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Mass sexual assault in Egypt

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Taharrush jamai
Hundreds of women have been sexually assaulted by crowds in Tahrir Square, Cairo.
TopicMass sexual assault in Egypt
Local terms
ActivismHARASSmap, Operation Anti Sexual Harassment
RelatedSexual assault, sexual violence, gang rape

Taharrush jamai (Arabic: تحرش جماعي; taḥarrush jamāʿī) is the Arabic term for "collective harassment," sometimes used to refer to the sexual assault of women in public by large groups of men.[n 1] The term gained prominence in January 2016, incorrectly transliterated as taharrush gamea, following its use in a German police report into sexual assaults in Germany on New Year's Eve.[1][3]

The phenomenon of mass sexual assault has been documented in Egypt since 2005.[n 2] Typically acting under the protective cover of large gatherings, assailants encircle a woman, while outer rings of men may form to deter rescuers. The attackers may pretend to be rescuers, adding to the confusion. Women in Egypt, who call it the "circle of hell," have reported being groped, stripped, beaten, bitten, raped and robbed.[4]: 38–41 [n 3]

Mass sexual assault has played a controversial role in Egyptian politics.[7][8] From 2005 Egyptian security forces and their agents were blamed for using it as a weapon against female protesters in Tahrir Square, Cairo.[9] The behavior spread, and by 2012 sexual assault by crowds of young men was regularly seen at protests and religious festivals in Egypt.[10] Commentators say the attacks reflect a misogynist ideology that blames women for leaving the house, seeks to terrorize them out of public life, and views sexual violence as a source of shame for the victim, not the attacker.[11]: 4–8 

Terminology

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Violence against women
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Harassment is known as taharrush (تحرش). Sexual harassment is taharrush jinsi (تحرش جنسي), a term in use since at least the 1950s, according to the political scientist As'ad AbuKhalil.[12]: 123 [13] During a training session in Cairo in 2012, an anti-harassment group discussed 14 forms of taharrush, including "group or mass taḥarrush" (التحرش الجنسي الجماعى).[n 4]

The term taharrush came to wider attention in 2016 when women in Germany reported having been sexually assaulted by groups of North African men during New Year's Eve celebrations. The German police compared the attacks to "taharrush gamea (collective sexual harassment in crowds)."[14]: 15  The transliteration followed the Egyptian pronunciation, taḥarrush gamāʿī (with a hard ⟨g⟩), rather than the standard pronunciation, taḥarrush jamāʿī.[15]

Background

Sexual harassment was barely discussed in Egypt before 2006. The Egyptian Center for Women's Rights sought to draw attention to it, but the public's response was that it was an American idea wrongly applied to Egyptian society.[n 5]

Crowd sexual assault was first documented during the Egyptian constitutional referendum on 25 May 2005, on what became known as "Black Wednesday," when women demonstrators were sexually assaulted by a group of agents provocateurs, groups of men who had arrived on buses, as police watched and did nothing to intervene.[n 6]

The issue attracted more discussion following the Eid al-Fitr holiday in 2006, when on 24 October a crowd of young men who had been denied entry to a cinema in Cairo engaged in a five-hour-long mass sexual assault of women in Talaat Harb Street.[19] Police were reported to have done nothing to stop it, although many bystanders tried to help the women.[20]: 13–14 

The attacks gained prominence outside Egypt in February 2011 when Lara Logan, a correspondent for the American network CBS, was sexually assaulted by hundreds of men in Tahrir Square, Cairo, while reporting on the 2011 Egyptian Revolution.[21] By 2012, according to Al Akhbar, such attacks had become a "prominent feature" of religious festivals in Egypt.[17]

Description

Attacks

Videos

Tahrir Square subway attack
30 June 2013[22]
Tahrir Square attack
25 January 2013
(released by OpAntiSH)[23]
Eid al-Adha attack, 2006
(filmed by Sherif Sadek; women visible from c. 0:32 mins).[n 7]

According to Amnesty International, the attacks last from a few minutes to over an hour. Women who have described attacks in or near Tahrir Square say the men are usually in their 20s and 30s. Victims have been aged seven to 70.[4]: 40–41 [5]

Separated from her friends by the crowd, or out alone, the woman finds herself encircled by a large group of men who grope her breasts, genitals and buttocks. Attempts are made to pull or cut her clothes off, and her body is pulled in different directions as men move her through the crowd. Women regularly report digital penetration of the vagina and anus. Attackers have used sticks, knives and blades, and in several cases sharp objects have been inserted into the victim's vagina.[4]: 41 [25] One student protester in Tahrir Square on 25 January 2013 described how a circle of men formed around her:

The last thing I heard was "don't worry," followed by screaming ... At first they tried to rip my bag out of my hands; I then felt hands all over my body, tearing down my trousers and long jacket; they were undoing its clips. ... They pulled my trousers and pants down, but couldn’t get them all the way down because I was wearing boots that they couldn’t manage to get off ... I felt hands touch me from all directions, and I was moved, almost carried, inside the circle as people continued saying: "don’t worry." They were saying that while violating me ...[4]: 39 

Perpetrators regularly claim to be helping the women when in fact they are attacking them, which increases the difficulty for rescuers and leaves the women not knowing who to trust. Women testify to having heard attackers say: "Do not be afraid; I'm protecting you," or "you are like my sister, do not be afraid."[11]: 6  People genuinely trying to help find themselves being beaten and sexually assaulted too.[4]: 41 

Volunteer groups in Cairo, including OpAntiSH (Operation Anti Sexual Harassment), organize "extraction teams" who push into the circles wearing padded clothing, helmets and gloves, and get the women out. Other OpAntiSH teams carry spare clothes and medical supplies, operate a hotline so that the extraction teams know where to go, and offer counselling and legal and medical help. They were called to 19 incidents on 25 January 2013 alone, and were able to respond to 15 of them.[26]

Rescuers have described how assailants have set up makeshift tea stands in the crowd; in one case boiling water from a tea stand was thrown over rescuers who had formed a protective ring around a woman.[27] During an attack in Cairo in 2013, the attackers allowed an ambulance to reach the woman only when the driver told them she was dead.[28]

Reasons

Mass sexual assault gained more public attention in October 2006, when a crowd of men engaged in a five-hour-long attack on women in Talaat Harb Street, seen here in March 2010.

According to Mariz Tadros of the Institute of Development Studies, the men's motives include pleasure, a desire to dominate women, and a "perceived sense of sexual deprivation" because marriage may be financially prohibitive.[29]: 7  Journalist Shereen El Feki, author of Sex and the Citadel (2013), writing about sexual harassment in general (taharrush jinsi), blamed unemployment, social media and a "breakdown of family surveillance" because of overworked parents.[30]

In one survey 60 percent of the highest educated women in Egypt blamed the victims (of general sexual harassment) and "provocative" clothing, as did 75 percent of the least educated women.[31]

Nehad Abu Komsan, head of the Egyptian Center for Women's Rights, argues that sexual harassment is a symptom of the country's political and economic oppression, and that men are "lashing out at those next down the line in the patriarchy."[12]: 126  Hussein el Shafie of OpAntiSH has argued that the attacks are like a "tear-gas bomb" to get women off the streets – not sexual but stemming from a sense of entitlement.[23]: 3:25  According to a 2013 paper by Nazra for Feminist Studies:

"[A] general attitude of sexual entitlement prevails, that is, a belief that the bodies of women present in the context of demonstrations are safe territories for sexual attacks underlies nearly all testimonies. With testimonies that speak of hundreds of hands persistently raping women, with hundreds more watching the brutal attacks, some while even smiling, it becomes clear that we are faced with an overwhelming challenge, namely a state and a society that have internalized sexual violence against women as the law of the land.[11]: 8 

Prevalence

Further information: Egyptian Revolution of 2011, June 2013 Egyptian protests, and 2013 Egyptian coup d'état
Mona Eltahawy was attacked in Cairo in November 2011.

According to a 2008 survey by the Egyptian Center for Women's Rights, 83 per cent of Egyptian women said they had experienced sexual harassment, as did 98 percent of women from overseas while in Egypt.[32]: 16  The first jail sentence in Egypt for sexual harassment came in 2008 after a man molested a woman in the street from his car.[33] Following this, two films – Scheherazade, Tell Me a Story (Yousry Nasrallah, 2009) and 678 (Muhammad Diyab, 2010) – brought the issue of taharrush to cinemas.[16]: 26 

The mass sexual assaults have been on the increase since the fall of Hosni Mubarak on 11 February 2011, the end of the 2011 revolution, particularly during protests in Tahrir Square and religious festivals.[10][17]

According to Serena Hollmeyer Taylor and other researchers at the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, the revolution saw a drop in complaints of harassment. Citing HARASSmap, which offers an interactive mapping service to which harassment can be reported, they write that 82 reports of sexual harassment were received between 7 and 25 January 2011. This is in contrast with the eight received between 25 January, the day of the first protests, and 11 February, when Mubarak stepped down.[7] Taylor et al. call this Egypt's "liminal moment," following the Scottish anthropologist Victor Turner's idea that, during political upheaval, people are liberated from their "cultural script" and "almost anything can happen." During those 18 days, a protester told them, men put aside their differences with women, and everyone was simply Egyptian.[34]

After the fall of Mubarak, there was rapid escalation, beginning with the attacks, on the night he stepped down, on Egyptian journalist Mona Eltahawy and South African journalist Lara Logan.[7][35] Logan, a correspondent for CBC, was sexually assaulted for 30 minutes by around 200 men in Tahrir Square before being rescued by a group of Egyptian women and soldiers.[21] Several more journalists were among the hundreds of women who experienced mass sexual assault over the following few years: French journalist Caroline Sinz in November 2011; Natasha Smith, a British journalist, in June 2012; Hania Moheeb, an Egyptian journalist, on 25 January 2013 along with 18 other women; a Dutch journalist in June 2013.[36]

Five hundred cases of mass sexual assault were documented between June 2012 and June 2014.[4]: 10  An anti-harassment group, I Saw Harassment, reported four cases on 8 June 2014 alone, during President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi's inaugural celebrations, while Operation Anti-Sexual Harassment reported ten. The New York Times wrote of the celebrations:

At times, the prevalence of sexual violence in the crowds was hard even for the official state television network to hide. Female screams interrupted the broadcast of a nationalistic poet reciting from a stage ... when the screams grew louder, another man seized the microphone, yelling: 'Young men, please move away from the girls! Men, young men, get back!'"[37]

Video evidence

External image

Girl in the Blue Bra
Tahrir Square, December 2011[38]

From 2011 onwards, footage of women being assaulted began to appear regularly on social media, including one of a woman in Alexandria in 2011 being dragged along the ground and hoisted onto men's shoulders.[39]

The Girl in the Blue Bra video (Sit al Banat) in December 2011 showed a woman partially covered by an abaya being beaten, stomped on and dragged around by the military in Tahrir Square. A man is similarly attacked during the same video.[40] Thousands of women took to the streets to protest.[41]

A video taken on 8 June 2014, also in Tahrir Square, showed a naked woman being sexually assaulted by a group of men during inaugural celebrations for President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi.[37][42] Seven men aged 15–49 were arrested in connection with the assault. Following a request from the president, and apparently from the victim herself, the Egyptian government asked YouTube to remove the video.[43] It declined to do so, but removed copies in which the victim could be identified.[44]

Counter-movement

Further information: HARASSmap and Operation Anti Sexual Harassment
Women met in Café Riche near Tahrir Square in January 2013 and decided to speak out.

The period saw the growth of a counter-movement of NGOs and women's groups.[45][46] After the particularly high number of assaults on 25 January 2013, women met that night at Café Riche on Talaat Harb Street, near Tahrir Square, and decided to start telling their stories. Journalist and broadcaster Lamis Elhadidy devoted an entire programme to the assaults and apologized for not having covered them earlier.[29]: 23 

A first attempt to change the penal law, supported by Amr Hamzawy, failed. The ruling party maintained that women participating in rallies were personally responsible for such incidents.[29]: 26 

In March 2013 the Muslim Brotherhood opposed the United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women, arguing that it would lead to the "disintegration of society."[47][48] The law was changed after a female law student at the Cairo University College of Law was sexually assaulted by a large group of men on campus in March 2014, and had to be escorted to safety by security guards.[49]

Outside Egypt

Europe

Further information: New Year's Eve sexual assaults in Germany
Women reported sexual assaults outside Cologne's main train station. Cologne Cathedral can be seen on the right.

During New Year's Eve celebrations in 2016, women in several countries reported sexual assault by large groups of men, apparently from North Africa. Women filed complaints in Berlin, Cologne, Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg and Stuttgart, Germany; Salzburg, Austria; Helsinki, Finland; Kalmar and Malmö, Sweden; and Zurich, Switzerland.[50] In Helsinki police received one complaint of rape, two of attempted rape, and 12 of sexual harassment by groups of 10–20 men.[51]

In Cologne, where most of the reports were made, 359 women complained of having been assaulted next to the main train station; in 209 cases, the victims were also mugged.[52] The North Rhine-Westphalia Ministry of Justice compared the attacks to "taharrush gamea."[1][n 8] An article about the report in Die Welt made international news.[53]

The events sparked a debate about sexism, racism and refugees. Writing that European cultures lack a term for mass sexual assault, Josef Joffe, editor of Die Zeit, argued that the "acculturation into the strict sex codes of the West takes years."[54] Dan Hitchens argued in the Spectator that taḥarrush jamai was a feature of Egypt, rather than the Arab world, and that linking it to the attacks in Europe was "over-excited."[55] In the Huffington Post, Alex Shams argued that using an Arabic term to describe the attacks in Germany falsely framed group sexual assault as a specifically-Arab phenomenon, and that this perception of the attacks was exploited to fuel xenophobic and anti-refugee sentiments.[1]

India

See also: 2012 Guwahati molestation case, 2012 Mangalore homestay attack, Eve teasing, and Blank Noise

Several cases of mass sexual assault have been reported in India. In July 2012 a teenager was sexually assaulted for up to 45 minutes by a large group of men outside a bar in Guwahati, Assam. No one intervened until the police arrived.[56]

Pakistan

British television presenter Saira Khan said in 2016 that she had been sexually assaulted by a crowd in Pakistan in 2007 while filming a documentary for the BBC. She accused the BBC of having ignored the attack.[57]

Sweden

Further information: We Are Sthlm sexual assaults

Female participants at We Are Sthlm, a summer music festival for teenagers in Stockholm, reported in 2014 and 2015 that they had been surrounded and molested by groups of men. Police were accused of having failed to publicize the attacks because the suspects were mostly from Afghanistan. The incidents came to light only after the 2016 New Year's Eve attacks in Germany.[58]

United States

Further information: Woodstock 1999, Puerto Rican Day Parade attacks, and Seattle Mardi Gras riot

Police investigated four complaints of sexual assault and rape, including digital rape, that allegedly occurred during and after Woodstock 1999 in July 1999. Eyewitnesses reported seeing a woman who was crowd surfing pulled down into the mosh pit and gang-raped.[59]

At least 44 women reported being sexually assaulted and robbed by a mob of 60 men on 11 June 2000 during the Puerto Rican Day Parade in New York. The police were heavily criticized for their handling of the attacks.[60]

Witnesses saw groups of men grope women, tear off their clothes and apparently digitally penetrate them during the Mardi Gras celebrations in Seattle, Washington, in February 2001.[61]

Vietnam

In July 2015 women at a water park in Hanoi, Vietnam, reported mass sexual assault by several groups of 70–80 men.[62]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Sandra A. Fernandez, Égypte/Monde arabe, 2015: "[P]articipants of this training session were taught 14 types of taharrush ... [including] group or mass taharrush (التحرش الجنسي الجماعى)."[2]
  2. ^ Amnesty International, 2015: "The phenomenon of mob attacks was first documented in May 2005, when groups of men were reportedly hired by the authorities to attack women journalists taking part in a protest calling for the boycott of a referendum on constitutional reform. Since November 2012, mob sexual assaults, including rape, have become a regular feature of protests in the vicinity of Tahrir Square in Cairo.[4]: 10 [5]
  3. ^ Amnesty International, 2015: "Activists have called the attacks 'the circle of hell', referring to how the mob drags the woman or girl into the centre of the group while attacking her."[4]: 9 

    Yasmine Fathi, Al-Ahram, 2013: "During the attacks [in Cairo], the women often find themselves trapped inside what some have called 'the circle of hell,' a mob of 200 or 300 men who fought with one another to pull, shove, beat and strip them.[6]

  4. ^ Sandra A. Fernandez, Égypte/Monde arabe, 2015: "[P]articipants of this training session were taught 14 types of taḥarrush: looks that scrutinize the body (النظرة المتفحصة للجسد), facial expressions (التعبيرات الوجهية), catcalling (النداءات), comments (تعليقات), stalking (الملاحقه او التتبع) , sexual invitations ((الدعوة لممارسة الجنس, sexual photos (الصور الجنسية), taharrush via the internet (التحرش في الاينتيرنت), sexual phone calls (المكالمات الهاتفيه), unwanted attention (الاهتمام غير المرغوب فيه), touching (اللمس), flashing (التارى), threats or intimidation (التهديد أو الترهيب), and finally group or mass taḥarrush (التحرش الجنسي الجماعى)."[2]
  5. ^ From the start, ECWR [Egyptian Centre for Women's Rights] referred to the phenomenon of sexual harassment as el-taharruah el-ginsy, which was met with confusion, embarrassment, anger, and most often denial. Salient elements of public feedback at the time were that taḥarrush did not exist in Egypt and that it was an American concept that could not be directly applied in the Egyptian context."[16]: 24 
  6. ^ Al Akhbar, 2012: "[T]here are indications that the practice of sexual harassment originated from the authorities themselves ... In May 2005, the police recruited paid gangs to sexually harass women taking part in marches in downtown Cairo. ... The human rights groups asserted that 'the assaults against women in the demonstrations happened under the watchful eyes of uniformed security officers, and often on their direct orders.' After this incident, sexual harassment spread across the country like wildfire."[17][9][18]

    Al-Nabā News referred to the 2005 attacks as taharrush and hatk ʾarḍ (هتك عرض; indecent assault, lit. violation of honour).[16]: 25 

  7. ^ Filmed by Sherif Sadek, Akhnaton Films.
    Sameer Padania, Global Voices Online, 2006: "[I]n January 2006, on Eid al Adha, film-maker Sherif Sadek was back in Cairo, when he heard a commotion on the street outside his downtown apartment. Sherif grabbed his camera and leaned out the window to film the video presented below.
    "Initially it's a little difficult to tell what is going on in the video – there are crowds in the middle of the street, which looks unusual – but after about 25 seconds, you will see two or three men leading four or five girls down the street past the building from which Sherif is filming. The crowd behind them is extremely large, a couple of hundred strong, and soon surrounds the girls (around 1'20). They then pass down a side-street, partially out of view, which gives Sherif time to spot a man in uniform – a police officer? – looking down the street at the commotion, who then gets back in his vehicle (1'50). Sections of the crowd then come running back round the corner, although it's not clear whether they have the girls with them or not."[24]
  8. ^ Ministerium für Inneres und Kommunales des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen, 10 January 2016: "So liegen dem Bundeskriminalamt Erkenntnisse dazu vor, dass in arabischen Ländern ein Modus Operandi bekannt ist, der als 'taharrush gameâ' (gemeinsame sexuelle Belästigung in Menschenmengen) bezeichnet wird." (The findings of the Bundeskriminalamt (federal police) suggest that there is a practice in Arab countries known as 'taharrush gameâ' (collective sexual harassment in crowds)."[14]: 15 

References

  1. ^ a b c d Shams, Alex (21 January 2016). "Neither Taharrush Gamea Nor Sexism Are Arab 'Cultural Practices'", Huffington Post.
  2. ^ a b Fernandez, Sandra A. (3 November 2015). "Male voices in a Cairo social movement", Égypte/Monde arabe, 13.
  3. ^ "Cologne attackers were of migrant origin", BBC News, 11 January 2016.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h "Circles of Hell: Domestic, Public and State Violence Against Women in Egypt", Amnesty International, January 2015.
  5. ^ a b "Egypt: Gender-based violence against women around Tahrir Square", Amnesty International, February 2013.
  6. ^ Fathi, Yasmine (21 February 2013). "The circle of hell: Inside Tahrir's mob sexual assault epidemic", Al-Ahram.
  7. ^ a b c Serena Hollmeyer Taylor, et al., "'When She Stands Among Men': Sexual Harassment of Women at Political Protests in Cairo, January 2011 – August 2013", Al Nakhlah, 10 June 2014.
  8. ^ Paul Amar, "Turning the Gendered Politics of the Security State Inside Out", International Feminist Journal of Politics, 13(3), 2011, 13:3, pp. 299–328. doi:10.1080/14616742.2011.587364
  9. ^ a b Slackman, Michael (10 June 2005). "Assault on Women at Protest Stirs Anger, Not Fear, in Egypt", The New York Times.
  10. ^ a b Emily Dugan, "Revealed: Egypt is the worst Arab country for women", The Independent, 11 November 2013.
  11. ^ a b c Magda Adly, "Sexual Assault and Rape in Tahrir Square and its Vicinity: A Compendium of Sources 2011–2013", El-Nadeem Center for Rehabilitation of Victims of Violence and Torture, with the Nazra for Feminist Studies, and the New Woman Foundation, February 2013.
  12. ^ a b El Feki, Shereen (2013). Sex and the Citadel: Intimate Life in a Changing Arab World, Doubleday Canada.
  13. ^ AbuKhalil, As'ad, The Angry Arab News Service, 13 August 2009, cited in Hitchens, Don (14 January 2016). "Taharrush Gamea: has a new form of sexual harassment arrived in Europe?", The Spectator.
  14. ^ a b "Bericht des Ministeriums für Inneres und Kommunales über die Übergriffe am Hauptbahnhof Köln in der Silvesternacht", Ministerium für Inneres und Kommunales des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen, 10 January 2016, pp. 1–15.
  15. ^ Mayer, Farhana (14 January 2016). "The Sexual Attacks on Women in Europe Reflect a Misogynistic Mind-Set That Must Be Dismantled". The New York Times.
  16. ^ a b c Abdelmonem, Angie (Summer 2015). "Reconceptualizing Sexual Harassment in Egypt: A Longitudinal Assessment of el-Taharrush el-Ginsy in Arabic Online Forums and Anti-Sexual Harassment Activism" (PDF). Kohl: A Journal for Body and Gender Research. 1 (1). Coalition for Sexual and Bodily Rights in Muslim Societies: 23–41. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  17. ^ a b c Kassab, Bisan; Mamdouh; Rana (20 September 2012). "The Widespread Plague of Sexual Harassment in Egypt", Al Akhbar.
  18. ^ Kirollos, Mariam (16 July 2013). "Sexual Violence in Egypt: Myths and Realities". Jadaliyya. Arab Studies Institute.
  19. ^ Sherifa Zuhur, "Women's Quest for Equality in Post-Revolutionary Egypt," Claudia Derichs, Dana Fennert (eds.), Women's Movements and Countermovements, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2014, p. 36.

    Magdi Abdelhadi, "Cairo street crowds target women", BBC News, 1 November 2006. Mona el Naggar, Michael Slackman, "Silence and Fury in Cairo After Sexual Attacks on Women", The New York Times, 15 November 2006.

  20. ^ Rizzo, Helen; Price, Anne M.; Meyer, Katherine (2008). "Targeting Cultural Change in Repressive Environments: The Campaign against Sexual Harassment in Egypt", The Eygptian Center for Women's Rights.
  21. ^ a b Anderson, Robert G. (1 May 2011). "Lara Logan breaks silence on Cairo assault". CBS 60 Minutes. {{cite news}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)(transcript)
    Replogle, Elaine (December 2011). "Reference Groups, Mob Mentality, and Bystander Intervention: A Sociological Analysis of the Lara Logan Case," Sociological Forum, 26(4), pp. 796–805. doi:10.1111/j.1573-7861.2011.01284.x

    "'60 Minutes' Correspondent Lara Logan Readmitted To Hospital", Reuters, 24 March 2015.

  22. ^ The attack took place on 30 June 2013, according to Daily News Egypt.

    "Sexual Assaults Reportedly Rampant During Egypt Protests", NPR, 7 July 2013.

  23. ^ a b Auger, Bridgette (undated). "On location video: Assaulted in Tahrir Square", GlobalPost; also at Chick, Kristen (1 February 2013). "Egyptians work to reclaim a Tahrir tainted by sexual assault", Christian Science Monitor.
  24. ^ Padania, Sameer (23 November 2006). "Egypt: Cairo's women speak out against violence", Global Voices Online.
  25. ^ Anon (26 January 2013). "Testimony from a Survival of Gang Rape on Tahrir Square Vicinity (blog post)". Nazra for Feminist Studies.
  26. ^ Chick, Kristen (1 February 2013). "Egyptians work to reclaim a Tahrir tainted by sexual assault", Christian Science Monitor.

    Nelson, Soraya Sarhaddi (7 July 2013). "Sexual Assaults Reportedly Rampant During Egypt Protests", NPR.

  27. ^ Fernandez 2015, para. 20.
  28. ^ Amnesty 2015, p. 41.
  29. ^ a b c Tadros, Mariz (June 2013). "Politically Motivated Sexual Assault and the Law in Violent Transitions: A Case Study From Egypt" (PDF). Institute of Development Studies.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: year (link)
  30. ^ El Feki 2013, p. 124.
  31. ^ El Feki, 2013, p. 126.
  32. ^ Hassan, Rasha; Shoukry, Aliyaa; Nehad, Abul Komsan (2008). "Clouds in Egypt's Sky: Sexual Harassment: From Verbal Harassment to Rape" (PDF). Egyptian Center for Women's Rights.
  33. ^ Zuhur 2014, p. 36; "Egyptian sexual harasser jailed", BBC News, 21 October 2008.
  34. ^ Taylor et al. 2014, citing Victor W. Turner, Dramas, Fields and Metaphors: Symbolic Action in Human Society, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1975, p. 13.
  35. ^ For Eltahawy: Mona Eltahawy, "Bruised but defiant: Mona Eltahawy on her assault by Egyptian security forces", The Guardian, 23 December 2011.

    Mona Eltahawy, "Egypt needs a revolution against sexual violence", The Guardian, 10 July 2013.

  36. ^ For Sinz: Harriet Sherwood, "Egypt protests: plea to keep women reporters out of Cairo withdrawn", The Guardian, 25 November 2011.
    For Smith: Rivers, Dan (28 June 2012). "UK journalist assaulted in Tahrir Square: 'Please make it stop'", CNN.
    For Moheeb: Kroll, Susan; Smith, Marian (23 March 2013). "Women violated in the cradle of Egypt's revolution, activists say", NBC; for 19 women see interview at c. 02:45 mins.

    For the Dutch journalist: "Attack on Dutch woman in Tahrir Square", Netherlands Embassy in Cairo, Egypt, 1 July 2013; Seth Abramovitch (2 July 2013). "Dutch Journalist Sexually Assaulted by Protesters in Tahrir Square", The Hollywood Reporter.

  37. ^ a b Kirkpatrick, David D.; El Sheikh, Mayy. "Video of Mass Sexual Assault Taints Egypt Inauguration", The New York Times, 9 June 2014.
  38. ^ Amaria, Kainaz."The 'Girl In The Blue Bra'", NPR, 21 December 2011.
  39. ^ "Egypt's sexual harassment of women 'epidemic'", BBC News, 3 September 2012.
  40. ^ Zuhur 2014, p. 39.
  41. ^ Tamsin McMahon, "‘The girls of Egypt’ rally after blue bra beating", The National Post, 20 Deceember 2011.
  42. ^ "#BBCtrending: Graphic 'sexual assault' video shocks Egypt", BBC News, 10 June 2014.
  43. ^ "Egypt asks YouTube to remove video of sexual assault victim", Reuters, 13 June 2014.
  44. ^ "Egyptian officials press for sexual assault video to be pulled from YouTube", Ahram Online, 12 June 2014.

    "YouTube removes videos that identify Egyptian sexual assault victim", Ahram Online, 14 June 2014.

  45. ^ Langohr, Vickie (February 2015). "Women's Rights Movements during Political Transitions: Activism against Public Sexual Violence in Egypt". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 47 (1): 131–135. doi:10.1017/S0020743814001482. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)CS1 maint: postscript (link)

    Tadros, Mariz (2014). Reclaiming the Streets for Women’s Dignity: Effective Initiatives in the Struggle Against Gender-Based Violence in Between Egypt’s Two Revolutions. Institute of Development Studies. IDS Evidence Report 48.

  46. ^ Abdelmonem, Angie (10 November 2015). "Reconsidering de-politicization: HarassMap's bystander approach and creating critical mass to combat sexual harassment in Egypt". Égypte/Monde Arabe. 13. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  47. ^ "Muslim Brotherhood Statement Denouncing UN Women Declaration for Violating Sharia Principles", Muslim Brotherhood, 14 March 2013.

    Nowaira, Amira (18 March 2013). "The Muslim Brotherhood has shown its contempt for Egypt's women". The Guardian.

  48. ^ Lekas Miller, Anna (8 August 2013). "Exploiting Egypt's Rape Culture for Political Gain". The Nation.
  49. ^ "Cairo university student sexually harassed by mob on campus", Al-Ahram, 17 March 2014.

    Masr, Mada (18 March 2014). "Victim Blamed After Sexual Assault at Cairo University". Mada Masr.

  50. ^ Crouch, David (11 January 2016). "Swedish police accused of covering up sex attacks by refugees at music festival", The Guardian.

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  51. ^ "Helsinki police report 15 sexual harassment cases on New Year's Eve", The Daily Telegraph, 19 January 2016.

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  52. ^ Herwartz, Christoph (20 January 2016). "Eskaliert ist es von allein", Die Zeit.
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  62. ^ Alyssa Miller, "20 Or More Women Were Sexually Assaulted At A Vietnam Water Park And Nobody Seems To Care", EliteDaily, 14 July 2015.

Further reading

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