is the tradition of Pesaha-appam or unleavened Passover bread. On passover night, the Nasrani people have Pesaha-appam along with Pesaha-pal or "Passover coconut milk". This tradition of Pesaha-appam is observed by many Nasrani people until this day.

The Nasrani Church has a separate seating arrangement for men and women. Until the 1970s the Nasrani Kurbana was sung in the Aramaic-Syriac language. Many of the tunes of the Syrian- Christian worship in Kerala are remnants of ancient Syriac tunes of antiquity.[52] The "Holy of Holies" is divided by a red curtain for most of the time and is opened during the central part of the Nasrani Mass or Qurbana. The Nasrani Baptism is still called by the Hebrew-syriac term Mamodisa and follows many of the ancient rituals of the ceremony. It is referred to in Malayalam as njana Snanam (Bath of Wisdom). Nasrani people today belong to various Christian denominations of the Saint Thomas Christian tradition. There is also a small population of atheists in the community as well.

Demographics

Nasrani people largely live in the districts of Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Pathanamthitta, Alapuzha, Kottayam, Idukki, Ernakulam, Trichur, and Wayanad, Kannur, Kozhikode in Kerala. They have also migrated to other cities in India like Kanyakumari, Ooty, Mangalore, Bangalore,Chennai, Pune, Delhi, Shimoga, Mumbai, Coimbatore, Hyderabad and Kolkota. Others have migrated to the United States, Europe, Australia or work in the Middle East. Based on the Indian census report of 2004, there are presently approximately 5,000,000 Syrian-Malabar Nasranis from across the various denominations within the Nasrani community.[53]

Many Nasrani people own large estates and engage in trade of rubber, spices and cash crops. They also take a prominent role in the educational institutions of Kerala and throughout India.[54]

Increasing migration and decreasing birth rate are endangering the Syrian Christian community in Kerala. The situation is likely to worsen in the coming decades and the community would soon enter the zero population regime. The community is facing a Parsi syndrome. Already about 25 percent of Syrian Christians live outside Kerala with a huge population living outside India. Very soon, the majority of them would be living outside and in 50 years time, the demography of Christian population in the state would change drastically.[55]

Nasrani symbol

Template:Ciiportal

The symbol of the Nasranis is the Syrian cross, also called the Nasrani Menorah[56] Mar Thoma sleeba in Malayalam. It is based on the Jewish menorah, the ancient symbol of the Hebrews, which consists of a branched candle stand for seven candlesticks. (Exodus 25).[57] In the Nasrani Menorah the six branches, (three on either side of the cross) represents God as the burning bush, while the central branch holds the cross, the dove at the tip of the cross represents the Holy Spirit. (Exodus 25:31).[57] In Jewish tradition the central branch is the main branch, from which the other branches or other six candles are lit. Netzer is the Hebrew word for "branch" and is the root word of Nazareth and Nazarene. (Isaiah 11:1).[57]

Note that the Christian cross was not adopted as a symbol by Mediterranean and European Christianity until several centuries had passed.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Menachery G (1973) The St. Thomas Christian Encyclopedia of India, Ed. George Menachery, B.N.K. Press, vol. 2, ISBN 81-87132-06-X, Lib. Cong. Cat. Card. No. 73-905568; B.N.K. Press – (has some 70 lengthy articles by different experts on the origins, development, history, culture... of these Christians, with some 300 odd photographs).
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Menachery G (ed) (1982) The St. Thomas Christian Encyclopedia of India, B.N.K. Press, vol. 1;
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Menachery G (ed); (1998) "The Indian Church History Classics", Vol. I, The Nazranies, Ollur, 1998. [ISBN 81-87133-05-8].
  4. ^ a b c d Mundadan, A. Mathias. (1984) History of Christianity in India, vol.1, Bangalore, India: Church History Association of India.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h Podipara, Placid J. (1970) "The Thomas Christians". London: Darton, Longman and Tidd, 1970. (is a readable and exhaustive study of the St. Thomas Christians.)
  6. ^ a b c d e f g Leslie Brown, (1956) The Indian Christians of St. Thomas. An Account of the Ancient Syrian Church of Malabar, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1956, 1982 (repr.)
  7. ^ Thomas Puthiakunnel, (1973) "Jewish colonies of India paved the way for St. Thomas", The Saint Thomas Christian Encyclopedia of India, ed. George Menachery, Vol. II., Trichur.
  8. ^ a b Koder S. 'History of the Jews of Kerala".The St. Thomas Christian Encyclopaedia of India, Ed. G. Menachery,1973.
  9. ^ T.K Velu Pillai, (1940) "The Travancore State Manual"; 4 volumes; Trivandrum)
  10. ^ a b c Grant, Asahel. The Nestorians, or the Lost Tribes, Containing Evidence of Their Identity. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1841
  11. ^ a b c The Land of the Perumals, or Cochin, Its Past and Present – Madras: Gantz Brothers – 1863.
  12. ^ The descendants of Arabs are called Muslim Mappila
  13. ^ The descendants of the Cochin Jews who have traditionally followed Halakhic Judaism are known as Juda Mappila
  14. ^ Bindu Malieckal (2005) Muslims, Matriliny, and A Midsummer Night's Dream: European Encounters with the Mappilas of Malabar, India; The Muslim World Volume 95 Issue 2
  15. ^ Saryu Doshi. (Ed). India and Egypt. Co-sponsored by Indian Council for Cultural Relations, and Marg Publications, Bombay, 1993. p. 45
  16. ^ ‘’Bible’’; I Kings. 9:26-28; 10:11,22; 2 Chronicles: 8:18; 9:21.
  17. ^ Kerala Council for Historical Research findings in 2006-08.
  18. ^ Edna Fernadez. The last Jews of Kerala.- The two thousand year history of India’s forgotten Jewish community. Skyhorse Publishing. c.2008. p. 80
  19. ^ Nicolaus of Damascus
  20. ^ Mathew N.M. St. Thomas Christians of Malabar Through Ages, Tiruvalla, C.S.S. 2003. ISBN 81-7821-008-8.
  21. ^ Matthew 2:1
  22. ^ Mathew, N.M. Malankara Marthoma Sabha Charitram, (History of the Marthoma Church), Volume 1.(2006). Page 68-69.
  23. ^ a b c d e f g Vellian Jacob (2001) Knanite community: History and culture; Syrian church series; vol. XVII; Jyothi Book House, Kottayam
  24. ^ a b c d e f Poomangalam C.A (1998) name= "Veluthat">Veluthat, K. (1978). Brahmin settlements in Kerala: Historical studies. Calicut: Calicut University, Sandhya Publications.
  25. ^ T.K. Joseph (1955). Six St. Thomases Of South India. University of California. p. 27.
  26. ^ Philip, E.M. (1908) The Indian Christians of St. Thomas (1908; Changanassery: Mor Adai Study Center, 2002).
  27. ^ a b c Tisserant, E. (1957) Eastern Christianity in India: A History of the Syro-Malabar Church from the Earliest Times to the Present Day. Trans. and ed. by E. R. Hambye. Westminster, MD: Newman Press.
  28. ^ T.K Velu Pillai, (1940) "The Travancore State Manual"; 4 volumes; Trivandrum)
  29. ^ James Hough (1893) "The History of Christianity in India".
  30. ^ Menachery George & Chakkalakal Werner (1987) "Kodungallur: City of St. Thomas", Azhikode
  31. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference Menachery3 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  32. ^ Bjorn Landstrom (1964) "The Quest for India", Double day English Edition, Stockholm.
  33. ^ Miller, J. Innes. (1969). The Spice Trade of The Roman Empire: 29 B.C. to A.D. 641. Oxford University Press. Special edition for Sandpiper Books. 1998. ISBN 0-19-814264-1.
  34. ^ K.V. Krishna Iyer, Kerala’s Relations with the Outside World, pp. 70, 71 in "The Cochin Synagogue Quatercentenary Celebrations Commemoration Volume", Kerala History Association, Cochin, 1971.
  35. ^ Periplus Maris Erythraei "The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea", (trans). Wilfred Schoff (1912), reprinted South Asia Books 1995 ISBN 81-215-0699-9
  36. ^ H. Rawlinson, Intercourse between India and the Western World from the Earliest Times to the Fall of Rome (1926).
  37. ^ Dalrymple, William (2000) “Indian Journeys”, BBC documentary
  38. ^ a b Acts of St. Thomas (Syriac) MA. Bevan, London, 1897
  39. ^ a b Bornkamm, G. "The Acts of Thomas" in E. Hennecke, New Testament Apocrypha, Vol. 2. London: Lutterworth, 1965.
  40. ^ Manimekalai, by Merchant Prince Shattan, Gatha 27
  41. ^ The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Part II, AD 750-919
  42. ^ Marco Polo. The Book of Travels Translated by Ronald Latham. 1958. Page 287.
  43. ^ N.M.Mathew. St. Thomas Christians of Malabar Through Ages. CSS Tiruvalla. 2003. p. 78-79
  44. ^ Syrian Christians of Kerala- SG Pothen- page 32-33 ( 1970)
  45. ^ NSC Network (2007),The Plates and the Privileges of Syrian Christians Brown L (1956)- The Indian Christians of St. Thomas-Pages 74.75, 85 to 90, Mundanadan (1970), S G Pothen (1970)
  46. ^ Puthur, B. (ed.) (2002): The Life and Nature of the St Thomas Christian Church in the Pre-Diamper Period (Cochi, Kerala).
  47. ^ a b c d Weil, S. (1982)"Symmetry between Christians and Jews in India: The Cananite Christians and Cochin Jews in Kerala. in Contributions to Indian Sociology,16.
  48. ^ a b c d Claudius Buchanan (1811). Christian Researches in Asia: With Notices of the Translation of the Scriptures into the Oriental Languages. 2nd ed. Boston: Armstron, Cornhill
  49. ^ Michael Geddes, (1694) A Short History of the Church of Malabar together with the Synod of Diamper, London.
  50. ^ van der Ploeg, J.P.L., O.P. The Christians of St. Thomas in South India and their Syriac Manuscripts. Rome and Bangalore: Center for Indian and Inter-Religious Studies and Dharmaram Publications, 1983.
  51. ^ Jessay, P.M. "The Wedding Songs of the Cochin Jews and of the Knanite Christians of Kerala: A Study in Comparison." Symposium, 29 August 1986.
  52. ^ Palackal, Joseph J. Syriac Chant Traditions in South India. Ph.d, Ethnomusicology, City University of New York, 2005.
  53. ^ (Syrian christian census 2004)
  54. ^ ('The Hindu' Syrian Christians are in a class of their own South Indian newspaper article 31 August 2001
  55. ^ ('The Milli Gazette'Syrian Christian pop. declining
  56. ^ Culture | Nasrani Syrian Christians Network || NSC NETWORK || [ nasrani.net ]
  57. ^ a b c The Holy Bible (King James Version): 1611 Edition (Thos. Nelson, 1993) ISBN 0-8407-0028-8)

External references

Hardcopy

  • Menachery G (1973) The St. Thomas Christian Encyclopedia of India, Ed. George Menachery, B.N.K. Press, vol. 2, ISBN 81-87132-06-X, Lib. Cong. Cat. Card. No. 73-905568; B.N.K. Press – (has some 70 lengthy articles by different experts on the origins, development, history, culture... of these Christians, with some 300 odd photographs).
  • Mundadan, A. Mathias. (1984) History of Christianity in India, vol.1, Bangalore, India: Church History Association of India.
  • Podipara, Placid J. (1970) "The Thomas Christians". London: Darton, Longman and Tidd, 1970. (is a readable and exhaustive study of the St. Thomas Christians.)
  • The Land of the Perumals, or Cochin, Its Past and Present– Madras: Gantz Brothers– 1863.
  • Philip, E.M. (1908) The Indian Christians of St. Thomas (1908; Changanassery: Mor Adai Study Center, 2002).
  • Veluthat, K. (1978). Brahmin settlements in Kerala: Historical studies. Calicut: Calicut University, Sandhya Publications.
  • Aprem, Mar. (1977) The Chaldaean Syrian Church in India. Trichur, Kerala, India: Mar Narsai, 1977.
  • Menachery, Professor George. (2000) Kodungallur - The Cradle of Christianity In India, Thrissur: Marthoma Pontifical Shrine.
  • Dalrymple, William (2000) “Indian Journeys”, BBC documentary
  • Acts of St. Thomas (Syriac) MA. Bevan, London, 1897
  • Poomangalam C.A (1998) The Antiquities of the Knanaya Syrian Christians; Kottayam, Kerala.
  • Menachery George & Chakkalakal Werner (1987) "Kodungallur: City of St. Thomas", Azhikode
  • Bornkamm, G. "The Acts of Thomas" in E. Hennecke, New Testament Apocrypha, Vol. 2. London: Lutterworth, 1965.
  • Tisserant, E. (1957) Eastern Christianity in India: A History of the Syro-Malabar Church from the Earliest Times to the Present Day. Trans. and ed. by E. R. Hambye. Westminster, MD: Newman Press.
  • James Hough (1893) "The History of Christianity in India".
  • Michael Geddes, (1694) A Short History of the Church of Malabar together with the Synod of Diamper, London.
  • Vellian, J (1988) Marriage Customs of the Knanites, Christian Orient, 9, Kottayam.
  • Lukas, P.U (1910) ed. Ancient songs of the Syrian Christians, Kottayam.
  • Menachery G (ed) (1982) The St. Thomas Christian Encyclopedia of India, B.N.K. Press, vol. 1;
  • K.V. Krishna Iyer, Kerala’s Relations with the Outside World, pp. 70, 71 in "The Cochin Synagogue Quatercentenary Celebrations Commemoration Volume", Kerala History Association, Cochin, 1971.
  • Periplus Maris Erythraei "The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea", (trans). Wilfred Schoff (1912), reprinted South Asia Books 1995 ISBN 81-215-0699-9
  • Miller, J. Innes. (1969). The Spice Trade of The Roman Empire: 29 B.C. to A.D. 641. Oxford University Press. Special edition for Sandpiper Books. 1998. ISBN 0-19-814264-1.
  • "In Universi Cristiani" (Latin Text of the Papal erection of the Knanaya Diocese of Kottayam)
  • Thomas Puthiakunnel, (1973) "Jewish colonies of India paved the way for St. Thomas", The Saint Thomas Christian Encyclopedia of India, ed. George Menachery, Vol. II., Trichur.
  • Koder S. 'History of the Jews of Kerala".The St. Thomas Christian Encyclopaedia of India, Ed. G. Menachery,1973.
  • Vellian Jacob (2001) Knanite community: History and culture; Syrian church series; vol. XVII; Jyothi Book House, Kottayam
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