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{{about|the city in the [[West Bank]]}}
{{about|the city in the [[West Bank]]}}
{{Infobox Palestinian Authority muni
{{Infobox Palestinian Authority muni
|name=Bethlehem
|name=Auckland
|image=Belen palestina.jpg
|image=Belen palestina.jpg
|imgsize=250
|imgsize=250

Revision as of 07:06, 26 November 2008

This article is about the city in the West Bank. For other uses, see Bethlehem (disambiguation).

Template:Infobox Palestinian Authority muni Bethlehem (Arabic: بيت لحم, Bayt Laḥmⓘ, lit "House of Meat"; Greek: Βηθλεέμ Bethleém; Hebrew: בית לחם, Beit Lehem, lit "House of Bread") is a Palestinian city in the central West Bank, approximately Template:Km to mi south of Jerusalem, with a population of about 30,000 people. It is the capital of the Bethlehem Governorate of the Palestinian National Authority and a hub of Palestinian culture and tourism.[1][2]

According to the New Testament, Bethlehem is the birthplace of Jesus of Nazareth. The town is inhabited by one of the oldest Christian communities in the world, though the size of the community has shrunk in recent years due to emigration.[3] The city is also believed to be the birthplace of David and the location where he was crowned as the king of Israel. The city was sacked by the Samaritans in 529 CE, during their revolt, but was rebuilt by the Byzantine emperor Justinian I. Bethlehem was conquered by the Arab Caliphate of 'Umar ibn al-Khattāb in 637, who guaranteed safety for the city's religious shrines. In 1099, Crusaders captured and fortified Bethlehem and replaced its Greek Orthodox clergy with a Latin one. The Latin clergy were expelled after the city was captured by Saladin, the sultan of Egypt and Syria. With the coming of the Mamluks in 1250, the city's walls were demolished, and were subsequently rebuilt during the rule of the Ottoman Empire.[4]

The Ottomans lost the city to the British during World War I and it was to be included in an international zone under the 1947 United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine. Jordan occupied the city in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, and it was subsequently occupied by Israel in the 1967 Six Day War. Israel has retained control over the entrances and exits to Bethlehem, though day-to-day administration has been under the purview of the Palestinian National Authority since 1995.[4]

Modern Bethlehem has a Muslim majority but is also home to one of the largest Palestinian Christian communities.[3] The Bethlehem agglomeration includes the towns of Beit Jala and Beit Sahour, as well as the refugee camps of 'Aida and Azza. Bethlehem's dominant economic sector is tourism which is particularly high during the Christmas season as the city is a Christian pilgrimage center, being home of the Church of the Nativity. Bethlehem has over thirty hotels and three hundred handicraft work shops, employing several of the city's residents.[5] Rachel's Tomb, an important Jewish holy site, is located at the entrance of Bethlehem.

History

Biblical era

Bethlehem, located in the "hill country" of Judah, may be the same as the Biblical Ephrath,[6] which means "fertile": There is a possible reference to it as Beth-Lehem Ephratah.[7] It is also known as Beth-Lehem Judah,[8] and "the city of David".[9] It is first mentioned in the Tanakh and the Bible as the place where the Abrahamic matriarch Rachel died and was buried "by the wayside" (Gen. 48:7). Rachel's Tomb, the traditional grave site, stands at the entrance to Bethlehem. According to the Book of Ruth, the valley to the east is where Ruth of Moab gleaned the fields and returned to town with Naomi. Bethlehem is the traditional birthplace of David, the second king of Israel, and the place where he was anointed king by Samuel.[10] It was from the well of Bethlehem that three of his warriors brought him water when he was hiding in the cave of Adullam.[11]

Birthplace of Jesus

Further information: Church of the Nativity and Nativity of Jesus
Silver star marking the place where Jesus was born according to Christian tradition

Two accounts in the New Testament describe Jesus as born in Bethlehem. According to the Gospel of Luke,[9] Jesus's parents lived in Nazareth but traveled to Bethlehem for the census of 6 CE, and Jesus was born there before the family returned to Nazareth.

The Gospel of Matthew account implies that the family already lived in Bethlehem when Jesus was born, and later moved to Nazareth.[12][13] Matthew reports that Herod the Great, told that a 'King of the Jews' has been born in Bethlehem, ordered the killing of all the children aged two and under in the town and surrounding areas. Jesus's earthly father Joseph is warned of this in a dream, and the family escapes this fate by fleeing to Egypt and returning only after Herod has died. But being warned in another dream not to return to Judea, Joseph withdraws the family to Galilee, and goes to live in Nazareth

Early Christians interpreted a verse in the Book of Micah[14] as a prophecy of the birth of the Messiah in Bethlehem.[15] Many modern scholars question whether Jesus was really born in Bethlehem, and suggest that the different Gospel accounts were invented to present the birth of Jesus as fulfillment of prophecy and imply a connection to the lineage of King David.[16][17][18][19] The Gospel of Mark and the Gospel of John do not include a nativity narrative or any hint that Jesus was born in Bethlehem, and refer to him only as being from Nazareth.[20] In a 2005 article in Archaeology magazine, archaeologist Aviram Oshri pointed to the absence of evidence of settlement of the area at the time when Jesus was born,[21]

The antiquity of the tradition of Jesus' birth in Bethlehem is attested by the Christian apologist Justin Martyr, who stated in his Dialogue with Trypho (c. 155-161) that the Holy Family had taken refuge in a cave outside of the town.[22] Origen of Alexandria, writing around the year 247, referred to a cave in the town of Bethlehem which local people believed was the birthplace of Jesus.[23] This cave was possibly one which had previously been a site of the cult of Tammuz.[24]

The first basilica on this site was begun by Saint Helena, the mother of the Emperor Constantine I. Under the supervision of Bishop Makarios of Jerusalem, the construction was completed in 333, and became what is known today as the Basilica of the Nativity.

Roman and Byzantine periods

View of Church of the Nativity in 1833, painting by M.N.Vorobiev

Between 132-135 the city was occupied by the Romans after its capture during the Bar Kokhba Revolt. Its Jewish residents were expelled by the military orders of Hadrian.[25] While ruling Bethlehem, the Romans built a shrine to the mythical Greek cult figure Adonis on the site of the Nativity. A church was erected in 326, when Helena, the mother of the first Byzantine emperor Constantine, visited Bethlehem.[4]

During the Samaritan revolt of 529, Bethlehem was sacked and its walls and the Church of the Nativity destroyed, but they were soon rebuilt on the orders of the Emperor Justinian I. In 614, the Persian Sassanid Empire invaded Palestine and captured Bethlehem. A story recounted in later sources holds that they refrained from destroying the church on seeing the magi depicted in Persian clothing in a mosaic.[4]

Islamic rule and the Crusades

The Mosque of Omar (Umar) was built in 1860 to commemorate the Caliph Umar's visit to Bethlehem upon its capture by the Muslims. It is Bethlehem's only mosque

In 637, shortly after Jerusalem was captured by the Muslim armies, 'Umar ibn al-Khattāb, the second Caliph visited Bethlehem and promised that the Church of the Nativity would be preserved for Christian use.[4] A mosque dedicated to Umar was built upon the place in the city where he prayed, next to the church.[26] Bethlehem then passed from the control of the Islamic caliphates of the Rashidun, the Ummayads, Abbasids and the Fatimids. In 1009, during the reign of the sixth Fatimid Caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, the Church of the Nativity was demolished under his orders. It was soon rebuilt by his successor Ali az-Zahir to mend relations between the Fatimids and the Byzantine Empire.[27]

In 1099, Bethlehem was captured by the Crusaders, who fortified it and built a new monastery and cloister on the north side of the Church of the Nativity. The Greek Orthodox clergy were removed from their Sees and replaced with Latin clerics. Up until that point the official Christian presence in the region was Greek Orthodox. On Christmas Day 1100 Baldwin I, first king of the Frankish Kingdom of Jerusalem, was crowned in Bethlehem, and that year a Latin episcopate was also established in the town.[4]

A painting of Bethlehem, 1882

In 1187, Saladin, the Sultan of Egypt and Syria who led the Muslim Ayyubids, captured Bethlehem from the Crusaders. The Latin clerics were forced to leave, allowing the Greek Orthodox clergy to return. Saladin agreed to the return of two Latin priests and two deacons in 1192. However, Bethlehem suffered from the loss of the pilgrim trade, as there was a sharp decrease of European pilgrims.[4]

William IV, Count of Nevers had promised the Christian bishops of Bethlehem that if Bethlehem should fall under Muslim control, he would welcome them in the small town of Clamecy in present-day Burgundy, France. As such, The Bishop of Bethlehem duly took up residence in the hospital of Panthenor, Clamecy in 1223. Clamecy remained the continuous 'in partibus infidelium' seat of the Bishopric of Bethlehem for almost 600 years, until the French Revolution in 1789.[28]

Bethlehem — along with Jerusalem, Nazareth and Sidon — was briefly ceded to the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem by a treaty between Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II and Ayyubid Sultan al-Kamil in 1229, in return for a ten-year truce between the Ayyubids and the Crusaders. The treaty expired in 1239 and Bethlehem was recaptured by the Muslims in 1244.[29]

In 1250, with the coming to power of the Mamluks under Rukn al-Din Baibars, tolerance of Christianity declined; the clergies left the city, and in 1263 the town walls were demolished. The Latin clergy returned to Bethlehem the following century, establishing themselves in the monastery adjoining the Basilica of the Nativity. The Greek Orthodox were given control of the basilica and shared control of the Milk Grotto with the Latins and the Armenians.[4]

Ottoman and Egyptian era

A crowded street in Bethlehem, 1880
View of Bethlehem, 1898

From 1517, during the years of Ottoman control, custody of the Basilica was bitterly disputed between the Catholic and Greek Orthodox churches. From 1831 to 1841, Palestine was under the rule Muhammad Ali Dynasty of Egypt. During this period, the town suffered an earthquake as well as the destruction of the Muslim quarter by Egyptian troops, apparently as a reprisal for the murder of a favored loyalist of Ibrahim Pasha.[4]

In 1841, Bethlehem came under Ottoman rule once more and remained so until the end of the World War I. Under the Ottomans, Bethlehem's inhabitants faced unemployment, compulsory military service and heavy taxes, resulting in mass emigration particularly to South America.[4]

Twentieth century

As a result of their victory in World War I, the Allies, particularly Britain and France, divided the captured Ottoman provinces into mandates. On September 29, 1923 Bethlehem and the majority of the territory west of the Jordan River fell under the control of the British Mandate of Palestine. In the United Nations General Assembly's 1947 resolution to partition Palestine, Bethlehem was included in the special international enclave of Jerusalem to be administered by the United Nations.[30]

Jordan occupied the city during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War.[31] Many refugees from areas captured by Israeli forces in 1947-48 fled to the Bethlehem area, primarily settling in the what became the official refugee camps of 'Azza (Beit Jibrin) and 'Aida in the north and Dheisheh in the south.[32] The influx of refugees significantly transformed Bethlehem's Christian majority into a Muslim one.[33]

Jordan retained control of the city until the Six-Day War in 1967, when Bethlehem was occupied by Israel, along with the rest of the West Bank. On December 21, 1995, Israeli troops withdrew from Bethlehem,[34] and three days later the city came under the complete administration and military control of the Palestinian National Authority in conformance with the Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip in 1995.[35]

Second Intifada

Marks of IDF bullets can be seen in the upper left corner where the siege took place

During the Second Palestinian Intifada, which began in 2000-01, Bethlehem's infrastructure and tourism industry was severely damaged.[36][37] In 2002, it was a primary combat zone in Operation Defensive Shield, a major military offensive by the Israeli Defense Forces (IDF).[38]

During the operation, the IDF besieged the Church of the Nativity, where about 200 Palestinians, including a group of militants, sought refuge amid IDF advancements into the city. The siege lasted for thirty nine days and nine militants and the church's bellringer were killed. It ended with an agreement to exile thirteen of the wanted militants to various European nations and Mauritania. Pope John Paul II condemned Israel's actions, describing them as reaching "unimaginable and intolerable" levels and the United Kingdom's foreign ministry stated they were "totally unacceptable".[38]

Geography

A map indicating Bethlehem's location

Bethlehem stands at an elevation of about Template:M to ft above sea level, Template:M to ft higher than nearby Jerusalem.[39] Bethlehem is situated on the southern portion in the Judean Mountains.

The city is located Template:Km to mi northeast of Gaza and the Mediterranean Sea, Template:Km to mi west of Amman, Jordan, Template:Km to mi southeast of Tel Aviv, Israel and Template:Km to mi south of Jerusalem.[40] Nearby cities and towns include Beit Safafa and Jerusalem to the north, Beit Jala to the northwest, Husan to the west, al-Khadr and Artas to the southwest, and Beit Sahour to the east. Beit Jala and the latter form an agglomeration with Bethlehem and the Aida and Azza refugee camps are located within the city limits.[41]

Old city

In the center of Bethlehem, is its old city. The old city consists of eight quarters, laid out in a mosaic style, forming the area around the Manger Square. The quarters, include the Christian al-Najajreh, al-Farahiyeh, al-Anatreh, al-Tarajmeh, al-Qawawsa and Hreizat quarters and al-Fawaghreh — the only Muslim quarter.[42] Most of the Christian quarters are named after the Arab Ghassanid clans that settled there.[43] Al-Qawawsa Quarter was formed by Arab Christian emigrants from the nearby town of Tuqu' in the 18th century.[44] There is also a Syriac quarter outside of the old city,[42] whose inhabitants originate from Midyat in Kurdistan.[45] The total population of the old city is about 5,000.[42]

Climate

Bethlehem has a Mediterranean climate, with hot and dry summers and cold winters. Temperatures in the winter season, from mid-December to mid-March, could be cold and rainy. January is the coldest month, with temperatures ranging from 1 to 13 degree Celsius (33°–55 °F). From May through September, the weather is warm and sunny. August is the hottest month, with a high of 27 degrees Celsius (81°–63 °F). Bethlehem receives an average of Template:Mm to in of rainfall annually, 70% between November and January.[46]

Bethlehem's average annual relative humidity is 60% and reaches its highest rates between January and February. Humidity levels are at their lowest in May. Night dew may occur in up to 180 days per year. The city is influenced by the Mediterranean Sea breeze that occurs around mid-day. However, Bethlehem is affected also by annual waves of hot, dry, sandy and dust Khamaseen winds that originate from the Arabian Desert, during April, May and mid-June.[46]

Demographics

Population

Year Population
1945 8,820[47]
1961 22,450
1983 16,300[48]
1997 21,930[49]
2004 (Projected) 28,010
2005 (Projected) 29,020
2006 (Projected) 29,930

According to a PCBS estimate, Bethlehem had a population of 29,930 in mid-year 2006.[50] In the PCBS's 1997 census, the city had a population of 21,670, including a total of 6,570 refugees, accounting for 30.3% of the city's population.[49][51] In 1998, the religious makeup of the city was 67% Sunni Muslim and 33% Christian, mostly of the Greek Orthodox and Roman Catholic denominations.[52] In 2005, the total Christian population decreased to about 20%.[53] Despite Islam being Bethlehem's dominant religion, the only Muslim house of worship in the city is the Mosque of Omar located in the Manger Square.[26]

In 1997, the age distribution of Bethlehem's inhabitants was 27.4% under the age of 10, 20% from 10 to 19, 17.3% from 20-29, 17.7% from 30 to 44, 12.1% from 45-64 and 5.3% above the age of 65. There were 11,079 males and 10,594 females.[49]

Christian population

See also: Palestinian Christian
Four Bethlehem Christian women, 1911

The majority of Bethlehem's Christian inhabitants claim ancestry from Arab Christian clans from the Arabian Peninsula, including the city's two largest: al-Farahiyya and an-Najajreh. The former claims to have descended from the Ghassanids who migrated from Yemen to the Wadi Musa area in present-day Jordan and an-Najajreh descend from the Arabs of Najran in the southern Hejaz. Another Bethlehem clan, al-Anantreh, also trace their ancestry to the Arabian Peninsula.[54]

The percentage of Christians in Bethlehem has been steadily falling, primarily due to continuous emigration. The lower birth rate among Christians as compared to Muslims also accounts for some of the decline. In 1947, Christians made up 75% of the population, but by 1998 this figure had dropped to 33%.[52] The current mayor of Bethlehem, Victor Batarseh told the Voice of America that, "due to the stress, either physical or psychological, and the bad economic situation, many people are emigrating, either Christians or Muslims, but it is more apparent among Christians, because they already are a minority."[55]

Palestinian Authority rule following the Interim Agreements is officially committed to equality for Bethlehem area Christians, although there have been a few incidents of violence against them by the Preventive Security Service and militant factions.[56]

The outbreak of the Second Intifada and the resultant decrease in tourism has also affected the Christian minority, leaving many economically stricken as they are the owners of many Bethlehem hotels and services which cater to foreign tourists.[3] A statistical analysis of why Christians are leaving the area blamed the lack of economic and educational opportunities, especially due to the Christians' middle-class status and higher education.[57] Since the Second Intifada, 10% of the Christian population have left the city.[55]

A 2006 poll of Bethlehem's Christians conducted by the Palestinian Centre for Research and Cultural Dialogue, found that 90% reported having Muslim friends, 73.3% agreed that the Palestinian National Authority treats Christian heritage in the city with respect and 78% attributed the ongoing exodus of Christians from Bethlehem to the Israeli travel restrictions in the area.[58]

The Hamas government's official position has been to support the city's Christian population, though the party at times has been criticized by some anonymous residents for increasing the Islamic presence in the city by, for example, activating the call to prayer at a previously unused local mosque in a Christian neighborhood. According to the Jerusalem Post, under Hamas, the Christian population faces a lack of law and order which has left it susceptible to land theft by local mafia who take advantage of ineffective courts and the perception that the Christian population is less likely to stand up for itself.[59][60][61]

Economy

Central Bethlehem

Shopping and industry

Shopping is a major sector in Bethlehem, especially during the Christmas season. The city's main streets and old markets are lined with shops selling handicrafts, Middle Eastern spices, jewelry and oriental sweets such as baklawa.[62]

The tradition of making handicrafts in the city dates back to its founding. Numerous shops in Bethlehem sell olive wood carvings — for which the city is renowned — made from the local olive groves.[63] The carvings are the main product purchased by tourists visiting Bethlehem.[64] Religious handicrafts are also a major industry in Bethlehem, and some products include ornaments handmade from mother-of-pearl, as well as olive wood statues, boxes, and crosses.[63] The art of creating mother-of-pearl handicrafts was introduced to Bethlehem by Franciscan friars from Damascus during the 14th century.[64] Stone and marble-cutting, textiles, furniture and furnishings are other prevalent industries. Bethlehem also produces paints, plastics, synthetic rubber, pharmaceuticals, construction materials and food products, mainly pasta and confectionery.[65]

Bethlehem has a wine-producing company, Cremisan Wine, founded in 1885, that currently exports wine to several countries. The wine is produced by monks in the Monastery of Cremisan, and the majority of the grapes are harvested from the al-Khader area. The monastery's wine production is around 700,000 liters per year.[66]

Tourism

The Church of the Nativity

Tourism is Bethlehem's primary industry and unlike other Palestinian localities before 2000, the majority of the working residents did not work in Israel.[36] Over 25% of the working population was employed directly or indirectly in the industry.[65] Tourism accounts for approximately 65% of the city's economy and 11% of the Palestinian National Authority.[67]

The Church of the Nativity is one of Bethlehem's major tourist attractions and a magnet for Christian pilgrims. It stands in the center of the city — a part of the Manger Square — over a grotto or cave called the Holy Crypt, where Jesus was born. Nearby is the Milk Grotto where Jerome spent thirty years translating the Hebrew Scriptures into Latin.[4]

There are over thirty hotels in Bethlehem.[5] Jacir Palace, built in 1910 near the church, is one of Bethlehem's most successful hotels and its oldest. It was closed down in 2000 due to the violence of the Second Intifada, but reopened in 2005.[68]

Economic conference

Bethlehem hosted the largest ever economic conference in the Palestinian territories on May 21, 2008. It was initiated by Palestinian Prime Minister and former Finance Minister Salam Fayyad to convince over 1,000 businessmen, bankers and government officials from throughout the Middle East to invest in the West Bank and Gaza Strip, although Fayyad admitted the territories were "far from the perfect business environment", being directly linked with the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Nonetheless, 1.4 billion US dollars was secured for business investments in the Palestinian territories.[69]

Culture

Embroidery

See also: Palestinian costumes
A woman in Bethlehem. Her headdress and short jacket are typical of the Bethlehem area.
Christmas pilgrims, 1890

Before the establishment of Israel as a state, Bethlehem costumes and embroidery were popular in villages throughout the Judaean Hills and the coastal plain. The women embroiderers of Bethlehem and the neighboring villages of Beit Jala and Beit Sahour were known to be professional producers of wedding costumes.[70] Bethlehem was a center for embroidery producing a "strong overall effect of colors and metallic brilliance."[71]

Less formal dresses in Bethlehem were generally made of indigo fabric and a sleeveless coat (bisht), made from locally woven wool, was worn over top. Dresses for special occasions were made of striped silk with winged sleeves and the short taqsireh jacket, known throughout Palestinian as the Bethlehem jacket, was worn over it. The taqsireh was made of velvet or broadcloth, usually with heavy embroidery.[70]

Bethlehem work was unique in its use of couched gold or silver cord, or silk cord onto the silk, wool, felt or velvet used for the garment, to create stylized floral patterns with free or rounded lines. This technique was used for "royal" wedding dresses (thob malak), taqsirehs and the shatwehs worn by married women. It has been traced by some to Byzantium, and by others to the more formal costumes of the Ottoman Empire's elite. As Bethlehem was a Christian village, local women were also exposed to the detailing on church vestments with their heavy embroidery and silver brocade.[70]

Mother-of-Pearl carving

Main article: Mother-of-Pearl carving in Bethlehem

The art of mother-of-pearl carving has been a Bethlehem tradition since the 14th century when it was introduced to the city by Franciscan friars from Damascus.[72] Bethlehem's position as an important Christian city has for centuries attracted a constant stream of pilgrims. This generated much local work and income, also for women, including making mother-of-pearl souvenirs.[73] It was noted by Richard Pococke, who travelled there in 1727. [74]

Present day products, include crosses, earrings, brooches,[72] maps of Palestine,[75] and picture frames.[76]

Museums

Catholic procession on Christmas Eve in Bethlehem, 2006

Bethlehem has four museums located within its municipal borders. The Crib of the Nativity Theatre and Museum offers visitors 31 3D models depicting the significant stages of the life of Jesus. Its theater presents a 20-minute animated show. The Badd Giacaman Museum, located in the Old City of Bethlehem, dates back to the 18th century and is primarily dedicated to the history and process of olive oil production.[2]

Baituna al-Talhami Museum, established in 1972, contains displays of the culture of Bethlehem's inhabitants.[2] The International Museum of Nativity was designed by United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) for the purpose of showing works of "high artistic quality in an evocative atmosphere".[2]

Cultural centers

Bethlehem is home to the Palestinian Heritage Center, established in 1991. The center aims to preserve and promote Palestinian embroidery, art and folklore.[77] The International Center of Bethlehem is another cultural center that concentrates primarily on the culture of Bethlehem. It provides language and guide training, woman's studies and arts and crafts displays, and training.[2]

A branch of the the Edward Said National Conservatory of Music is located in Bethlehem and has about 500 students. Its primary goals are to teach children music, train teachers for other schools, sponsor music research, and the study of Palestinian folklore music.[78]

Christmas celebrations

Christmas rites are held in Bethlehem on three different dates: December 25 is the traditional date by the Roman Catholic and Protestant denominations, but Greek, Coptic and Syrian Orthodox Christians celebrate Christmas on January 6 and Armenian Orthodox Christians on January 19. Most Christmas processions pass through Manger Square, the plaza outside the Basilica of the Nativity. Catholic services take place in St. Catherine's Church and Protestants often hold services at Shepherds' Fields.[79]

Festivals

Bethlehem, like other Palestinian localities, participates in festivals related to saints and prophets that are attached to Palestinian folklore. One such festival is the annual Feast of Saint George (al-Khadr) on 5 May-6 May. During the celebrations, Greek Orthodox Christians from the city march in procession to the nearby town of al-Khader to baptize newborns in the waters around the Monastery of St. George and sacrifice a sheep in ritual.[80]

The Feast of St. Elijah (Mar Elias) is held in a similar way, except the procession is towards the Monastery of St. Elijah to the north of Bethlehem. The feast commemorates the miracles attributed to the saint, a popular figure in Palestine. Prior, to restrictions imposed on the residents by Israel, local Christians used to visit the monastery, bringing various gifts, such as bread, olive oil and candles. The candles would be lit and the oil would be placed in front of icons in the church, while the bread was handed to the monks.[81]

Government

A Hamas rally in Bethlehem

Bethlehem is the muhfaza (seat) or district capital of the Bethlehem Governorate.

Bethlehem held its first municipal elections in 1876, after the mukhtars ("heads") the quarters of Bethlehem's Old City (excluding the Syriac Quarter) made the decision to elect a local council of seven members to represent each clan in the town. A Basic Law was established so that if the victor for mayor was a Catholic, his deputy should be of the Greek Orthodox community.

Throughout, Bethlehem's rule by the British and Jordan, the Syriac Quarter was allowed to participate in the election, as were the Ta'amrah Bedouins and Palestinian refugees, hence ratifying the amount of municipal members in the council to eleven. In 1976, an amendment was passed to allow women to vote and become council members and later the voting age was increased from 21 to 25.[82]

Today, the Bethlehem Municipal Council consists of fifteen elected members, including the mayor and deputy mayor. A special statute requires that the mayor and a majority of the municipal council be Christian, while the remainder are open seats, not restricted to any religion.[3]

There are several branches of political parties on the council, including Communist, Islamist, and secular. The leftist factions of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) such as the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) and the Palestinian People's Party (PPP) usually dominate the reserved seats. Hamas gained the majority of the open seats in the 2005 Palestinian municipal elections.[83]

File:Bethlehem-pppelectionposter.JPG
A poster of candidates representing the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine in Bethlehem

Elected Candidates of the Bethlehem municipal elections of 2005

Rank List Candidate name Religion
1 Brotherhood & Development (PFLP) Victor Batarseh †
2 United Bethlehem (Fatah and PPP) Antun Salman †
3 Reform (Hamas) Hasan al-Masalma ☪
4 United Bethlehem (Fatah and PPP) Afram Asmari †
5 Wafaa (Palestinian Islamic Jihad) Isa Zawahara ☪
6 United Bethlehem (Fatah and PPP) Khalil Chawka ☪
7 Reform (Hamas) Khalid Jadu ☪
8 Hope & Labour (Fatah) Zughbi Zughbi †
9 Reform (Hamas) Nabil al-Hraymi ☪
10 Reform (Hamas) Salih Chawka ☪
11 Reform (Hamas) Yusuf al-Natsha ☪
12 Brotherhood & Development (PFLP) Nina 'Atwan †
13 Brotherhood & Development (PFLP) George Sa'ada †
14 Independent Nadir al-Saqa †
15 United Bethlehem (Fatah and PPP) Duha al-Bandak †

Mayors

The mayor and the deputy mayor of Bethlehem are required by municipal law to be Christian.[3]

Education

According to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS), in 1997, approximately 84% of Bethlehem's population over the age of 10 was literate. Of the city's population, 10,414 were enrolled in schools (4,015 in primary school, 3,578 in secondary and 2,821 in high school). About 14.1% of high school students received diplomas.[86] There were 135 schools in the Bethlehem Governorate in 2006; 100 run the Education Ministry of the Palestinian National Authority, seven by the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) and 28 were private.[87]

Bethlehem is home to Bethlehem University, a Catholic Christian co-educational institution of higher learning founded in 1973 in the Lasallian tradition, open to students of all faiths. Bethlehem University is the first university established in the West Bank, and can trace its roots to 1893 when the De La Salle Christian Brothers opened schools throughout Palestine and Egypt.[88]

Transportation

A street in Bethlehem lined with taxis

Services

Bethlehem has three bus stations owned by private companies which offer service to Jerusalem, Beit Jala, Beit Sahour, Hebron, Nahalin, Battir, al-Khader, al-Ubeidiya and Beit Fajjar. There are two taxi stations that make trips to Beit Sahour, Beit Jala, Jerusalem, Tuqu' and Herodium. There are also two car rental departments: Murad and 'Orabi. Buses and taxis with West Bank licenses are not allowed to enter Israel, including Jerusalem, without a permit.[89]

Movement restrictions

Main entrance into Bethlehem from Jerusalem, 2005

The Israeli construction of the West Bank barrier has had an impact on Bethlehem politically, socially, and economically. The barrier runs along the northern side of the town's built-up area, within meters of houses in 'Aida refugee camp on one side, and the Jerusalem municipality on the other.[36]

Most entrances and exits from the Bethlehem agglomeration to the rest of the West Bank are currently subject to Israeli checkpoints and roadblocks. The level of access varies based on Israeli security directives. Travel for Bethlehem's Palestinian residents from the West Bank into Israeli-annexed Jerusalem is regulated by a permit-system.[90] Acquiring such permits to enter, what in the past served in many ways as an urban anchor to Bethlehem, has become exceedingly rare since the onset of the violence surrounding the Second Intifada, though Israel has subsequently erected a terminal to ease transit between the two adjoining cities.[36][91]

Palestinians are not allowed to enter the Jewish holy site of Rachel's Tomb, which is on the outskirts of the city, without a permit. Since Bethlehem and the nearby biblical Solomon's Pools lie in Area A (territory under both PNA military and civil administration), Israeli citizens are barred without a permit from the Israeli military authorities.[36]

Sister cities

Bethlehem has the following sister cities.[92][93]

References

  1. ^ "In the West Bank, Politics and Tourism Remain Bound Together Inextricably - New York Times". Retrieved 2008-01-22.
  2. ^ a b c d e "Places to Visit In & Around Bethlehem - Bethlehem Hotel -". Retrieved 2008-01-22.
  3. ^ a b c d e "O, Muslim town of Bethlehem..." the Daily Mail. Retrieved 2008-01-22.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "History of Bethlehem". Bethlehem Municipality. Retrieved 2008-01-22.
  5. ^ a b Patience, Martin (2007-12-22). "Better times return to Bethlehem". BBC News. BBC MMVIII. Retrieved 2008-01-22.
  6. ^ Gen. 35:16, Gen. 48:27, Ruth 4:11
  7. ^ Micah 5:2
  8. ^ Sam 17:12Template:Bibleverse with invalid book
  9. ^ a b Luke 2:4
  10. ^ Sam 16:4–13Template:Bibleverse with invalid book
  11. ^ Sam 23:13–17Template:Bibleverse with invalid book
  12. ^ Matthew 2:1–23
  13. ^ Geza Vermes, The Nativity: History and Legend, London, Penguin, 2006, page 64.
  14. ^ Micah 5:2
  15. ^ Edwin D. Freed, Stories of Jesus' Birth, (Continuum International, 2004) page 77.
  16. ^ Geza Vermes, The Nativity: History and Legend, London, Penguin, 2006, p22
  17. ^ E. P. Sanders, The Historical Figure of Jesus, 1993, p.85
  18. ^ John Dominic Crossan, Richard G. Watts, Who Is Jesus?: Answers to Your Questions About the Historical Jesus, Westminster John Knox Press, page 19.
  19. ^ James D. G. Dunn, Jesus Remembered: Christianity in the Making, (Eerdmans, 2003), page 344-345.
  20. ^ Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey Bullard, Mercer Dictionary of the Bible, Volume 5: Mercer University Press (1990), page 445 - 446. See Mark 6:1-4; and John 1:46
  21. ^ Aviram Oshri, "Where was Jesus Born?", Archaeology, Volume 58 Number 6, November/December 2005.
  22. ^ Joan E. Taylor, Christians and the Holy Places, Oxford University Press, 1993, pages 99-100. "Joseph ... took up his quarters in a certain cave near the village; and while they were there Mary brought forth the Christ and placed him in a manger, and here the Magi who came from Arabia found him."(Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho, chapter LXXVIII).
  23. ^ In Bethlehem the cave is pointed out where he was born, and the manger in the cave where he was wrapped in swaddling clothes. And the rumor is in those places, and among foreigners of the Faith, that indeed Jesus was born in this cave who is worshipped and reverenced by the Christians. (Origen, Contra Celsum, book I, chapter LI).
  24. ^ Joan E. Taylor, Christians and the Holy Places, Oxford University Press, 1993, pages 96-104.
  25. ^ History of Bethlehem Bethlehem Homepage
  26. ^ a b "Mosque of Omar, Bethlehem". Atlas Travel and Tourist Agency. Retrieved 2008-01-22.
  27. ^ "Persian, Greek, Roman, Byzantine Eras". History of the Middle East Database. Retrieved 2008-01-22. {{cite web}}: Text "date2007-12-05" ignored (help)
  28. ^ de Sivry, L: "Dictionnaire de Geographie Ecclesiastique", page 375., 1852 ed, from ecclesiastical record of letters between the Bishops of Bethlehem 'in partibus' to the bishops of Auxerre
  29. ^ Paul Read, Peirs (2000). The Templars. Macmillan. p. 206. ISBN 0312266588. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  30. ^ "IMEU: Maps: 2.7 - Jerusalem and the Corpus Separatum proposed in 1947". Retrieved 2008-01-22.
  31. ^ A Jerusalem Timeline, 3,000 Years of The City's History (2001-02) National Public Radio and BBC News
  32. ^ About Bethlehem The Centre for Cultural Heritage Preservation via Bethlehem.ps
  33. ^ Population in the Bethlehem District Bethlehem.ps
  34. ^ "Palestine Facts Timeline: 1994-1995". Palestinian Academic Society for the Study of International Affairs. Retrieved 2008-03-29.
  35. ^ Kessel, Jerrold (1995-12-24). "Muslims, Christians celebrate in Bethlehem". CNN News. Cable News Network. Retrieved 2008-01-22.
  36. ^ a b c d e Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) & Office of the Special Coordinator for the Peace Process in the Middle East (2004). "Costs of Conflict: The Changing Face of Bethlehem" (PDF). United Nations. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  37. ^ "Better times return to Bethlehem". BBC News. BBC MMVII. 2007-12-22. Retrieved 2008-01-22. {{cite web}}: Text "Middle East" ignored (help)
  38. ^ a b "Vatican outrage over church siege". BBC News. BBC MMIII. 2002-04-08. Retrieved 2008-03-29.
  39. ^ "Tourism In Bethlehem Governorate". Palestinian National Information Center.
  40. ^ Distance from Bethlehem to Tel Aviv, Distance from Bethlehem to Gaza Time and Date AS / Steffen Thorsen
  41. ^ Detailed map of the West Bank
  42. ^ a b c Bethlehem’s Quarters Centre for Cultural Heritage Preservation
  43. ^ Clans -2 Mediterranean Voices: Oral History and Cultural Practice in Mediterranean Cities
  44. ^ Tqoa’ area Zeiter, Leila. Centre for Preservation of Culture and History.
  45. ^ Short Overview of the Bato Family BatoFamily.com
  46. ^ a b "Bethlehem City: Climate". Bethlehem Municipality.
  47. ^ Hadawi, Sami. "Village Statistics of 1945: A Classification of Land and Area ownership in Palestine". {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |lpublisher= ignored (help)
  48. ^ Census by Israel Central Bureau of Statistics
  49. ^ a b c Palestinian Population by Locality, Sex and Age Groups in Years: Bethlehem Governorate (1997) Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics. Accessed on 2007-12-23.
  50. ^ Cite error: The named reference PCBS was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  51. ^ "Palestinian Population by Locality and Refugee Status". Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved 2008-01-22.
  52. ^ a b Andrea Pacini (1998). Socio-Political and Community Dynamics of Arab Christians in Jordan, Israel, and the Autonomous Palestinian Territories. Clarendon Press. pp. p. 282. ISBN 0-19-829388-7. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  53. ^ "Bethlehem Christians Worry About Islamic Takeover in Jesus' Birthplace". 2005-05-19. Retrieved 2008-01-22.
  54. ^ Bethlehem, The Holy Land’s Collective Cultural National Identity: A Palestinian Arab Historical Perspective Musallam, Adnan. Bethlehem University.
  55. ^ a b Jim Teeple (24 December 2005). "Christians Disappearing in the Birthplace of Jesus". Voice of America.
  56. ^ David Raab (5 January 2003). "The Beleaguered Christians of the Palestinian-Controlled Areas: Official PA Domination of Christians". Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs.
  57. ^ Marsh, Leonard (2005). "Palestinian Christianity – A Study in Religion and Politics". International Journal for the Study of the Christian Church. 57 (7): 147–66. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  58. ^ "Americans not sure where Bethlehem is, survey shows". Ekklesia. 2006-12-20. Retrieved 2007-05-07.
  59. ^ Joerg Luyken (21 December 2006). "Is Christianity dying in Bethlehem?". Jerusalem Post.
  60. ^ Khaled Abu Toameh (January 25, 2007). "Bethlehem Christians fear neighbors". Jerusalem Post.
  61. ^ "Palestinian Christians Look Back on a Year of Troubles". New York Times. 2007-03-11.
  62. ^ "Bethlehem Municipality(Site Under Construction)". Retrieved 2008-01-22.
  63. ^ a b "Bethlehem: Shopping". TouristHub.
  64. ^ a b "Handicrafts: Olive-wood carving". Bethlehem Municipality.
  65. ^ a b "Economy: Tourism". Bethlehem.ps. Retrieved 2008-03-29.
  66. ^ Jahsan, Ruby. "Wine". The Centre for Cultural Heritage Preservation. Retrieved 2008-01-29.
  67. ^ "Bethlehem's Struggles Continue". Al Jazeera English. Retrieved 2008-01-22.
  68. ^ Jacir Palace, InterContinental Bethlehem re-opens for business InterContinental Hotels Group
  69. ^ Palestinians bidding for business Maqbool, Aleem. BBC News. BBC MMVIII. 2008-05-21. Retrieved on 2008-05-22.
  70. ^ a b c "Palestine costume before 1948: by region". Palestine Costume Archive. Retrieved 2008-01-28.
  71. ^ Stillman, Yedida Kalfon (1979). Palestinian costume and jewelry. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. pp. p. 46. ISBN 0-8263-0490-7. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  72. ^ a b Bethlehem municipality website Cite error: The named reference "BM" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  73. ^ Weir, p.128, 280, n.30
  74. ^ A Description of the East and Some other Countries, p. 436
  75. ^ Maps of Palestine
  76. ^ Picture frames
  77. ^ "Palestinian Heritage Center: Objectives".
  78. ^ "The Edward Said National Conservatory of Music". Retrieved 2008-01-22.
  79. ^ "Christmas in Bethlehem". Sacred Destinations. Retrieved 2008-01-22.
  80. ^ St. George's Feast Bethlehem.ps.
  81. ^ St. Elijah's (Mar Elias) Feast Bethlehem.ps
  82. ^ Municipal Council Elections during the British and Jordanian Periods Bethlehem Municipal Council.
  83. ^ "Bethlehem Municipality(Site Under Construction)". Retrieved 2008-01-22.
  84. ^ "Municipalities Info".
  85. ^ "Bethlehem Municipality". Retrieved 2008-01-22.
  86. ^ "Palestinian Population (10 Years and Over) by Locality, Sex and Educational Attainment". Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved 2008-01-22.
  87. ^ "Statistics about General Education in Palestine 2005-2006" (PDF). Education Minister of the Palestinian National Authority. Retrieved 2008-01-22.
  88. ^ "Bethlehem University - History". Bethlehem University. Retrieved 2008-01-22.
  89. ^ "Bethlehem Public Transport System". Retrieved 2008-01-22. Bethlehem Municipality.
  90. ^ "Impact of Israel's separation barrier on affected West Bank communities - OCHA update report #2 (30 September 2003)". Retrieved 2008-01-22.
  91. ^ John Dugard. "Question of the violation of human rights in the occupied Arab territories, including Palestine 17 January 2006". Commission on Human Rights. Retrieved 2008-01-22.
  92. ^ Twinning with Palestine Britain Palestine Twinning Network
  93. ^ The City of Bethlehem has signed a twinning agreements with the following cities Bethlehem Municipality.

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bethlehem.

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