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Lullubi

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Lullubi Kingdom
𒇻𒇻𒉈𒆠
3100 BC–675 BC
Territory of the Lullubi in the Mesopotamia area.
Territory of the Lullubi in the Mesopotamia area.
Common languagesUnclassified (Lullubian?)
Akkadian (inscriptions)
Religion
Mesopotamian religions
GovernmentMonarchy
Historical eraAntiquity
• Established
3100 BC
• Disestablished
675 BC
Today part ofIraq
Iran

Lullubi, Lulubi (Akkadian: 𒇻𒇻𒉈: Lu-lu-bi, Akkadian: 𒇻𒇻𒉈𒆠: Lu-lu-biki "Country of the Lullubi"), more commonly known as Lullu,[1][2][3][4] were a group of Bronze Age tribes who existed and disappeared during the 3rd millennium BC, from a region known as Lulubum, now the Sharazor plain of the Zagros Mountains of modern-day Sulaymaniyah Governorate, Iraq. Lullubi was a neighbour and sometimes ally with the Hurrian Simurrum kingdom and came into conflict with the Semitic Akkadian Empire and Assyria.[5] Frayne (1990) identified their city Lulubuna or Luluban with the region's modern town of Halabja. The language of the Lullubi is regarded as an unclassified language[6] because it is unattested in written record. Significantly, the term Lullubi though, appears to be of Hurrian origin rather than Semitic or the yet to arrive in the region Indo-European, and the names of its known rulers have Hurrian or more rarely Semitic influence, with no trace of Indo-European influence such as Iranic or Indo-Aryan.[7]

Historical references

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Legends

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The early Sumerian legend "Lugalbanda and the Anzud Bird", set in the reign of Enmerkar of Uruk, alludes to the "mountains of Lulubi" as being where the character of Lugalbanda encounters the gigantic Anzû bird while searching for the rest of Enmerkar's army en route to siege Aratta.

Akkadian empire and Gutian dynasty

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The Victory Stele of Naram-Sin (circa 2250 BC), commemorating the victory of Akkadian Empire king Naram-Sin (standing left) over Lullubi mountain tribe and their king Satuni. Musée du Louvre.
Relief of the Lulubian Tardunni, known as the Darband-i Belula, the Darband-i Hurin or Sheikhan relief, Kurdistan, Iraq

Lullubum appears in historical times as one of the lands Sargon the Great subjugated within his Akkadian Empire, along with the neighboring province of Gutium, which was possibly of the same Hurrian origin as the Lullubi. Sargon's grandson Naram Sin defeated the Lullubi and their king Satuni, and had his famous victory stele made in commemoration:

"Naram-Sin the powerful . . . . Sidur and Sutuni, princes of the Lulubi, gathered together and they made war against me."

— Akkadian inscription on the Victory Stele of Naram-Sin.[8]

After the Akkadian Empire fell to the Gutians, the Lullubians rebelled against the Gutian king Erridupizir, according to Mesopotamian inscriptions:

Ka-Nisba, king of Simurrum, instigated the people of Simurrum and Lullubi to revolt. Amnili, general of [the enemy Lullubi]... made the land [rebel]... Erridu-pizir, the mighty, king of Gutium and of the four quarters hastened [to confront] him... In a single day he captured the pass of Urbillum at Mount Mummum. Further, he captured Nirishuha.

— Inscription R2:226-7 of Erridupizir.[9]

Neo-Sumerian Empire

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Tablet of Shulgi, glorifies the King and his victories on the Lullubi people, Sulaymaniyah Museum, Iraq

Following the short lived Gutian period, the Neo-Sumerian Empire (Ur-III) ruler Shulgi is said to have raided Lullubi at least 9 times; by the time of Amar-Sin, Lullubians formed a contingent in the military of Ur, suggesting that the region was then under Neo-Sumerian control.

Lullubi-ki ("Country of the Lullubi") on the Anubanini rock relief

Another famous rock relief depicting the Lullubian king Anubanini with the Assyrian-Babylonian goddess Ishtar, captives in tow, is now thought to date to the Ur-III period; however, a later Assyrian- Babylonian legendary retelling of the exploits of Sargon the Great mentions Anubanini as one of his opponents.

Babylonian and Assyrian interactions

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In the following (second) millennium BC, the term "Lullubi" or "Lullu" seems to have become a generic Babylonian/Assyrian term for "highlander" without reference ro any single ethnic group, while the original region of Lullubi became the Hurrian inhabited Zamua. However, the "land of Lullubi" makes a reappearance in the late 12th century BC, when both Nebuchadnezzar I of Babylon (in c. 1120 BC) and Tiglath-Pileser I of Assyria (in 1113 BC) subdued it. Neo-Assyrian kings of the following centuries also recorded campaigns and conquests in the area of Lullubum / Zamua. Most notably, Ashur-nasir-pal II had to suppress a revolt among the Zamuan chiefs in 881 BC, during which they constructed a wall in the Bazian pass between modern Kirkuk (the Assyrian city of Arrapha) and Sulaymaniyah in a failed attempt to keep the Assyrians out.

They were said to have had 19 walled cities in their land, as well as a large supply of horses, cattle, metals, textiles and wine, which were carried off by Ashur-nasir-pal. Local chiefs or governors of the Zamua region continued to be mentioned down to the end of Esarhaddon's reign (669 BC) after which they disappear from history.

Representations

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Defeated Lullubis in Akkadian representations
Barbarian prisoner of the Akkadian Empire, nude, fettered, drawn by nose ring, with pointed beard, long hair and vertical braid. 2350-2000 BC, Louvre Museum.[10]
Lullubi victim with pointed beard and long braided hair. Rock relief at Darband-iGawr. The depiction of the vanquished Lullubis is also similar in the Victory Stele of Naram-Sin.[11]

In depictions of them, the Lullubi are represented as warlike mountain people.[12] The Lullubi are often shown bare-chested and wearing animal skins. They have short beards, their hair is long and worn in a thick braid, as can be seen on the Victory Stele of Naram-Sin.[11]

Rulers

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See also: List of rulers of the pre-Achaemenid kingdoms of Iran

Rulers of the Lullubi kingdom:[13][14]

  1. Immashkush (c. 2400 BC)[15]
  2. Anubanini (c. 2350 BC) he ordered to make an inscription on the rock near Sar-e Pol-e Zahab.[16]
  3. Satuni (c. 2270 BC contemporary with Naram-Sin king of Akkad and Khita king of Awan)
  4. Irib (c. 2037 BC)
  5. Darianam (c. 2000 BC)
  6. Ikki (precise dates unknown)[16]
  7. Tar ... duni (precise dates unknown) son of Ikki. His inscription is found not far from the inscription of Anubanini.[16]
  8. Nur-Adad (c. 881 – 880 BC)
  9. Zabini (c. 881 BC)
  10. Hubaia (c. 830 BC) vassal of Assyrians
  11. Dada (c. 715 BC)
  12. Larkutla (c. 675 BC)

Lullubi rock reliefs

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Various Lullubian reliefs can be seen in the area of Sar-e Pol-e Zohab, the best preserved of which is the Anubanini rock relief. They all show a ruler trampling an enemy, and most also show a deity facing the ruler. Another relief can be found about 200 meters away, in a style similar to the Anubanini relief, but this time with a beardless ruler.[17] The attribution to a specific ruler remains uncertain.[17][18]

Anubanini rock relief

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Main article: Anubanini rock relief

Other Lullubi reliefs

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  • Sar-e Pol-e Zahab, relief I. Beardless warrior with axe, trampling a foe. Sundisk above. A name "Zaba(zuna), son of ..." can be read.[20][19] This is possibly the son of Iddin-Sin, a ruler of the Kingdom of Simurrum.[21]
    Sar-e Pol-e Zahab, relief I. Beardless warrior with axe, trampling a foe. Sundisk above. A name "Zaba(zuna), son of ..." can be read.[20][19] This is possibly the son of Iddin-Sin, a ruler of the Kingdom of Simurrum.[21]
  • Sar-e Pol-e Zahab, relief III. Beardless warrior trampling a foe, facing a goddess.[19]
    Sar-e Pol-e Zahab, relief III. Beardless warrior trampling a foe, facing a goddess.[19]
  • Sar-e Pol-e Zahab, relief IV. Beardless warrior trampling a foe, facing a goddess.[19]
    Sar-e Pol-e Zahab, relief IV. Beardless warrior trampling a foe, facing a goddess.[19]
  • Relief of Tardunni, a possible Lullubi ruler, also holding weapons and trampling foes, with an inscription in Akkadian.
    Relief of Tardunni, a possible Lullubi ruler, also holding weapons and trampling foes, with an inscription in Akkadian.
  • Detail, a dead or dying Lullubian warrior. Darband-i Gawr rock-relief, Mt. Qaradagh, Sulaymaniyah, Iraq, 2200-2000 BCE
    Detail, a dead or dying Lullubian warrior. Darband-i Gawr rock-relief, Mt. Qaradagh, Sulaymaniyah, Iraq, 2200-2000 BCE
  • Detail, a dead or dying Lullubian warrior, Darband-i Gawr rock-relief, Mt. Qaradagh, Sulaymaniyah, Iraq, 2200-2000 BCE
    Detail, a dead or dying Lullubian warrior, Darband-i Gawr rock-relief, Mt. Qaradagh, Sulaymaniyah, Iraq, 2200-2000 BCE

See also

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History of Greater Iran
Pre-Islamic
BCE / BC
Prehistory
Kura–Araxes culture c. 3400 – c. 2000
Helmand culture/Jiroft culture 3300-2200
Proto-Elamite civilization 3200–2800
Elamite dynasties 2800–550
Lullubi/Zamua 3100-675
Marhaši 2550-2020
Bactria–Margiana Complex 2400–1700
Gutian Dynasty 2141-2050
Avestan period c. 1500 BCE – 500 BCE
Kingdom of Mannai 10th–7th century
Neo-Assyrian Empire 911–609
Urartu 860–590
Median Empire 728–550
Scythian Kingdom 652–625
Achaemenid Empire 550–330
Ancient kingdom of Armenia 331 BCE – 428 CE
Seleucid Empire 330–150
Caucasian Iberia c. 302 BCE – 580 CE
Greco-Bactrian Kingdom 250–125
Parthian Empire 248 BCE–224 CE
Caucasian Albania 2nd century BCE –
8th century CE
Roman Empire 27 BCE – 330 CE
CE / AD
Kushan Empire 30–275
Sasanian Empire 224–651
Afrighid dynasty 305–995
Hephthalite Empire 425–557
Kabul Shahi kingdom 565–879
Dabuyid dynasty 642–760
Bagratid Armenia 880s – 1045
Alania 8th/9th century – 1238 / 9
Kingdom of Georgia 1008–1490
Islamic
Rashidun Caliphate 637–651
Umayyad Caliphate 661–750
Abbasid Caliphate 750–1258
Shirvanshah 799–1607
Tahirid dynasty 821–873
Dulafid dynasty 840–897
Zaydis of Tabaristan 864–928
Saffarid dynasty 861–1003
Samanid Empire 819–999
Sajid dynasty 889/90–929
Ziyarid dynasty 928–1043
Buyid dynasty 934–1055
Sallarid dynasty 941–1062
Ghaznavid Empire 975–1187
Ghurid dynasty pre-879 – 1215
Seljuk Empire 1037–1194
Khwarazmian dynasty 1077–1231
Sultanate of Rum 1077–1307
Salghurids 1148–1282
Ilkhanate 1256–1353
Kart dynasty 1231–1389
Ottoman Empire 1299–1923
Muzaffarid dynasty 1314–1393
Chupanid dynasty 1337–1357
Jalairid Sultanate 1339–1432
Timurid Empire 1370–1507
Qara Qoyunlu Turcomans 1407–1468
Aq Qoyunlu Turcomans 1378–1508
Safavid Empire 1501–1722
Mughal Empire 1526–1857
Hotak dynasty 1722–1729
Afsharid Iran 1736–1750
Zand dynasty 1750–1794
Durrani Empire 1794–1826
Qajar Iran 1794–1925

References

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  1. ^ Eidem, Jesper; Læssøe, Jørgen (1992). The Shemshāra Archives 2: The Administrative Texts. Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. pp. 22, 51–54. ISBN 978-87-7304-227-4.
  2. ^ Speiser, Ephraim Avigdor (2017-01-30). Mesopotamian Origins: The Basic Population of the Near East. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 90. ISBN 978-1-5128-1881-9.
  3. ^ Campbell, Lyle (2017-10-03). Language Isolates. Routledge. p. 37. ISBN 978-1-317-61091-5.
  4. ^ Potts, Daniel T. (2014). Nomadism in Iran: From Antiquity to the Modern Era. Oxford University Press. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-19-933079-9.
  5. ^ Hamblin, William J. (2006). Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC. Routledge. pp. 115–116. ISBN 9781134520626.
  6. ^ Rubio, Gonzalo. "The Languages of the Ancient Near East (in A Companion to the Ancient Near East, 2nd ed., 2007)".
  7. ^ Tischler 1977–2001: vol. 5/6: 70–71. On the Lullubeans in general, see Klengel 1987–1990; Eidem 1992: 50–4.
  8. ^ Babylonian & Oriental Record. 1895. p. 27.
  9. ^ Hamblin, William J. (2006). Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC. Routledge. pp. 115–116. ISBN 9781134520626.
  10. ^ "Louvre Museum Official Website". cartelen.louvre.fr.
  11. ^ a b "The hair of the Lullubi is long and worn in a thick braid. They wear animal skins, while the Akkadian soldiers wear the proper attire for battle, helmets and military tunics." in Bahrani, Zainab (2008). Rituals of War: The Body and Violence in Mesopotamia. Zone Books. p. 109. ISBN 9781890951849.
  12. ^ Bury, John Bagnell; Cook, Stanley Arthur; Adcock, Frank Ezra (1975). The Cambridge Ancient History: The Egyptian and Hittite empires to c. 1000 B.C. University Press. p. 505. ISBN 9780521086912.
  13. ^ Qashqai, 2011.
  14. ^ Legrain, 1922; Cameron, 1936; D’yakonov, 1956; The Cambridge History of Iran; Hinz, 1972; The Cambridge Ancient History; Majidzadeh, 1991; Majidzadeh, 1997.
  15. ^ Cameron, George G. (1936). History of Early Iran (PDF). The University of Chicago Press. p. 35.
  16. ^ a b c Cameron, George G. (1936). History of Early Iran (PDF). The University of Chicago Press. p. 41.
  17. ^ a b c d e f g h Osborne, James F. (2014). Approaching Monumentality in Archaeology. SUNY Press. p. 123. ISBN 9781438453255.
  18. ^ Vanden Berghe, Louis. Relief Sculptures de Iran Ancien. pp. 19–21.
  19. ^ a b c d Osborne, James F. (2014). Approaching Monumentality in Archaeology. SUNY Press. pp. 123–124. ISBN 9781438453255.
  20. ^ Osborne, James F. (2014). Approaching Monumentality in Archaeology. SUNY Press. pp. 123–124. ISBN 9781438453255.
  21. ^ Frayne, Douglas (1990). Old Babylonian Period (2003-1595 BC). University of Toronto Press. pp. 707 ff. ISBN 9780802058737.

Sources

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