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Diogenes of Sinope
( Διογένης ὁ Σινωπεύς)
Diogenes by John William Waterhouse, depicting his lamp, tub, and diet of onions
Bornc. 412 BCE
Sinope
Died323 BCE
Corinth
EraAncient philosophy
RegionWestern Philosophy
SchoolGreek philosophy, Cynicism
Main interests
Asceticism, Cynicism
Notable ideas
Cynic philosophy

Diogenes the Cynic (Template:Lang-el, Diogenēs ho Kunikos) was a Greek philosopher and one of the founders of Cynic philosophy. Also known as Diogenes of Sinope (Template:Lang-el, Diogenēs ho Sinōpeus), he was born in Sinope (modern-day Sinop, Turkey), an Ionian colony on the Black Sea,[1] in 412 or 404 BCE and died at Corinth in 323 BCE.[2]

Diogenes of Sinope was a controversial figure. His father minted coins for a living and when Diogenes took to "defacement of the currency", he was banished from the city.[1]After being exiled, he moved to Athens to debunk cultural conventions. Diogenes modelled himself on the example of Hercules. He believed that virtue was better revealed in action than in theory. He used his lifestyle and behaviour to criticise the social values and institutions of what he saw as a corrupt society. He declared himself a cosmopolitan. There are many tales about him dogging Antisthenes' footsteps and becoming his faithful hound,[3] but it is by no means certain that the two men ever met. Diogenes made a virtue of poverty. He begged for a living and slept in a tub in the marketplace. He became notorious for his philosophical stunts such as carrying a lamp in the daytime, claiming to be looking for an honest man. He publicly mocked Alexander and lived. He embarrassed Plato, disputed his interpretation of Socrates and sabotaged his lectures.

After being captured by pirates and sold into slavery, Diogenes eventually settled in Corinth. There he passed his philosophy of Cynicism to Crates, who taught it to Zeno of Citium, who fashioned it into the school of Stoicism, one of the most enduring schools of Greek philosophy. None of Diogenes’ many writings have survived, but details of his life come in the form of anecdotes (chreia), especially from Diogenes Laërtius, in his book Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers. All we have is a number of anecdotes concerning his life and sayings attributed to him in a number of scattered classical sources, none of them definitive.[4]

Life

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Principal concerns

Diogenes was born in the Greek colony of Sinope on the south coast of the Black Sea, either in 412 BCE or 404 BCE.[2] Nothing is known about his early life except that his father Hicesias was a banker.[5] It seems likely that Diogenes was also enrolled into the banking business aiding his father. At some point (the exact date is unknown) Hicesias and Diogenes became embroiled in a scandal involving the adulteration or defacement of the currency,[6] and Diogenes was exiled from the city.[7] This aspect of the story seems to be corroborated by archaeology: large numbers of defaced coins (smashed with a large chisel stamp) have been discovered at Sinope dating from the middle of the 4th century BCE, and other coins of the time bear the name of Hicesias as the official who minted them.[8] The reasons for the defacement of the coinage are unclear, although Sinope was being disputed between pro-Persian and pro-Greek factions in the 4th century, and there may have been political rather than financial motives behind the act.

In Athens

Diogenes sitting in his tub. Painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme (1860)

According to one story,[7] Diogenes went to the Oracle at Delphi to ask for its advice and was told that he should "deface the currency”. Following the debacle in Sinope Diogenes decided that the oracle meant that he should deface the political currency rather than actual coins. He traveled to Athens and made it his life's goal to challenge established customs and values. He argued that instead of being troubled about the true nature of evil, people merely rely on customary interpretations. This distinction between nature ("physis") and custom ("nomos") is a favorite theme of ancient Greek philosophy, and one that Plato takes up in The Republic, in the legend of the Ring of Gyges.[9]

Diogenes arrived in Athens with a slave named Manes who abandoned him shortly thereafter. With characteristic humour, Diogenes dismissed his ill fortune by saying, "If Manes can live without Diogenes, why not Diogenes without Manes?"[10] Diogenes would mock such a relation of extreme dependency. He found the figure of a master who could do nothing for himself contemptibly helpless. He was attracted by the ascetic teaching of Antisthenes, a student of Socrates, who (according to Plato) had been present at his death.[11] When Diogenes asked Antisthenes to mentor him, Antisthenes ignored him and reportedly "eventually beat him off with his staff".[1] Diogenes responds, "Strike, for you will find no wood hard enough to keep me away from you, so long as I think you've something to say." [1]Diogenes became Antisthenes' pupil, despite the brutality with which he was initially received.[12] Whether the two ever really met is still uncertain,[13][14][15] but he surpassed his master both in reputation and in the austerity of his life. He considered his avoidance of earthly pleasures a contrast to and commentary on contemporary Athenian behaviors. This attitude was grounded in a disdain for what he regarded as the folly, pretense, vanity, self-deception and artificiality of human conduct.

Diogenes searches for an honest man. Painting attributed to J. H. W. Tischbein (c. 1780)

The stories told of Diogenes illustrate the logical consistency of his character. He inured himself to the weather by living in a tub belonging to the temple of Cybele.[16] He destroyed the single wooden bowl he possessed on seeing a peasant boy drink from the hollow of his hands.[17] It was contrary to Athenian customs to eat within the marketplace, and still he would eat, for, as he explained when rebuked, it was during the time he was in the marketplace that he felt hungry. He used to stroll about in full daylight with a lamp; when asked what he was doing, he would answer, "I am just looking for an honest man."[18] Diogenes looked for a human being but reputedly found nothing but rascals and scoundrels.[19]

When Plato gave Socrates' definition of man as "featherless bipeds" and was much praised for the definition, Diogenes plucked a chicken and brought it into Plato's Academy, saying, "Behold! I've brought you a man." After this incident, "with broad flat nails" was added to Plato's definition.[20]

In Corinth

According to a story which seems to have originated with Menippus of Gadara,[21] Diogenes was captured by pirates while on voyage to Aegina and sold as a slave in Crete to a Corinthian named Xeniades. Being asked his trade, he replied that he knew no trade but that of governing men, and that he wished to be sold to a man who needed a master. As tutor to Xeniades' two sons,[22] it is said that he lived in Corinth for the rest of his life, which he devoted to preaching the doctrines of virtuous self-control. There are many stories about what actually happened to him after his time with Xeniades' two sons. There are stories stating he was set free after he became "a cherished member of the household", while one says he was set free almost immediately, and still another states that "he grew old and died at Xeniades’ house in Corinth." [23]He is even said to have lectured to large audiences at the Isthmian Games.[24]

Although most of the stories about him living in a tub are located in Athens, there are some accounts of him living in a tub near the Craneum gymnasium in Corinth:

A report that Philip was marching on the town had thrown all Corinth into a bustle; one was furbishing his arms, another wheeling stones, a third patching the wall, a fourth strengthening a battlement, every one making himself useful somehow or other. Diogenes having nothing to do – of course no one thought of giving him a job – was moved by the sight to gather up his philosopher's cloak and begin rolling his tub energetically up and down the Craneum; an acquaintance asked for, and got, the explanation: "I do not want to be thought the only idler in such a busy multitude; I am rolling my tub to be like the rest."[25]

Diogenes and Alexander

Alexander the Great visits Diogenes at Corinth by W. Matthews (1914)
Main article: Diogenes and Alexander

It was in Corinth that a meeting between Alexander the Great and Diogenes is supposed to have taken place.[26] The accounts of Plutarch and Diogenes Laërtius recount that they exchanged only a few words: while Diogenes was relaxing in the sunlight in the morning, Alexander, thrilled to meet the famous philosopher, asked if there was any favour he might do for him. Diogenes replied, "Yes, stand out of my sunlight". Alexander then declared, "If I were not Alexander, then I should wish to be Diogenes."[27] In another account of the conversation, Alexander found the philosopher looking attentively at a pile of human bones. Diogenes explained, "I am searching for the bones of your father but cannot distinguish them from those of a slave."[28]

Death

There are conflicting accounts of Diogenes' death. He is alleged variously to have held his breath; to have become ill from eating raw octopus;[29] or to have suffered an infected dog bite.[30] When asked how he wished to be buried, he left instructions to be thrown outside the city wall so wild animals could feast on his body. When asked if he minded this, he said, "Not at all, as long as you provide me with a stick to chase the creatures away!" When asked how he could use the stick since he would lack awareness, he replied "If I lack awareness, then why should I care what happens to me when I am dead?"[31] At the end, Diogenes made fun of people's excessive concern with the "proper" treatment of the dead. The Corinthians erected to his memory a pillar on which rested a dog of Parian marble.[32]

Philosophy

Cynicism

Along with Antisthenes and Crates of Thebes, Diogenes is considered one of the founders of Cynicism. The ideas of Diogenes, like those of most other Cynics, must be arrived at indirectly. No writings of Diogenes survived even though he is reported to have authored over ten books, a volume of letters and seven tragedies.[33] Cynic ideas are inseparable from Cynic practice; therefore what we know about Diogenes is contained in anecdotes concerning his life and sayings attributed to him in a number of scattered classical sources.

Diogenes by Jules Bastien-Lepage (1873)

Diogenes maintained that all the artificial growths of society were incompatible with happiness and that morality implies a return to the simplicity of nature. So great was his austerity and simplicity that the Stoics would later claim him to be a wise man or "sophos". In his words, "Humans have complicated every simple gift of the gods."[34] Although Socrates had previously identified himself as belonging to the world, rather than a city,[35] Diogenes is credited with the first known use of the word "cosmopolitan". When he was asked where he came from, he replied, "I am a citizen of the world (cosmopolites)".[36] This was a radical claim in a world where a man's identity was intimately tied to his citizenship in a particular city state. An exile and an outcast, a man with no social identity, Diogenes made a mark on his contemporaries.

Diogenes had nothing but disdain for Plato and his abstract philosophy.[37] Diogenes viewed Antisthenes as the true heir to Socrates, and shared his love of virtue and indifference to wealth,[38] together with a disdain for general opinion.[39] Diogenes shared Socrates' belief that he could function as doctor to men's souls and improve them morally, while at the same time holding contempt for their obtuseness. Plato once described Diogenes as "a Socrates gone mad."[40]

Obscenity

Diogenes taught by living example. He tried to demonstrate that wisdom and happiness belong to the man who is independent of society and that civilisation is regressive. He scorned not only family and political social organization, but also property rights and reputation. He even rejected normal ideas about human decency. Diogenes is said to have eaten in the marketplace,[41] urinated on some people who insulted him,[42] defecated in the theatre,[43] masturbated in public, and pointed at people with his middle finger.[44]

From "Life of Diogenes": "Someone took him [Diogenes] into a magnificent house and warned him not to spit, whereupon, having cleared his throat, he spat into the man's face, being unable, he said, to find a meaner receptacle."

Diogenes the Dog

Many anecdotes of Diogenes refer to his dog-like behavior, and his praise of a dog's virtues. It is not known whether Diogenes was insulted with the epithet "doggish" and made a virtue of it, or whether he first took up the dog theme himself. Diogenes believed human beings live artificially and hypocritically and would do well to study the dog. Besides performing natural bodily functions in public with ease, a dog will eat anything, and make no fuss about where to sleep. Dogs live in the present without anxiety, and have no use for the pretensions of abstract philosophy. In addition to these virtues, dogs are thought to know instinctively who is friend and who is foe. Unlike human beings who either dupe others or are duped, dogs will give an honest bark at the truth. Diogenes stated that "other dogs bite their enemies, I bite my friends to save them."[45]

Statue of Diogenes at Sinop, Turkey

The term "Cynic" itself derives from the Greek word κυνικός, kynikos, "dog-like" and that from κύων, kyôn, "dog" (genitive: kynos).[46] One explanation offered in ancient times for why the Cynics were called dogs was because Antisthenes taught in the Cynosarges gymnasium at Athens.[47] The word Cynosarges means the place of the white dog. Later Cynics also sought to turn the word to their advantage, as a later commentator explained:

There are four reasons why the Cynics are so named. First because of the indifference of their way of life, for they make a cult of indifference and, like dogs, eat and make love in public, go barefoot, and sleep in tubs and at crossroads. The second reason is that the dog is a shameless animal, and they make a cult of shamelessness, not as being beneath modesty, but as superior to it. The third reason is that the dog is a good guard, and they guard the tenets of their philosophy. The fourth reason is that the dog is a discriminating animal which can distinguish between its friends and enemies. So do they recognize as friends those who are suited to philosophy, and receive them kindly, while those unfitted they drive away, like dogs, by barking at them.[48]

As noted (see Death), Diogenes' association with dogs was memorialized by the Corinthians, who erected to his memory a pillar on which rested a dog of Parian marble.[32]

Contemporary theory

Diogenes is discussed in a 1983 book by German philosopher Peter Sloterdijk (English language publication in 1987). In his Critique of Cynical Reason, Diogenes is used as an example of Sloterdijk’s idea of the “kynical” — in which personal degradation is used for purposes of community comment or censure. Calling the practice of this tactic “kynismos,” Sloterdijk explains that the kynical actor actually embodies the message he/she is trying to convey. The goal here is typically a false regression that mocks authority — especially authority that the kynical actor considers corrupt, suspect or unworthy.

There is another discussion of Diogenes and the Cynics in Michel Foucault's book Fearless Speech. Here Foucault discusses Diogenes' antics in relation to the speaking of truth (parrhesia) in the ancient world. Foucault expands this reading in his last course at the Collège de France, The Courage of Truth. In this course Foucault tries to establish a alternative conception of militancy and revolution through a reading of Diogenes and Cynicism. [49]

Diogenes syndrome

Main article: Diogenes syndrome

Diogenes' name has been applied to a behavioural disorder characterised by involuntary self-neglect and hoarding.[50] The disorder afflicts the elderly and has no relation to Diogenes' deliberate Herculean rejection of material comfort.[51]

Depictions

Art

Alexander and Diogenes by Caspar de Crayer (c. 1650)

Both in ancient and in modern times, Diogenes' personality has appealed strongly to sculptors and to painters. Ancient busts exist in the museums of the Vatican, the Louvre, and the Capitol. The interview between Diogenes and Alexander is represented in an ancient marble bas-relief found in the Villa Albani.

Among artists who have painted the famous encounter of Diogenes with Alexander there are works by de Crayer, de Vos, Assereto, Langetti, Sevin, Sebastiano Ricci, Gandolfi, Wink, Abildgaard, Monsiau, Martin, and Daumier. The famous story of Diogenes searching for an "honest man" has been depicted by Jordaens, van Everdingen, van der Werff, Pannini, and Corinth. Others who have painted him with his famous lantern include de Ribera, Castiglione, Petrini, Gérôme, Bastien-Lepage, and Waterhouse. The scene in which Diogenes discards his cup has been painted by Poussin, Rosa, and Martin; and the story of Diogenes begging from a statue has been depicted by Restout. In Raphael's fresco The School of Athens, a lone reclining figure in the foreground represents Diogenes.[52]

Diogenes has also been the subject of sculptures, with famous bas-relief images by Puget and Pajou.

Literature

Diogenes is referred to in Anton Chekhov's story "Ward No. 6"; William Blake's The Marriage of Heaven and Hell; François Rabelais' Gargantua and Pantagruel; Goethe's poem Genialisch Treiben; as well as in the first sentence of Søren Kierkegaard's novelistic treatise Repetition. In Cervantes' short story "The Man of Glass" ("El licenciado Vidriera"), part of the Novelas Ejemplares collection, the (anti-)hero unaccountably begins to channel Diogenes in a string of tart chreiai once he becomes convinced that he is made of glass. Diogenes gives his own life and opinions in Christoph Martin Wieland's novel Socrates Mainomenos (1770; English translation Socrates Out of His Senses, 1771). Diogenes is the primary model for the philosopher Didactylos in Terry Pratchett's Small Gods. He is mimicked by a beggar-spy in Jacqueline Carey's Kushiel's Scion and paid tribute to with a costume in a party by the main character in its sequel, Kushiel's Justice. The character Lucy Snowe in Charlotte Bronte's novel Villette is given the nickname Diogenes. Diogenes also features in Part Four of Elizabeth Smart's By Grand Central Station I Sat Down and Wept. He is a figure in Seamus Heaney's The Haw Lantern. In Christopher Moore's Lamb: The Gospel According to Biff, Christ's Childhood Pal, one of Jesus' apostles is a devotee of Diogenes, complete with his own pack of dogs which he refers to as his own disciples. His story opens the first chapter of Dolly Freed's 1978 book Possum Living.[53] The dog that Paul Dombey befriends in Charles Dickens' Dombey and Son is called Diogenes. Alexander's meeting with Diogenes is portrayed in Valerio Manfredi's Alexander: The Ends of the Earth.[54]

The many allusions to dogs in Shakespeare’s Timon of Athens are references to the school of Cynicism that could be interpreted as suggesting a parallel between the misanthropic hermit, Timon, and Diogenes; but Shakespeare would have had access to Michel de Montaigne’s essay, "Of Democritus and Heraclitus", which emphasised their differences: Timon actively wishes men ill and shuns them as dangerous, whereas Diogenes esteems them so little that contact with them could not disturb him [55] "Timonism" is in fact often contrasted with "Cynicism": "Cynics saw what people could be and were angered by what they had become; Timonists felt humans were hopelessly stupid & uncaring by nature and so saw no hope for change."[56]

The philosopher's name was adopted by the fictional Diogenes Club, an organization that Sherlock Holmes' brother Mycroft Holmes belongs to in the story "The Greek Interpreter" by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. It is called such as its members are educated, yet untalkative and have a dislike of socialising, much like the philosopher himself. The group is the focus of a number of Holmes pastiches by Kim Newman.

Notes

  1. ^ a b c d Diogenes of Sinope [www.beyond-the-pale.co.uk/diogenes.htm "Voice in the Wilderness"]. Retrieved 2011-11-13. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
  2. ^ a b Laërtius & Hicks 1925, Ⅵ:79, Plutarch, Moralia, 717c. says he died on the same day as Alexander the Great, which puts his death at 323 BCE. Diogenes Laërtius's statement that Diogenes died "nearly 90" would put his year of birth at 412 BCE. But Censorinus (De die natali, 15.2) says he died aged 81, which puts his year of birth at 404 BCE. The Suda puts his birth at the time of the Thirty Tyrants, which also gives 404 BCE.
  3. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 6, 18, 21; Dio Chrysostom, Orations, viii. 1–4; Aelian, x. 16; Stobaeus, Florilegium, 13.19
  4. ^ Diogenes of Sinope [www.philosophybasics.com/philosophers_diogenes.html "The Basics of Philosophy"]. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help) Retrieved November 13, 2011.
  5. ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, Ⅵ:20. A trapezites was a banker/money-changer who could exchange currency, arrange loans, and was sometimes entrusted with the minting of currency.
  6. ^ Navia, Diogenes the Cynic, pg 226: "The word paracharaxis can be understood in various ways such as the defacement of currency or the counterfeiting of coins or the adulteration of money."
  7. ^ a b Laërtius & Hicks 1925, Ⅵ:20-21
  8. ^ C. T. Seltman, Diogenes of Sinope, Son of the Banker Hikesias, in Transactions of the International Numismatic Congress 1936 (London 1938).
  9. ^ Plato, Republic, 2.359-2.360.
  10. ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, Ⅵ:55 ; Seneca, De Tranquillitate Animi, 8.7.; Aelian, Varia Historia, 13.28.
  11. ^ Plato, Phaedo, 59 b.
  12. ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, Ⅵ:21 ; Aelian, Varia Historia, 10.16.; Jerome, Adversus Jovinianum, 2.14.
  13. ^ Long 1996, p. 45
  14. ^ Dudley 1937, p. 2
  15. ^ Prince 2005, p. 77
  16. ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, Ⅵ:23 ; Jerome, Adversus Jovinianum, 2.14.
  17. ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, Ⅵ:37 ; Seneca, Epistles, 90.14.; Jerome, Adversus Jovinianum, 2.14.
  18. ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, Ⅵ:41. Modern sources often say that Diogenes was looking for an "honest man", but in ancient sources he is simply looking for a "human" (anthrôpos). The unreasoning behavior of the people around him means that they do not qualify as human.
  19. ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, Ⅵ:32
  20. ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, Ⅵ:40
  21. ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, Ⅵ:29
  22. ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, Ⅵ:30-31
  23. ^ "Diogenes of Sinope". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2006-04-26 Retrieved 2011-11-13. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Missing or empty |url= (help); Text "www.iep.utm.edu/diogsino" ignored (help)
  24. ^ Dio Chrysostom, Or. 8.10
  25. ^ Lucian, Historia, 3.
  26. ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, Ⅵ:38 ; Cicero, Tusculanae Quaestiones, 5.32.; Plutarch, Alexander, 14, On Exile, 15; Dio Chrysostom, Or. 4.14
  27. ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, Ⅵ:32; Plutarch, Alexander, 14, On Exile, 15.
  28. ^ This story appears frequently in books from the 16th to the 19th century, and may be an example of an anecdote invented about Diogenes in modern times.[citation needed] There is a similar anecdote in one of the dialogues of Lucian (Menippus, 15) but that story concerns Menippus in the underworld.
  29. ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, Ⅵ:76; Athenaeus, 8.341.
  30. ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, Ⅵ:77
  31. ^ Cicero, Tusculanae Quaestiones, 1.42.
  32. ^ a b Laërtius & Hicks 1925, Ⅵ:78; Greek Anthology, 1.285.; Pausanias, 2.2.4.
  33. ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, Ⅵ:80
  34. ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, Ⅵ:44
  35. ^ Cicero, Tusculanae Quaestiones, 5.37.; Plutarch, On Exile, 5.; Epictetus, Discourses, i.9.1.
  36. ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, Ⅵ:63. Compare: Laërtius & Hicks 1925, Ⅵ:72, Dio Chrysostom, Or. 4.13, Epictetus, Discourses, iii.24.66.
  37. ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, Ⅵ:24
  38. ^ Plato, Apology, 41e.
  39. ^ Xenophon, Apology, 1.
  40. ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, Ⅵ:54 ; Aelian, Varia Historia, 14.33.
  41. ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, Ⅵ:58,69. Eating in public places was considered bad manners.
  42. ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, Ⅵ:46
  43. ^ Dio Chrysostom, Or. 8.36; Julian, Orations, 6.202c.
  44. ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, Ⅵ:34-35 ; Epictetus, Discourses, iii.2.11. Pointing with one's middle finger was considered insulting; with the finger pointing up instead of to another person, the finger gesture is considered obscene in modern times.
  45. ^ Diogenes of Sinope, quoted by Stobaeus, Florilegium, iii. 13. 44.
  46. ^ Kynikos, "A Greek-English Lexicon", Liddell and Scott, at Perseus
  47. ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, Ⅵ:13. Cf. The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature, 2nd edition, p. 165.
  48. ^ Scholium on Aristotle's Rhetoric, quoted in Dudley 1937, p. 5
  49. ^ See the 7 March lecture Michel Foucault, The Courage of the Truth Lectures at the Collège de France (Palgrave Macmillan, 2011)
  50. ^ Hanon C, Pinquier C, Gaddour N, Saïd S, Mathis D, Pellerin J (2004). "[Diogenes syndrome: a transnosographic approach]". Encephale (in French). 30 (4): 315–22. doi:10.1016/S0013-7006(04)95443-7. PMID 15538307Template:Inconsistent citations {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: postscript (link)
  51. ^ Navia, Diogenes the Cynic, pg 31
  52. ^ Michelangelo and the Pope's Ceiling, by Ross King
  53. ^ Possum Living by Dolly Freed
  54. ^ Alexander: The Ends of the Earth by Valerio Manfredi
  55. ^ Hugh Grady, “A Companion to Shakespeare’s Works”, Dutton. R & Howard J., Blakewell Publishing, 2003, ISBN 0-631-22632-X, p.443-444.
  56. ^ Paul Ollswang, "Cynicism: A Series of Cartoons on a Philosophical Theme", January 1988, page B at official site; repr. in The Best Comics of the Decade 1980-1990 Vol. 1, Seattle, 1990, ISBN 1-56097-035-9, p. 23.

References

Further reading

  • Cutler, Ian (2005). Cynicism from Diogenes to Dilbert. Jefferson, Va.: McFarland & Company, Inc. ISBN 0786420936.
  • Mazella, David (2007). The making of modern cynicism. Charlottesville, Va.: University of Virginia Press. ISBN 9780813926155.
  • Navia, Luis E. (1996). Classical cynicism : a critical study. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0313300151.
  • Navia, Luis E. (1998). Diogenes of Sinope : the man in the tub. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0313306729.
  • Sayre, Farrand (1938). Diogenes of Sinope: A Study of Greek Cynicism. Baltimore: J.H. Furst.
  • Shea, Louisa (2010). The cynic enlightenment : Diogenes in the salon. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 9780801893858.
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