Taurine: Difference between revisions

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
Pthalo (talk | contribs)
93 edits
m fixed a typo
Citation bot (talk | contribs)
Bots
4,922,758 edits
m [364]Misc citation tidying.
Line 95: Line 95:
Despite being present in many energy foods, taurine has not been proven to be energy-giving. A study of mice hereditarily unable to transport taurine suggests that it is needed for proper maintenance and functioning of [[skeletal muscle]]s.<ref name=>{{cite journal|author=U. Warskulat, U. Flogel, C. Jacoby, H.-G. Hartwig, M. Thewissen, M. W. Merx, A. Molojavyi, B. Heller-Stilb, J. Schrader and D. Haussinger|title=Taurine transporter knockout depletes muscle taurine levels and results in severe skeletal muscle impairment but leaves cardiac function uncompromised|year=2004|journal=The FASEB Journal|volume=18|issue=3|pages=03–0496fje|doi=10.1096/fj.03-0496fje|pmid=14734644}}</ref> In addition, it has been shown to be effective in removing fatty liver deposits in rats, preventing liver disease, and reducing [[cirrhosis]] in tested animals.<ref name=>{{cite journal|last1=Kerai|first1=MDJ|coauthors=Catherine J. Waterfield, S. H. Kenyon, D. S. Asker, J. A. Timbrell|title=Taurine: Protective properties against ethanol-induced hepatic steatosis and lipid peroxidation during chronic ethanol consumption in rats|journal=Amino Acids|volume=15|issue=1–2|pages=|year=1998|url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/m4467644l7738uw7/}}</ref><ref name=>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/4563760.stm|title=The ultimate hangover cure?|accessdate=2008-09-01|date=2005-12-28|publisher=bbc.co.uk|last=McCall|first=B}}</ref> There is also evidence that taurine is beneficial for adult human [[blood pressure]] and possibly, the alleviation of other cardiovascular ailments (in humans suffering essential [[hypertension]], taurine [[Dietary supplement|supplementation]] resulted in measurable decreases in blood pressure).{{Citation needed|date=February 2010}}
Despite being present in many energy foods, taurine has not been proven to be energy-giving. A study of mice hereditarily unable to transport taurine suggests that it is needed for proper maintenance and functioning of [[skeletal muscle]]s.<ref name=>{{cite journal|author=U. Warskulat, U. Flogel, C. Jacoby, H.-G. Hartwig, M. Thewissen, M. W. Merx, A. Molojavyi, B. Heller-Stilb, J. Schrader and D. Haussinger|title=Taurine transporter knockout depletes muscle taurine levels and results in severe skeletal muscle impairment but leaves cardiac function uncompromised|year=2004|journal=The FASEB Journal|volume=18|issue=3|pages=03–0496fje|doi=10.1096/fj.03-0496fje|pmid=14734644}}</ref> In addition, it has been shown to be effective in removing fatty liver deposits in rats, preventing liver disease, and reducing [[cirrhosis]] in tested animals.<ref name=>{{cite journal|last1=Kerai|first1=MDJ|coauthors=Catherine J. Waterfield, S. H. Kenyon, D. S. Asker, J. A. Timbrell|title=Taurine: Protective properties against ethanol-induced hepatic steatosis and lipid peroxidation during chronic ethanol consumption in rats|journal=Amino Acids|volume=15|issue=1–2|pages=|year=1998|url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/m4467644l7738uw7/}}</ref><ref name=>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/4563760.stm|title=The ultimate hangover cure?|accessdate=2008-09-01|date=2005-12-28|publisher=bbc.co.uk|last=McCall|first=B}}</ref> There is also evidence that taurine is beneficial for adult human [[blood pressure]] and possibly, the alleviation of other cardiovascular ailments (in humans suffering essential [[hypertension]], taurine [[Dietary supplement|supplementation]] resulted in measurable decreases in blood pressure).{{Citation needed|date=February 2010}}


Taurine is regularly used as an ingredient in [[energy drinks]], with many containing 1000&nbsp;mg per serving,<ref name=>rockstar69.com [http://www.rockstar69.com/productIngredients.php?pdt=1 Original Rockstar Ingredients]</ref> and some as much as 2000&nbsp;mg.<ref name=>{{cite web|url=http://energyfanatics.com/2008/05/03/nos-energy-drink-review/|title=Nos Energy Drink – Review|author=Chang, PL|date=2008-05-03|publisher=energyfanatics.com|accessdate=2010-05-21}}</ref> A 2003 study by the European Food Safety Authority found no adverse effects for up to 1,000&nbsp;mg of taurine per kilogram of body weight per day.<ref name=>[http://www.efsa.europa.eu/EFSA/efsa_locale-1178620753812_1211902328128.htm EFSA adopts opinion on two ingredients commonly used in some energy drinks] efsa.europa.eu/</ref>
Taurine is regularly used as an ingredient in [[energy drinks]], with many containing 1000&nbsp;mg per serving,<ref name=>rockstar69.com [http://www.rockstar69.com/productIngredients.php?pdt=1 Original Rockstar Ingredients]</ref> and some as much as 2000&nbsp;mg.<ref name=>{{cite web|url=http://energyfanatics.com/2008/05/03/nos-energy-drink-review/|title=Nos Energy Drink – Review|author=Chang, PL|date=2008-05-03|publisher=energyfanatics.com|accessdate=2010-05-21}}</ref> A 2003 study by the European Food Safety Authority found no adverse effects for up to 1,000&nbsp;mg of taurine per kilogram of body weight per day.<ref name=>[http://www.efsa.europa.eu/EFSA/efsa_locale-1178620753812_1211902328128.htm EFSA adopts opinion on two ingredients commonly used in some energy dinks] efsa.europa.eu/</ref>


A review published in 2008 found no documented reports of negative or positive health effects associated with the amount of taurine used in energy drinks, concluding that "The amounts of [[guarana]], taurine, and [[ginseng]] found in popular energy drinks are far below the amounts expected to deliver either therapeutic benefits or adverse events".<ref name=>{{cite journal|last1=Clauson|first1=KA|last2=Shields|first2=KM|last3=McQueen|first3=CE|last4=Persad|first4=N|title=Safety issues associated with commercially available energy drinks|publisher=|pages=e55–63; quiz e64–7|issue=3|volume=48|year=2008|journal=Journal of the American Pharmacists Association : JAPhA|pmid=18595815|doi=10.1331/JAPhA.2008.07055}}</ref>
A review published in 2008 found no documented reports of negative or positive health effects associated with the amount of taurine used in energy drinks, concluding that "The amounts of [[guarana]], taurine, and [[ginseng]] found in popular energy drinks are far below the amounts expected to deliver either therapeutic benefits or adverse events".<ref name=>{{cite journal|last1=Clauson|first1=KA|last2=Shields|first2=KM|last3=McQueen|first3=CE|last4=Persad|first4=N|title=Safety issues associated with commercially available energy drinks|publisher=|pages=e55–63; quiz e64–7|issue=3|volume=48|year=2008|journal=Journal of the American Pharmacists Association : JAPhA|pmid=18595815|doi=10.1331/JAPhA.2008.07055}}</ref>
Line 108: Line 108:


==Physiological functions==
==Physiological functions==
Taurine is essential for cardiovascular function, and development and function of skeletal muscle, the retina and the central nervous system.<ref name=Huxtable1992>{{cite journal|last=Huxtable|first=RJ|title=Physiological actions of taurine|journal=Physiol Rev|volume=72|issue=1|pages=101-63|year=1992|pmid=1731369|doi=|url=}}</ref>
Taurine is essential for cardiovascular function, and development and function of skeletal muscle, the retina and the central nervous system.<ref name=Huxtable1992>{{cite journal|last=Huxtable|first=RJ|title=Physiological actions of taurine|journal=Physiol Rev|volume=72|issue=1|pages=101–63|year=1992|pmid=1731369|doi=|url=}}</ref>


Taurine is [[Brønsted-Lowry acid-base theory|conjugate]]d via its amino terminal group with [[chenodeoxycholic acid]] and [[cholic acid]] to form the [[bile salts]] sodium taurochenodeoxycholate and sodium taurocholate. The low [[pKa]]<ref name=>{{cite journal|author=Irving CS, Hammer BE, Danyluk SS, Klein PD|title=13C Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Study of the Complexation of Calcium by Taurine|journal=Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry|volume=13|issue=2|pages=137–50|year=1980|url=|doi=10.1016/S0162-0134(00)80117-8|pmid=7431022}}</ref> of taurine's sulfonic acid group ensures this [[functional group|moiety]] is negatively charged in the pH ranges normally found in the intestinal tract and, thus, improves the [[surfactant]] properties of the cholic acid conjugate. Taurine crosses the [[blood-brain barrier]]<ref name=>{{cite journal|last1=Urquhart|first1=N|last2=Perry|first2=TL|last3=Hansen|first3=S|last4=Kennedy|first4=J|year=1974|title=Passage of taurine into adult mammalian brain|url=|journal=Journal of Neurochemistry|volume=22|issue=5|pages=871–2|doi=10.1111/j.1471-4159.1974.tb04309.x|pmid=4407108}}</ref><ref name=>{{cite journal|last1=Tsuji|first1=A|last2=Tamai|first2=I|year=1996|title=Sodium- and chloride-dependent transport of taurine at the blood-brain barrier|url=|journal=Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology|volume=403|issue=|pages=385–91|pmid=8915375}}</ref><ref name=>{{cite journal|last1=Salimäki|first1=J|last2=Scriba|first2=G|last3=Piepponen|first3=TP|last4=Rautolahti|first4=N|last5=Ahtee|first5=L|year=2003|title=The effects of systemically administered taurine and N-pivaloyltaurine on striatal extracellular dopamine and taurine in freely moving rats|url=|journal=Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Archives of Pharmacology|volume=368|issue=2|pages=134–41|doi=10.1007/s00210-003-0776-6}}</ref> and has been implicated in a wide array of physiological phenomena including inhibitory [[neurotransmission]],<ref name=>{{cite journal|last1=Olive|first1=MF|year=2002|title=Interactions between taurine and ethanol in the central nervous system|url=|journal=Amino Acids|volume=23|issue=4|pages=345–57|doi=10.1007/s00726-002-0203-1|pmid=12436202}}</ref> [[long-term potentiation]] in the [[striatum]]/[[hippocampus]],<ref name=>{{cite journal|last1=Dominy|first1=J Jr|last2=Thinschmidt|first2=JS|last3=Peris|first3=J|last4=Dawson|first4=R Jr|last5=Papke|first5=RL|year=2004|title=Taurine-induced long-lasting potentiation in the rat hippocampus shows a partial dissociation from total hippocampal taurine content and independence from activation of known taurine transporters|url=|journal=Journal of Neurochemistry|volume=89|issue=5|pages=1195–205|pmid=15147512|doi=10.1111/j.1471-4159.2004.02410.x}}</ref> [[Membrane stabilizing effect|membrane stabilization]],<ref name=>{{cite journal|last=Birdsall|first=TC|title=Therapeutic applications of taurine|journal=Alternative Medicine Review|year=1998|volume=3|issue=2|pages=128–36|pmid=9577248}}</ref> feedback inhibition of [[neutrophil]]/[[macrophage]] [[respiratory burst]], [[adipose]] tissue regulation and possible prevention of obesity,<ref name=>Ide T, Kushiro M, Takahashi Y, Shinohara K, Cha S. "mRNA expression of enzymes involved in taurine biosynthesis in rat adipose tissues. Metabolism: Clinical and Experimental 2002 Sep;51(9):1191-7.</ref><ref name=>{{cite journal|last1=Tsuboyama-Kasaoka|first1=N|last2=Shozawa|first2=C|last3=Sano|first3=K|last4=Kamei|first4=Y|last5=Kasaoka|first5=S|last6=Hosokawa|first6=Y|last7=Ezaki|first7=O|year=2006|title=Taurine (2-aminoethanesulfonic acid) deficiency creates a vicious circle promoting obesity|url=|journal=Endocrinology|volume=147|issue=7|pages=3276–84|pmid=16627576|doi=10.1210/en.2005-1007}}</ref> calcium [[homeostasis]],<ref name=>{{cite journal|last1=Foos|first1=TM|last2=Wu|first2=JY|year=2002|title=The role of taurine in the central nervous system and the modulation of intracellular calcium homeostasis|url=|journal=Neurochemical Research|volume=27|issue=1–2|pages=21–6|doi=10.1023/A:1014890219513|pmid=11926272}}</ref> recovery from [[osmotic shock]],<ref name=>{{cite journal|author=Stummer W, Betz AL, Shakui P, Keep RF|title=Blood-brain barrier taurine transport during osmotic stress and in focal cerebral ischemia|journal=Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism|year=1995|volume=15|issue=5|pages=852–9|doi=10.1038/jcbfm.1995.106|pmid=7673378}}</ref> protection against glutamate [[excitotoxicity]]<ref name=>{{cite journal|author=Leon R, Wu H, Jin Y, Wei J, Buddhala C, Prentice H, Wu JY|title=Protective function of taurine in glutamate-induced apoptosis in cultured neurons|journal=Journal of Neuroscience Research|volume=|issue=|pages=|year=2008|pmid=|doi=|url=}}</ref> and prevention of epileptic seizures.<ref name=>{cite journal|author=El Idrissi A, Messing J, Scalia J, Trenkner E|title=Prevention of epileptic seizures by taurine|journal=Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology|year=2003|volume=526|pages=515–25|pmid=|doi=|url=}}</ref> It also acts as an [[antioxidant]] and protects against toxicity of various substances (such as [[lead]] and [[cadmium]]).<ref name=>{{cite journal|last1=Green|first1=TR|last2=Fellman|first2=JH|last3=Eicher|first3=AL|last4=Pratt|first4=KL|year=1991|title=Antioxidant role and subcellular location of hypotaurine and taurine in human neutrophils|url=|journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta|volume=1073|issue=1|pages=91–7|pmid=1846756}}</ref><ref name=>{{cite journal|last1=Gürer|first1=H|last2=Ozgünes|first2=H|last3=Saygin|first3=E|last4=Ercal|first4=N|year=2001|title=Antioxidant effect of taurine against lead-induced oxidative stress|url=|journal=Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology|volume=41|issue=4|pages=397–402|pmid=11598776|doi=10.1007/s002440010265}}</ref><ref name=>{{cite journal|last1=Das|first1=J|last2=Ghosh|first2=J|last3=Manna|first3=P|last4=Sil|first4=PC|year=2008|title=Taurine provides antioxidant defense against NaF-induced cytotoxicity in murine hepatocytes|url=|journal=Pathophysiology|volume=15|issue=3|pages=181–90|doi=10.1016/j.pathophys.2008.06.002|pmid=18676123}}</ref><ref name=>{{cite journal|last1=Sinha|first1=M|last2=Manna|first2=P|last3=Sil|first3=PC|year=2008|title=Taurine protects the antioxidant defense system in the erythrocytes of cadmium treated mice|url=|journal=BMB Reports|volume=41|issue=9|pages=657–63|doi=10.5483/BMBRep.2008.41.9.657|pmid=18823590}}</ref> Additionally, supplementation with taurine has been shown to prevent oxidative stress induced by exercise.<ref name=>{{cite journal|author=Zhang M, Izumi I, Kagamimori S, Sokejima S, Yamagami T, Liu Z, Qi B|title=Role of taurine supplementation to prevent exercise-induced oxidative stress in healthy young men|journal=Amino Acids|volume=26|issue=2|year=2004|pages=203–7|pmid=15042451|doi=10.1007/s00726-003-0002-3}}</ref> In a 2008 study, taurine has been shown to reduce the secretion of [[apolipoprotein B100]] and lipids in HepG2 cells.<ref name=>{{cite journal|last1=Yanagita|first1=T|last2=Han|first2=SY|last3=Hu|first3=Y|last4=Nagao|first4=K|last5=Kitajima|first5=H|last6=Murakami|first6=S|year=2008|title=Taurine reduces the secretion of apolipoprotein B100 and lipids in HepG2 cells|url=|journal=Lipids in Health and Disease|volume=7|issue=|page=38}}</ref> High concentrations of serum lipids and apolipoprotein B100 (essential structural component of [[VLDL]] and [[LDL]]) are major risk factors of [[atherosclerosis]] and [[coronary heart disease]]. Hence, taurine supplementation is possibly beneficial for the prevention of these diseases. In a 2003 study, Zhang et al. have demonstrated the hypocholesterolemic (blood cholesterol-lowering) effect of dietary taurine in young overweight adults. Furthermore, they reported body weight also decreased significantly in the taurine supplemented group.<ref name=>{{cite journal|last1=Zhang|first1=M|last2=Bi|first2=LF|last3=Fang|first3=JH|last4=Su|first4=XL|last5=Da|first5=GL|last6=Kuwamori|first6=T|last7=Kagamimori|first7=S|year=2004|title=Beneficial effects of taurine on serum lipids in overweight or obese non-diabetic subjects|url=|journal=Amino Acids|volume=26|issue=3|pages=267–71|pmid=15221507|doi=10.1007/s00726-003-0059-z}}</ref> These findings are consistent with animal studies.<ref name=>{{cite journal|last1=Choi|first1=MJ|last2=Kim|first2=JH|last3=Chang|first3=KJ|year=2006|title=The effect of dietary taurine supplementation on plasma and liver lipid concentrations and free amino acid concentrations in rats fed a high-cholesterol diet|url=|journal=Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology|volume=583|issue=|pages=235–42|doi=10.1007/978-0-387-33504-9_25|pmid=17153607|series=Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology|isbn=978-0-387-32356-5}}</ref> Taurine has also been shown to help people with [[congestive heart failure]] by increasing the force and effectiveness of heart-muscle contractions.<ref name=>[http://www.peacehealth.org/KBASE/cam/hn-1193009.htm Congestive Heart Failure], Healthnotes, Inc, PeaceHealth, January 19, 2007</ref>
Taurine is [[Brønsted-Lowry acid-base theory|conjugate]]d via its amino terminal group with [[chenodeoxycholic acid]] and [[cholic acid]] to form the [[bile salts]] sodium taurochenodeoxycholate and sodium taurocholate. The low [[pKa]]<ref name=>{{cite journal|author=Irving CS, Hammer BE, Danyluk SS, Klein PD|title=13C Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Study of the Complexation of Calcium by Taurine|journal=Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry|volume=13|issue=2|pages=137–50|year=1980|url=|doi=10.1016/S0162-0134(00)80117-8|pmid=7431022}}</ref> of taurine's sulfonic acid group ensures this [[functional group|moiety]] is negatively charged in the pH ranges normally found in the intestinal tract and, thus, improves the [[surfactant]] properties of the cholic acid conjugate. Taurine crosses the [[blood-brain barrier]]<ref name=>{{cite journal|last1=Urquhart|first1=N|last2=Perry|first2=TL|last3=Hansen|first3=S|last4=Kennedy|first4=J|year=1974|title=Passage of taurine into adult mammalian brain|url=|journal=Journal of Neurochemistry|volume=22|issue=5|pages=871–2|doi=10.1111/j.1471-4159.1974.tb04309.x|pmid=4407108}}</ref><ref name=>{{cite journal|last1=Tsuji|first1=A|last2=Tamai|first2=I|year=1996|title=Sodium- and chloride-dependent transport of taurine at the blood-brain barrier|url=|journal=Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology|volume=403|issue=|pages=385–91|pmid=8915375}}</ref><ref name=>{{cite journal|last1=Salimäki|first1=J|last2=Scriba|first2=G|last3=Piepponen|first3=TP|last4=Rautolahti|first4=N|last5=Ahtee|first5=L|year=2003|title=The effects of systemically administered taurine and N-pivaloyltaurine on striatal extracellular dopamine and taurine in freely moving rats|url=|journal=Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Archives of Pharmacology|volume=368|issue=2|pages=134–41|doi=10.1007/s00210-003-0776-6}}</ref> and has been implicated in a wide array of physiological phenomena including inhibitory [[neurotransmission]],<ref name=>{{cite journal|last1=Olive|first1=MF|year=2002|title=Interactions between taurine and ethanol in the central nervous system|url=|journal=Amino Acids|volume=23|issue=4|pages=345–57|doi=10.1007/s00726-002-0203-1|pmid=12436202}}</ref> [[long-term potentiation]] in the [[striatum]]/[[hippocampus]],<ref name=>{{cite journal|last1=Dominy|first1=J Jr|last2=Thinschmidt|first2=JS|last3=Peris|first3=J|last4=Dawson|first4=R Jr|last5=Papke|first5=RL|year=2004|title=Taurine-induced long-lasting potentiation in the rat hippocampus shows a partial dissociation from total hippocampal taurine content and independence from activation of known taurine transporters|url=|journal=Journal of Neurochemistry|volume=89|issue=5|pages=1195–205|pmid=15147512|doi=10.1111/j.1471-4159.2004.02410.x}}</ref> [[Membrane stabilizing effect|membrane stabilization]],<ref name=>{{cite journal|last=Birdsall|first=TC|title=Therapeutic applications of taurine|journal=Alternative Medicine Review|year=1998|volume=3|issue=2|pages=128–36|pmid=9577248}}</ref> feedback inhibition of [[neutrophil]]/[[macrophage]] [[respiratory burst]], [[adipose]] tissue regulation and possible prevention of obesity,<ref name=>Ide T, Kushiro M, Takahashi Y, Shinohara K, Cha S. "mRNA expression of enzymes involved in taurine biosynthesis in rat adipose tissues. Metabolism: Clinical and Experimental 2002 Sep;51(9):1191-7.</ref><ref name=>{{cite journal|last1=Tsuboyama-Kasaoka|first1=N|last2=Shozawa|first2=C|last3=Sano|first3=K|last4=Kamei|first4=Y|last5=Kasaoka|first5=S|last6=Hosokawa|first6=Y|last7=Ezaki|first7=O|year=2006|title=Taurine (2-aminoethanesulfonic acid) deficiency creates a vicious circle promoting obesity|url=|journal=Endocrinology|volume=147|issue=7|pages=3276–84|pmid=16627576|doi=10.1210/en.2005-1007}}</ref> calcium [[homeostasis]],<ref name=>{{cite journal|last1=Foos|first1=TM|last2=Wu|first2=JY|year=2002|title=The role of taurine in the central nervous system and the modulation of intracellular calcium homeostasis|url=|journal=Neurochemical Research|volume=27|issue=1–2|pages=21–6|doi=10.1023/A:1014890219513|pmid=11926272}}</ref> recovery from [[osmotic shock]],<ref name=>{{cite journal|author=Stummer W, Betz AL, Shakui P, Keep RF|title=Blood-brain barrier taurine transport during osmotic stress and in focal cerebral ischemia|journal=Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism|year=1995|volume=15|issue=5|pages=852–9|doi=10.1038/jcbfm.1995.106|pmid=7673378}}</ref> protection against glutamate [[excitotoxicity]]<ref name=>{{cite journal|author=Leon R, Wu H, Jin Y, Wei J, Buddhala C, Prentice H, Wu JY|title=Protective function of taurine in glutamate-induced apoptosis in cultured neurons|journal=Journal of Neuroscience Research|volume=|issue=|pages=|year=2008|pmid=|doi=|url=}}</ref> and prevention of epileptic seizures.<ref name=>{cite journal|author=El Idrissi A, Messing J, Scalia J, Trenkner E|title=Prevention of epileptic seizures by taurine|journal=Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology|year=2003|volume=526|pages=515–25|pmid=|doi=|url=}}</ref> It also acts as an [[antioxidant]] and protects against toxicity of various substances (such as [[lead]] and [[cadmium]]).<ref name=>{{cite journal|last1=Green|first1=TR|last2=Fellman|first2=JH|last3=Eicher|first3=AL|last4=Pratt|first4=KL|year=1991|title=Antioxidant role and subcellular location of hypotaurine and taurine in human neutrophils|url=|journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta|volume=1073|issue=1|pages=91–7|pmid=1846756}}</ref><ref name=>{{cite journal|last1=Gürer|first1=H|last2=Ozgünes|first2=H|last3=Saygin|first3=E|last4=Ercal|first4=N|year=2001|title=Antioxidant effect of taurine against lead-induced oxidative stress|url=|journal=Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology|volume=41|issue=4|pages=397–402|pmid=11598776|doi=10.1007/s002440010265}}</ref><ref name=>{{cite journal|last1=Das|first1=J|last2=Ghosh|first2=J|last3=Manna|first3=P|last4=Sil|first4=PC|year=2008|title=Taurine provides antioxidant defense against NaF-induced cytotoxicity in murine hepatocytes|url=|journal=Pathophysiology|volume=15|issue=3|pages=181–90|doi=10.1016/j.pathophys.2008.06.002|pmid=18676123}}</ref><ref name=>{{cite journal|last1=Sinha|first1=M|last2=Manna|first2=P|last3=Sil|first3=PC|year=2008|title=Taurine protects the antioxidant defense system in the erythrocytes of cadmium treated mice|url=|journal=BMB Reports|volume=41|issue=9|pages=657–63|doi=10.5483/BMBRep.2008.41.9.657|pmid=18823590}}</ref> Additionally, supplementation with taurine has been shown to prevent oxidative stress induced by exercise.<ref name=>{{cite journal|author=Zhang M, Izumi I, Kagamimori S, Sokejima S, Yamagami T, Liu Z, Qi B|title=Role of taurine supplementation to prevent exercise-induced oxidative stress in healthy young men|journal=Amino Acids|volume=26|issue=2|year=2004|pages=203–7|pmid=15042451|doi=10.1007/s00726-003-0002-3}}</ref> In a 2008 study, taurine has been shown to reduce the secretion of [[apolipoprotein B100]] and lipids in HepG2 cells.<ref name=>{{cite journal|last1=Yanagita|first1=T|last2=Han|first2=SY|last3=Hu|first3=Y|last4=Nagao|first4=K|last5=Kitajima|first5=H|last6=Murakami|first6=S|year=2008|title=Taurine reduces the secretion of apolipoprotein B100 and lipids in HepG2 cells|url=|journal=Lipids in Health and Disease|volume=7|issue=|page=38}}</ref> High concentrations of serum lipids and apolipoprotein B100 (essential structural component of [[VLDL]] and [[LDL]]) are major risk factors of [[atherosclerosis]] and [[coronary heart disease]]. Hence, taurine supplementation is possibly beneficial for the prevention of these diseases. In a 2003 study, Zhang et al. have demonstrated the hypocholesterolemic (blood cholesterol-lowering) effect of dietary taurine in young overweight adults. Furthermore, they reported body weight also decreased significantly in the taurine supplemented group.<ref name=>{{cite journal|last1=Zhang|first1=M|last2=Bi|first2=LF|last3=Fang|first3=JH|last4=Su|first4=XL|last5=Da|first5=GL|last6=Kuwamori|first6=T|last7=Kagamimori|first7=S|year=2004|title=Beneficial effects of taurine on serum lipids in overweight or obese non-diabetic subjects|url=|journal=Amino Acids|volume=26|issue=3|pages=267–71|pmid=15221507|doi=10.1007/s00726-003-0059-z}}</ref> These findings are consistent with animal studies.<ref name=>{{cite journal|last1=Choi|first1=MJ|last2=Kim|first2=JH|last3=Chang|first3=KJ|year=2006|title=The effect of dietary taurine supplementation on plasma and liver lipid concentrations and free amino acid concentrations in rats fed a high-cholesterol diet|url=|journal=Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology|volume=583|issue=|pages=235–42|doi=10.1007/978-0-387-33504-9_25|pmid=17153607|series=Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology|isbn=978-0-387-32356-5}}</ref> Taurine has also been shown to help people with [[congestive heart failure]] by increasing the force and effectiveness of heart-muscle contractions.<ref name=>[http://www.peacehealth.org/KBASE/cam/hn-1193009.htm Congestive Heart Failure], Healthnotes, Inc, PeaceHealth, January 19, 2007</ref>

Revision as of 04:03, 18 July 2011

Taurine
Names
IUPAC name
2-aminoethanesulfonic acid
Other names
tauric acid
Identifiers
3D model (JSmol)
ChEMBL
ChemSpider
ECHA InfoCard 100.003.168 Edit this at Wikidata
UNII
  • InChI=1S/C2H7NO3S/c3-1-2-7(4,5)6/h1-3H2,(H,4,5,6) checkY
    Key: XOAAWQZATWQOTB-UHFFFAOYSA-N checkY
  • Key: XOAAWQZATWQOTB-UHFFFAOYAA
  • O=S(=O)(O)CCN
Properties
C2H7NO3S
Molar mass 125.14 g/mol
Density 1.734 g/cm3 (at −173.15 °C)
Melting point 305.11 °C
Acidity (pKa) <0, 9.06
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
checkY verify (what is checkY☒N ?)

Taurine, or 2-aminoethanesulfonic acid, is an organic acid. It is a major constituent of bile and can be found in the large intestine and in the tissues of many animals, including humans. Taurine is the most abundant free amino acid in the human body. It has a ubiquitous distribution and accounts for approximately 0.1% of total body weight. Taurine has many fundamental biological roles such as conjugation of bile acids, antioxidation, osmoregulation, membrane stabilization and modulation of calcium signaling. Taurine is essential for cardiovascular function, and development and function of skeletal muscle, the retina and the central nervous system.

Discovery and etymology

Taurine is named after the Latin taurus (a cognate of the Greek ταύρος) which means bull or ox, as it was first isolated from ox bile in 1827 by German scientists Friedrich Tiedemann and Leopold Gmelin.[1]

Structure

Taurine is a derivative of cysteine, an amino acid which contains a sulfhydryl group. Taurine is one of the few known naturally occurring sulfonic acids. In the strict sense, it is not an amino acid, as it lacks a carboxyl group,[2] but it is often called one, even in scientific literature.[3][4][5] It does contain a sulfonate group and may be called an amino sulfonic acid. Small polypeptides have been identified which contain taurine, but to date no aminoacyl tRNA synthetase has been identified as specifically recognizing taurine and capable of incorporating it into a tRNA.[6]

Sources

Dietary intake

Taurine occurs naturally in food, especially in seafood and meat. The mean daily intake from omnivore diets was determined to be around 58 mg (range from 9 to 372 mg) and to be low or negligible from a strict vegan diet. In another study, taurine intake was estimated to be generally less than 200 mg/day, even in individuals eating a high-meat diet. According to another study, taurine consumption was estimated to vary between 40 and 400 mg/day. [7]

Energy drinks

Despite being present in many energy foods, taurine has not been proven to be energy-giving. A study of mice hereditarily unable to transport taurine suggests that it is needed for proper maintenance and functioning of skeletal muscles.[8] In addition, it has been shown to be effective in removing fatty liver deposits in rats, preventing liver disease, and reducing cirrhosis in tested animals.[9][10] There is also evidence that taurine is beneficial for adult human blood pressure and possibly, the alleviation of other cardiovascular ailments (in humans suffering essential hypertension, taurine supplementation resulted in measurable decreases in blood pressure).[citation needed]

Taurine is regularly used as an ingredient in energy drinks, with many containing 1000 mg per serving,[11] and some as much as 2000 mg.[12] A 2003 study by the European Food Safety Authority found no adverse effects for up to 1,000 mg of taurine per kilogram of body weight per day.[13]

A review published in 2008 found no documented reports of negative or positive health effects associated with the amount of taurine used in energy drinks, concluding that "The amounts of guarana, taurine, and ginseng found in popular energy drinks are far below the amounts expected to deliver either therapeutic benefits or adverse events".[14]

Biosynthesis

Taurine is a major constituent of bile and can be found in the large intestine and in the tissues of many animals, including humans.[15][16] Mammalian taurine synthesis occurs in the pancreas via the cysteine sulfinic acid pathway. In this pathway, the sulfhydryl group of cysteine is first oxidized to cysteine sulfinic acid by the enzyme cysteine dioxygenase. Cysteine sulfinic acid, in turn, is decarboxylated by sulfinoalanine decarboxylase to form hypotaurine. It is unclear whether hypotaurine is then spontaneously or enzymatically oxidized to yield taurine.

Chemical synthesis and commercial production

Synthetic taurine is obtained from isethionic acid (2-hydroxyethanesulfonic acid), which in turn is obtained from the reaction of ethylene oxide with aqueous sodium bisulfite. Another approach is the reaction of aziridine with sulfurous acid. This leads directly to taurine.[17]

In 1993, approximately 5,000–6,000 tons of taurine were produced for commercial purposes; 50% for pet food manufacture, 50% in pharmaceutical applications.[18] As of 2010, China alone has more than 40 manufacturers of taurine. Most of these enterprises employ the ethanolamine method to produce a total annual production of about 3,000 tons.[19]

Physiological functions

Taurine is essential for cardiovascular function, and development and function of skeletal muscle, the retina and the central nervous system.[20]

Taurine is conjugated via its amino terminal group with chenodeoxycholic acid and cholic acid to form the bile salts sodium taurochenodeoxycholate and sodium taurocholate. The low pKa[21] of taurine's sulfonic acid group ensures this moiety is negatively charged in the pH ranges normally found in the intestinal tract and, thus, improves the surfactant properties of the cholic acid conjugate. Taurine crosses the blood-brain barrier[22][23][24] and has been implicated in a wide array of physiological phenomena including inhibitory neurotransmission,[25] long-term potentiation in the striatum/hippocampus,[26] membrane stabilization,[27] feedback inhibition of neutrophil/macrophage respiratory burst, adipose tissue regulation and possible prevention of obesity,[28][29] calcium homeostasis,[30] recovery from osmotic shock,[31] protection against glutamate excitotoxicity[32] and prevention of epileptic seizures.[33] It also acts as an antioxidant and protects against toxicity of various substances (such as lead and cadmium).[34][35][36][37] Additionally, supplementation with taurine has been shown to prevent oxidative stress induced by exercise.[38] In a 2008 study, taurine has been shown to reduce the secretion of apolipoprotein B100 and lipids in HepG2 cells.[39] High concentrations of serum lipids and apolipoprotein B100 (essential structural component of VLDL and LDL) are major risk factors of atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease. Hence, taurine supplementation is possibly beneficial for the prevention of these diseases. In a 2003 study, Zhang et al. have demonstrated the hypocholesterolemic (blood cholesterol-lowering) effect of dietary taurine in young overweight adults. Furthermore, they reported body weight also decreased significantly in the taurine supplemented group.[40] These findings are consistent with animal studies.[41] Taurine has also been shown to help people with congestive heart failure by increasing the force and effectiveness of heart-muscle contractions.[42]

Taurine levels were found to be significantly lower in vegans than in a control group on a standard American diet. Plasma taurine was 78% of control values, and urinary taurine was 29%.[43]

In the cell, taurine keeps potassium and magnesium inside the cell, while keeping excessive sodium out. In this sense, it works like a diuretic. Because it aids the movement of potassium, sodium, and calcium in and out of the cell, taurine has been used as a dietary supplement for epileptics, as well as for people who have uncontrollable facial twitches.[44]

According to animal studies, taurine produces anxiolytic effect and may act as a modulator or antianxiety agent in the central nervous system by activating the glycine receptor.[45][46][47]

Taurine is necessary for normal skeletal muscle functioning. This was shown by a 2004 study[48] using mice with a genetic taurine deficiency. They had a nearly complete depletion of skeletal and cardiac muscle taurine levels. These mice had a reduction of more than 80% of exercise capacity compared to control mice. The authors expressed themselves as "surprised" their cardiac function showed as largely normal (given various other studies about effects of taurine on the heart).

Studies have shown taurine can influence (and possibly reverse) defects in nerve blood flow, motor nerve conduction velocity, and nerve sensory thresholds in experimental diabetic neuropathic rats.[49][50] In another study on diabetic rats, taurine significantly decreased weight and decreased blood sugar in these animal models.[51] Likewise, a 2008 study demonstrated taurine administration to diabetic rabbits resulted in 30% decrease in serum glucose levels.[52] According to the single study on human subjects, daily administration of 1.5g taurine had no significant effect on insulin secretion or insulin sensitivity.[53] There is evidence that taurine may exert a beneficial effect in preventing diabetes-associated microangiopathy and tubulointerstitial injury in diabetic nephropathy.[54][55] Taurine acts as a glycation inhibitor. Studies have shown taurine-treated diabetic rats had a decrease in the formation of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) and AGEs content.[56][57] The United States Department of Agriculture has found a link between cataract development and lower levels of vitamin B6, folate, and taurine in the diets of the elderly.[58]

Taurine has been investigated in animal studies as an alternative to glucose as osmotic agent for use in peritoneal dialysis solutions.[59]

Toxicity

Taurine is involved in a number of crucial physiological processes. However, the role of taurine in these processes is not clearly understood and the influence of high taurine doses on these processes is uncertain. A substantial increase in the plasma concentration of growth hormone was reported in some epileptic patients during taurine tolerance testing (oral dose of 50 mg/kg bw/day), suggesting a potential to stimulate the hypothalamus and to modify neuroendocrine function. There is an indication that taurine (2 g/day) has some function in the maintenance and possibly in the induction of psoriasis. It may also be necessary to take into consideration that absorption of taurine from beverages may be more rapid than from foods.[7]

In animal nutrition

Taurine is an essential dietary requirement for feline health, since cats cannot synthesize the compound. The absence of taurine causes a cat's retina to slowly degenerate, causing eye problems and (eventually) irreversible blindness — a condition known as central retinal degeneration (CRD),[60][61] as well as hair loss and tooth decay. Decreased plasma taurine concentration has been demonstrated to be associated with feline dilated cardiomyopathy.[62] Unlike CRD, the condition is reversible with supplementation. Taurine is now a requirement of the Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO) and any dry or wet food product labeled approved by the AAFCO should have a minimum of 0.1% taurine in dry food and 0.2% in wet food.[63]

Research suggests taurine is essential to the normal development of passerine birds. Many passerines seek out taurine-rich spiders to feed their young, particularly just after hatching. Researchers compared the behaviors and development of birds fed a taurine-supplemented diet to a control diet and found the juveniles fed taurine-rich diets as neonates were much larger risk takers and more adept at spatial learning tasks.[64]

Other uses

Lately, cosmetic compositions containing taurine have been introduced, possibly due to its antifibrotic properties. It has been shown to prevent the damaging effects of TGFB1 to hair follicles.[65] It also helps to maintain skin hydration.[66]

Prematurely born infants are believed to lack the enzymes needed to convert cystathionine to cysteine, and may, therefore, become deficient in taurine. Thus, taurine has been added to many infant formulas, as a measure of prudence, since the early 1980s. However, this practice has never been rigorously studied, and as such it has yet to be proven to be necessary, or even beneficial.[67]

Taurine is also used in some contact lens solutions.[68]

References

  1. ^ F. Tiedemann, L. Gmelin (1827). "Einige neue Bestandtheile der Galle des Ochsen". Annalen der Physik. 85 (2): 326–37. doi:10.1002/andp.18270850214.
  2. ^ Carey, FA (2006). Organic Chemistry (6th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill. p. 1149. ISBN 0-07-282837-4. Amino acids are carboxylic acids that contain an amine function.
  3. ^ Stapleton, PP (1998). "Host defense--a role for the amino acid taurine?". Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition. 22 (1): 42–8. doi:10.1177/014860719802200142. PMID 9437654. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  4. ^ Weiss, SJ (1982). "Chlorination of Taurine by Human Neutrophils". Journal of Clinical Investigation. 70 (3): 598–607. doi:10.1172/JCI110652. PMC 370261. PMID 6286728. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  5. ^ Kirk, K; Kirk, J (1993). "Volume-regulatory taurine release from a human heart cancer cell line". FEBS Letters. 336 (1): 153–8. doi:10.1016/0014-5793(93)81630-I. PMID 8262200.
  6. ^ Lahdesmaki, P (1987). "Biosynthesis of taurine peptides in brain cytoplasmic fraction in vitro". Int J Neuroscience. 37 (1–2): 79–84. doi:10.3109/00207458708991804.
  7. ^ a b "Opinion on Caffeine, Taurine and D-Glucurono - g -Lactone as constituents of so-called "energy" drinks". Directorate-General Health and Consumers, European Commission, European Union. 1999-01-21.
  8. ^ U. Warskulat, U. Flogel, C. Jacoby, H.-G. Hartwig, M. Thewissen, M. W. Merx, A. Molojavyi, B. Heller-Stilb, J. Schrader and D. Haussinger (2004). "Taurine transporter knockout depletes muscle taurine levels and results in severe skeletal muscle impairment but leaves cardiac function uncompromised". The FASEB Journal. 18 (3): 03–0496fje. doi:10.1096/fj.03-0496fje. PMID 14734644.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  9. ^ Kerai, MDJ (1998). "Taurine: Protective properties against ethanol-induced hepatic steatosis and lipid peroxidation during chronic ethanol consumption in rats". Amino Acids. 15 (1–2). {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  10. ^ McCall, B (2005-12-28). "The ultimate hangover cure?". bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2008-09-01.
  11. ^ rockstar69.com Original Rockstar Ingredients
  12. ^ Chang, PL (2008-05-03). "Nos Energy Drink – Review". energyfanatics.com. Retrieved 2010-05-21.
  13. ^ EFSA adopts opinion on two ingredients commonly used in some energy dinks efsa.europa.eu/
  14. ^ Clauson, KA; Shields, KM; McQueen, CE; Persad, N (2008). "Safety issues associated with commercially available energy drinks". Journal of the American Pharmacists Association : JAPhA. 48 (3): e55–63, quiz e64–7. doi:10.1331/JAPhA.2008.07055. PMID 18595815.
  15. ^ Bouckenooghe T, Remacle C, Reusens B (2006). "Is taurine a functional nutrient?". Curr Opin Clin Nutr. 9 (6): 728–33. doi:10.1097/01.mco.0000247469.26414.55. PMID 17053427.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  16. ^ Brosnan J, Brosnan M (2006). "The sulfur-containing amino acids: an overview". J Nutr. 136 (6 Suppl): 1636S–40S. PMID 16702333.
  17. ^ Kosswig K, ed. (2000). "Sulfonic Acids, Aliphatic". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/14356007.a25_503.
  18. ^ Tully PS, ed. (2000). "Sulfonic Acids". Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. doi:10.1002/0471238961.1921120620211212.a01.
  19. ^ Amanda Xia (2010-01-03). "China Taurine Market Is Expected To Recover". Press release and article directory: technology. megapremium.info. Retrieved 2010-05-24.
  20. ^ Huxtable, RJ (1992). "Physiological actions of taurine". Physiol Rev. 72 (1): 101–63. PMID 1731369.
  21. ^ Irving CS, Hammer BE, Danyluk SS, Klein PD (1980). "13C Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Study of the Complexation of Calcium by Taurine". Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry. 13 (2): 137–50. doi:10.1016/S0162-0134(00)80117-8. PMID 7431022.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  22. ^ Urquhart, N; Perry, TL; Hansen, S; Kennedy, J (1974). "Passage of taurine into adult mammalian brain". Journal of Neurochemistry. 22 (5): 871–2. doi:10.1111/j.1471-4159.1974.tb04309.x. PMID 4407108.
  23. ^ Tsuji, A; Tamai, I (1996). "Sodium- and chloride-dependent transport of taurine at the blood-brain barrier". Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. 403: 385–91. PMID 8915375.
  24. ^ Salimäki, J; Scriba, G; Piepponen, TP; Rautolahti, N; Ahtee, L (2003). "The effects of systemically administered taurine and N-pivaloyltaurine on striatal extracellular dopamine and taurine in freely moving rats". Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Archives of Pharmacology. 368 (2): 134–41. doi:10.1007/s00210-003-0776-6.
  25. ^ Olive, MF (2002). "Interactions between taurine and ethanol in the central nervous system". Amino Acids. 23 (4): 345–57. doi:10.1007/s00726-002-0203-1. PMID 12436202.
  26. ^ Dominy, J Jr; Thinschmidt, JS; Peris, J; Dawson, R Jr; Papke, RL (2004). "Taurine-induced long-lasting potentiation in the rat hippocampus shows a partial dissociation from total hippocampal taurine content and independence from activation of known taurine transporters". Journal of Neurochemistry. 89 (5): 1195–205. doi:10.1111/j.1471-4159.2004.02410.x. PMID 15147512.
  27. ^ Birdsall, TC (1998). "Therapeutic applications of taurine". Alternative Medicine Review. 3 (2): 128–36. PMID 9577248.
  28. ^ Ide T, Kushiro M, Takahashi Y, Shinohara K, Cha S. "mRNA expression of enzymes involved in taurine biosynthesis in rat adipose tissues. Metabolism: Clinical and Experimental 2002 Sep;51(9):1191-7.
  29. ^ Tsuboyama-Kasaoka, N; Shozawa, C; Sano, K; Kamei, Y; Kasaoka, S; Hosokawa, Y; Ezaki, O (2006). "Taurine (2-aminoethanesulfonic acid) deficiency creates a vicious circle promoting obesity". Endocrinology. 147 (7): 3276–84. doi:10.1210/en.2005-1007. PMID 16627576.
  30. ^ Foos, TM; Wu, JY (2002). "The role of taurine in the central nervous system and the modulation of intracellular calcium homeostasis". Neurochemical Research. 27 (1–2): 21–6. doi:10.1023/A:1014890219513. PMID 11926272.
  31. ^ Stummer W, Betz AL, Shakui P, Keep RF (1995). "Blood-brain barrier taurine transport during osmotic stress and in focal cerebral ischemia". Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism. 15 (5): 852–9. doi:10.1038/jcbfm.1995.106. PMID 7673378.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  32. ^ Leon R, Wu H, Jin Y, Wei J, Buddhala C, Prentice H, Wu JY (2008). "Protective function of taurine in glutamate-induced apoptosis in cultured neurons". Journal of Neuroscience Research.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  33. ^ {cite journal|author=El Idrissi A, Messing J, Scalia J, Trenkner E|title=Prevention of epileptic seizures by taurine|journal=Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology|year=2003|volume=526|pages=515–25|pmid=|doi=|url=}}
  34. ^ Green, TR; Fellman, JH; Eicher, AL; Pratt, KL (1991). "Antioxidant role and subcellular location of hypotaurine and taurine in human neutrophils". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta. 1073 (1): 91–7. PMID 1846756.
  35. ^ Gürer, H; Ozgünes, H; Saygin, E; Ercal, N (2001). "Antioxidant effect of taurine against lead-induced oxidative stress". Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 41 (4): 397–402. doi:10.1007/s002440010265. PMID 11598776.
  36. ^ Das, J; Ghosh, J; Manna, P; Sil, PC (2008). "Taurine provides antioxidant defense against NaF-induced cytotoxicity in murine hepatocytes". Pathophysiology. 15 (3): 181–90. doi:10.1016/j.pathophys.2008.06.002. PMID 18676123.
  37. ^ Sinha, M; Manna, P; Sil, PC (2008). "Taurine protects the antioxidant defense system in the erythrocytes of cadmium treated mice". BMB Reports. 41 (9): 657–63. doi:10.5483/BMBRep.2008.41.9.657. PMID 18823590.
  38. ^ Zhang M, Izumi I, Kagamimori S, Sokejima S, Yamagami T, Liu Z, Qi B (2004). "Role of taurine supplementation to prevent exercise-induced oxidative stress in healthy young men". Amino Acids. 26 (2): 203–7. doi:10.1007/s00726-003-0002-3. PMID 15042451.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  39. ^ Yanagita, T; Han, SY; Hu, Y; Nagao, K; Kitajima, H; Murakami, S (2008). "Taurine reduces the secretion of apolipoprotein B100 and lipids in HepG2 cells". Lipids in Health and Disease. 7: 38.
  40. ^ Zhang, M; Bi, LF; Fang, JH; Su, XL; Da, GL; Kuwamori, T; Kagamimori, S (2004). "Beneficial effects of taurine on serum lipids in overweight or obese non-diabetic subjects". Amino Acids. 26 (3): 267–71. doi:10.1007/s00726-003-0059-z. PMID 15221507.
  41. ^ Choi, MJ; Kim, JH; Chang, KJ (2006). "The effect of dietary taurine supplementation on plasma and liver lipid concentrations and free amino acid concentrations in rats fed a high-cholesterol diet". Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. 583: 235–42. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-33504-9_25. ISBN 978-0-387-32356-5. PMID 17153607.
  42. ^ Congestive Heart Failure, Healthnotes, Inc, PeaceHealth, January 19, 2007
  43. ^ Laidlaw S, Shultz T, Cecchino J, Kopple J (1988). "Plasma and urine taurine levels in vegans". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 47 (4): 660–3. PMID 3354491.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  44. ^ Kirk J and Kirk K. Inhibition of volume-activated I- and taurine efflux from HeLa cells by P-glycoprotein blockers correlates with calmodulin inhibition. J. Biol. Chem, Nov 1994;269:29389–29394.
  45. ^ Kong WX, Chen SW, Li YL; et al. (2006). "Effects of taurine on rat behaviors in three anxiety models". Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 83 (2): 271–6. doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2006.02.007. PMID 16540157. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  46. ^ Zhang, CG; Kim, SJ (2007). "Taurine induces anti-anxiety by activating strychnine-sensitive glycine receptor in vivo". Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism. 51 (4): 379–86. doi:10.1159/000107687.
  47. ^ Chen, SW; Kong, WX; Zhang, YJ; Li, YL; Mi, XJ; Mu, XS (2004). "Possible anxiolytic effects of taurine in the mouse elevated plus-maze". Life Sciences. 75 (12): 1503–11. doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2004.03.010. PMID 15240184.
  48. ^ U. Warskulat, U. Flogel, C. Jacoby, H.-G. Hartwig, M. Thewissen, M. W. Merx, A. Molojavyi, B. Heller-Stilb, J. Schrader and D. Haussinger (2004). "Taurine transporter knockout depletes muscle taurine levels and results in severe skeletal muscle impairment but leaves cardiac function uncompromised". The FASEB Journal. 18 (3): 03–0496fje. doi:10.1096/fj.03-0496fje. PMID 14734644.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  49. ^ Li F, Abatan OI, Kim H, Burnett D, Larkin D, Obrosova IG, Stevens MJ (2006). "Taurine reverses neurological and neurovascular deficits in Zucker diabetic fatty rats". Neurobiology of Disease. 22 (3): 669–76. doi:10.1016/j.nbd.2006.01.012. PMID 16624563.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  50. ^ Pop-Busui R, Sullivan KA, Van Huysen C, Bayer L, Cao X, Towns R, Stevens MJ (2001). "Depletion of taurine in experimental diabetic neuropathy: implications for nerve metabolic, vascular, and functional deficits". Exp Neurol. 168 (2): 259–72. doi:10.1006/exnr.2000.7591. PMID 11259114.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  51. ^ Yutaka Nakaya, Asako Minami, Nagakatsu Harada, Sadaichi Sakamoto, Yasuharu Niwa and Masaharu Ohnaka (2000). "Taurine improves insulin sensitivity in the Otsuka Long-Evans Tokushima Fatty rat, a model of spontaneous type 2 diabetes". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 71 (1): 54–8. PMID 10617946.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  52. ^ Winiarska K, Szymanski K, Gorniak P, Dudziak M, Bryla J (2008). "Hypoglycaemic, antioxidative and nephroprotective effects of taurine in alloxan diabetic rabbits". Biochimie.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  53. ^ C. Brøns, C. Spohr, H. Storgaard, J. Dyerberg, A. Vaag. "Effect of taurine treatment on insulin secretion and action, and on serum lipid levels in overweight men with a genetic predisposition for type II diabetes mellitus. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2004) 58, 1239–1247.
  54. ^ Wu QD, Wang JH, Fennessy F, Redmond HP, Bouchier-Hayes D (1999). "Taurine prevents high-glucose-induced human vascular endothelial cell apoptosis". The American journal of physiology. 277 (6 Pt 1): C1229–38. PMID 10600775.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  55. ^ Verzola, D; Bertolotto, MB; Villaggio, B; Ottonello, L; Dallegri, F; Frumento, G; Berruti, V; Gandolfo, MT; Garibotto, G; et al. (2002). "Taurine prevents apoptosis induced by high ambient glucose in human tubule renal cells". Journal of investigative medicine: the official publication of the American Federation for Clinical Research. 50 (6): 443–51. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |first9= (help)
  56. ^ Effects of taurine on advanced glycosylation end products and expression of TGF-β in renal cortex of, TsingHua, 2005, http://www.shvoong.com/medicine-and-health/1599878-effects-taurine-advanced-glycosylation-end/
  57. ^ Huang JS, Chuang LY, Guh JY, Yang YL, Hsu MS (2008). "Effect of taurine on advanced glycation end products-induced hypertrophy in renal tubular epithelial cells". Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  58. ^ http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/ar/archive/nov03/ars1103.htm
  59. ^ http://pdiconnect.com/cgi/content/full/29/2/204
  60. ^ "Taurine And Its Importance In Cat Foods". Iams Cat Nutrition Library. 2004. Archived from the original on 2006-10-19. Retrieved 2006-08-22.
  61. ^ "Nutrient Requirements of Cats". Nutrient Requirements of Cats, Revised Edition, 1986. 1986. Retrieved 2006-09-10.
  62. ^ Myocardial failure in cats associated with low plasma taurine: a reversible cardiomyopathy
  63. ^ AAFCO
  64. ^ Arnold, KE (2007). "Parental prey selection affects risk-taking behaviour and spatial learning in avian offspring" (PDF). Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 274 (1625): 2563–9. doi:10.1098/rspb.2007.0687. PMC 2275882. PMID 17698490. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  65. ^ Collin, C; Gautier, B; Gaillard, O; Hallegot, P; Chabane, S; Bastien, P; Peyron, M; Bouleau, M; Thibaut, S (2006). "Protective effects of taurine on human hair follicle grown in vitro". International Journal of Cosmetic Science. 28 (4): 289–98. doi:10.1111/j.1467-2494.2006.00334.x. ISBN 01425463. ISSN 0142-5463. PMID 18489269. We showed that taurine [...] prevented TGF-β1-induced deleterious effects on hair follicle. {{cite journal}}: Check |isbn= value: length (help)
  66. ^ Janeke G, Siefken W, Carstensen S, Springmann G, Bleck O, Steinhart H, Höger P, Wittern KP, Wenck H, Stäb F, Sauermann G, Schreiner V, Doering T (2003). "Role of taurine accumulation in keratinocyte hydration". The Journal of Investigative Dermatology. 121 (2): 354–61. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1747.2003.12366.x. PMID 12880428.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  67. ^ Heird W.C. Taurine in neonatal nutrition—revisited. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal. Ed 89. F473-F474 2004
  68. ^ James, TJ (2004-04-01). "Ocular Health and Next Generation Solutions". Optometric Management. Retrieved 2008-01-10. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Taurine&oldid=440058068"