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{{Short description|Genre of fantasy fiction}}
{{about|the subgenre|the line of role-playing products|Sword and Sorcery Studios}}
{{About|the subgenre|other uses|Swords & sorcery (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2012}}
{{Hatnote|Not to be confused with [[Sword-and-sandal]], a genre of Italian costume adventure epic films}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}}
{{Fantasy}}
{{Fantasy}}
[[File:Harold S Delay - Red Nails I.png|thumb|upright=1.3|Illustration of a scene in [[Robert E. Howard]]'s [[Conan the Barbarian]] story "Red Nails"]]
'''Sword and sorcery''' ('''S&S''') is a [[subgenre]] of [[fantasy]] characterized by sword-wielding heroes engaged in exciting and violent adventures. An element of [[Romance (love)|romance]] is often present, as is an element of [[Magic (fantasy)|magic]] and the [[supernatural]]. Unlike works of [[high fantasy]], the tales, though dramatic, focus mainly on personal battles rather than world-endangering matters.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.blackgate.com/articles/S&S.htm |title=The Demarcation of Sword and Sorcery |publisher=Black Gate |date= |accessdate=2015-11-13}}</ref> Sword and sorcery commonly overlaps with [[heroic fantasy]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Clute|first1=John|last2=Grant|first2=John|last3=Ashley|first3=Mike|last4=Hartwell|first4=David G.|last5=Westfahl|first5=Gary|title=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy|date=1999|publisher=St. Martin's Griffin|location=New York|isbn=0-312-19869-8|page=464|edition=1st St. Martin's Griffin}}</ref>
'''Sword and sorcery''' ('''S&S''') or '''heroic fantasy''' is a [[subgenre]] of [[fantasy]] characterized by sword-wielding heroes engaged in exciting and violent adventures. Elements of [[Romance (love)|romance]], [[Magic (fantasy)|magic]], and the [[supernatural]] are also often present. Unlike works of [[high fantasy]], the tales, though dramatic, focus on personal battles rather than world-endangering matters. Sword and sorcery commonly overlaps with heroic fantasy. The genre originated from the early-1930s works of [[Robert E. Howard]]. The term "sword and sorcery" was coined by [[Fritz Leiber]] in the May 1961 issue of the fantasy fanzine ''Amra'', to describe Howard and the stories that were influenced by his works.<ref name=SFESandS>{{cite web|url=https://sf-encyclopedia.com/entry/sword_and_sorcery|title=Sword and Sorcery|last=Nicholls|first=Peter|website=[[The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction]]|date=October 10, 2022|access-date=July 29, 2023}}</ref> In parallel with "sword and sorcery", the term "heroic fantasy" is used, although it is a more loosely defined genre.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sf-encyclopedia.com/entry/heroic_fantasy|title=Heroic Fantasy|last=Nicholls|first=Peter|website=[[The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction]]|date=October 30, 2015|access-date=July 29, 2023}}</ref>
[[File:An island story; a child's history of England (1906) (14801002423).jpg|thumb|An island story; a child's history of England (1906).]]

==Origin==
Sword and sorcery tales eschew overarching themes of "good vs evil" in favor of situational conflicts that often pit morally gray characters against one another to enrich themselves, or to defy [[tyranny]].
The term "sword and sorcery" was coined in 1961 by the British author [[Michael Moorcock]], who published a letter in the fanzine ''Amra'', demanding a name for the sort of fantasy-adventure story written by [[Robert E. Howard]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Moorcock|first1=Mike|title=Putting a Tag on It|journal=Amra|date=May 1961|volume=2|issue=15|page=15}}</ref> He had initially proposed the term "epic fantasy". However, the celebrated American sword-and-sorcery author [[Fritz Leiber]] replied in the journal ''Ancalagon'' (6 April 1961), suggesting "sword-and-sorcery as a good popular catchphrase for the field". He expanded on this in the July 1961 issue of ''Amra'', commenting:

Sword and sorcery is grounded in real-world social and societal hierarchies, and is grittier, darker, and more violent, with elements of cosmic, often [[Lovecraftian]] creatures that aren't a staple of mainstream fantasy. The main character is often a [[barbarian]] with [[antihero]] traits.

==Etymology==
American author [[Fritz Leiber]] coined the term "sword and sorcery" in 1961 in response to a letter from British author [[Michael Moorcock]] in the fanzine ''Amra'', demanding a name for the sort of fantasy-adventure story written by [[Robert E. Howard]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Moorcock|first1=Mike|title=Putting a Tag on It|journal=Amra|date=May 1961|volume=2|issue=15|page=15}}</ref> Moorcock had initially proposed the term "epic fantasy". Leiber replied in the journal ''Ancalagon'' (6 April 1961), suggesting "sword-and-sorcery as a good popular catchphrase for the field". He expanded on this in the July 1961 issue of ''Amra'', commenting:


{{bquote|I feel more certain than ever that this field should be called the sword-and-sorcery story. This accurately describes the points of culture-level and supernatural element and also immediately distinguishes it from the cloak-and-sword (historical adventure) story—and (quite incidentally) from the [[cloak-and-dagger]] (international espionage) story too!<ref>[[Fritz Leiber]], ''Amra'', July 1961</ref>}}
{{bquote|I feel more certain than ever that this field should be called the sword-and-sorcery story. This accurately describes the points of culture-level and supernatural element and also immediately distinguishes it from the cloak-and-sword (historical adventure) story—and (quite incidentally) from the [[cloak-and-dagger]] (international espionage) story too!<ref>[[Fritz Leiber]], ''Amra'', July 1961</ref>}}


The term "heroic fantasy" has been used to avoid the garish overtones of "sword and sorcery".<ref name=SFESandS/> This name was coined by [[L. Sprague de Camp]].<ref name="deCamp">{{cite book |last1=de Camp |first1=L. Sprague |title=Conan the Barbarian |date=1967 |publisher=Ace Books |page=13 |chapter=Introduction}}</ref> However, it has also been used to describe a broader range of fantasy, including [[High fantasy]].<ref name=Stableford>{{cite encyclopedia | last = Stableford | first = Brian | author-link = Brian Stableford | encyclopedia = The A to Z of Fantasy Literature | title = Heroic Fantasy| year = 2009 | publisher = Scarecrow Press | isbn = 9780810863453}}</ref>
Since its inception, many attempts have been made to provide a precise definition of "sword and sorcery". Although many have debated the finer points, the consensus characterizes it by a strong bias toward fast-paced, action-rich tales set within a quasi-mythical or fantastical framework. Unlike high fantasy, the stakes in sword and sorcery tend to be personal, the danger confined to the moment of telling.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Martin|first1=Philip|title=The Writer's Guide to Fantasy Literature: From Dragon's Lair to Hero's Quest: how to Write Fantasy Stories of Lasting Value|date=2002|publisher=Writer Books|location=Waukesha, WI|isbn=0-87116-195-8|page=35|edition=1st}}</ref> Settings are typically exotic, and protagonists often morally compromised.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Strahan|first1=Jonathan|last2=Anders|first2=Lou|title=Swords & Dark Magic: The New Sword and Sorcery|date=2010|publisher=Eos|location=New York|isbn=978-0-06-172381-0|page=xi|edition=1st}}</ref>


==Style and themes==
Many sword and sorcery tales have been turned into a lengthy series of adventures. Their lower stakes and less-than world-threatening dangers make this more plausible than a repetition of the perils of epic fantasy. So too does the nature of the heroes; most sword-and-sorcery [[protagonist]]s, travellers by nature, find peace after adventure deathly dull.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Martin|first1=Philip|title=The Writer's Guide to Fantasy Literature: From Dragon's Lair to Hero's Quest: how to Write Fantasy Stories of Lasting Value|date=2002|publisher=Writer Books|location=Waukesha, WI|isbn=0-87116-195-8|page=37|edition=1st}}</ref> At one extreme, the heroes of [[E. R. Eddison]]'s ''[[The Worm Ouroboros]]'' <!-- This conflicts with the information given in the article of the mentioned work, which states that this work is a "heroic high fantasy novel" -->grieve for the end of the war and that they have no more foes equal to those they defeated; in answer to their prayers, the gods restore the enemy city so that they can fight the same war over again.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Camp|first1=L. Sprague de|title=Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers: The Makers of Heroic Fantasy|date=1976|publisher=Arkham House|location=Sauk City, Wis.|isbn=0-87054-076-9|page=116}}</ref>
Sword and sorcery stories take place in a fictional world where magic exists. The setting can be an Earth in the mythical past or distant future, an imaginary other world or an alien planet. Sometimes sword and sorcery stories are influenced by [[Horror literature|horror]] or [[science fiction]]. Sword and sorcery, however, does not seek to give a scientific explanation for miraculous events, unlike actual science fiction.


The [[Protagonist|main character]] in sword and sorcery stories is usually a powerful warrior who fights against supernatural evil.<ref name=SFESandS/> The typical protagonist is a violent, self-respecting and emotional barbarian who values freedom. The main character often has the characteristics of an antihero.<ref>{{cite book |last=Westfahl |first=Gary |title=The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy. Themes, Works and Wonders |pages=73–75 |location=Westport, Connecticut |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-313-32950-0}}</ref> Although the main character mostly behaves heroically, he may ally with an enemy or sacrifice an ally in order to survive.<ref name=FantasyEnc>{{cite book |last1=Clute |first1=John |last2=Grant|first2=John |last3=Ashley |first3=Mike |last4=Hartwell |first4=David G. |last5=Westfahl |first5=Gary |title=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy |date=1999 |publisher=St. Martin's Griffin |location=New York |isbn=0-312-19869-8 |page=464 |edition=1st St. Martin's Griffin}}</ref> A hero's main weapons are cunning and physical strength. Magic, on the other hand, is usually only used by the villains of the story,<ref name=BestFantasy>{{cite web |url=http://bestfantasybooks.com/sword-and-sorcery.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130922100051/bestfantasybooks.com/sword-and-sorcery.html |title=Sword and Sorcery |website=Best Fantasy Books |archive-date=September 22, 2013 |access-date=July 29, 2023 |url-status=dead}}</ref> who are usually [[Magician (fantasy)|wizards]], [[Witch (word)|witches]], or supernatural [[monster]]s.<ref name=FantasyEnc/> Most sword and sorcery heroes are masculine male characters, while female characters are usually underdeveloped. A recurring theme in the genre is a [[damsel in distress]].<ref name=BestFantasy/> However, some sword and sorcery stories have a female protagonist, and the genre's traditional emphasis on male protagonists has declined since the last decades of the 20th century.<ref name=FantasyEnc/>
==Sources==
{{Refimprove section|date=November 2015}}
Sword and sorcery ultimately draws from mythology and classical epics such as [[Homer]]'s [[Odyssey]], the [[Norse sagas]] and [[Arthurian legend]].{{Citation needed|date=November 2015}}


In his introduction to the 1967 [[Ace Books|Ace]] edition of ''Conan The Barbarian'', L. Sprague de Camp described the typical sword and sorcery story as:
It is also influenced by [[historical fiction]]. [[Sir Walter Scott]], under the influence of a romantic collection of folklore and ballads, wrote such works.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Moorcock|first1=Michael|title=Wizardry & Wild Romance: A Study of Epic Fantasy|date=2004|publisher=MonkeyBrain|location=Austin, Tex.|isbn=1-932265-07-4|page=79|edition=rev.}}</ref> However, very few of his writings contain fantastic elements; in most, the appearance of such is explained away.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Clute|first1=John|last2=Grant|first2=John|last3=Ashley|first3=Mike|last4=Hartwell|first4=David G.|last5=Westfahl|first5=Gary|title=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy|date=1999|publisher=St. Martin's Griffin|location=New York|isbn=0-312-19869-8|page=845|edition=1st St. Martin's Griffin}}</ref> However, its themes of adventure in a strange society influenced the adventures set in foreign lands by [[H. Rider Haggard]] and [[Edgar Rice Burroughs]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Moorcock|first1=Michael|title=Wizardry & Wild Romance: A Study of Epic Fantasy|date=2004|publisher=MonkeyBrain|location=Austin, Tex.|isbn=1-932265-07-4|pages=80–81|edition=rev.}}</ref> Haggard's works included many fantastic elements.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Clute|first1=John|last2=Grant|first2=John|last3=Ashley|first3=Mike|last4=Hartwell|first4=David G.|last5=Westfahl|first5=Gary|title=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy|date=1999|publisher=St. Martin's Griffin|location=New York|isbn=0-312-19869-8|pages=444–445|edition=1st St. Martin's Griffin}}</ref>
<blockquote>
[A] story of action and adventure laid in a more or less imaginary world, where magic works and where modern science and technology have not yet been discovered. The setting may (as in the Conan stories) be this Earth as it is conceived to have been long ago, or as it will be in the remote future, or it may be another planet or another dimension.


Such a story combines the color and dash of the historical costume romance with the atavistic supernatural thrills of the weird, occult, or [[ghost story]]. When well done, it provides the purest ''fun'' of fiction of any kind. It is escape fiction wherein one escapes clear out of the real world into one where all men are strong, all women beautiful, all life adventurous, and all problems simple, and nobody even mentions the income tax or the dropout problem or socialized medicine.<ref name="deCamp"/>
Sword and sorcery's immediate progenitors are the [[swashbuckling]] tales of [[Alexandre Dumas, père]] (''[[The Three Musketeers]]'' (1844), etc.), [[Rafael Sabatini]] (''[[Scaramouche (novel)|Scaramouche]]'' (1921), etc.) and their [[pulp magazine]] imitators, such as [[Talbot Mundy]], [[Harold Lamb]], and [[H. Bedford-Jones]], who all influenced [[Robert E. Howard]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Pringle|first1=David|last2=Pratchett|first2=Terry|title=The Ultimate Encyclopedia of Fantasy|date=2007|publisher=Random House Australia|location=North Sydney, N.S.W.|isbn=9781741665826|page=34}}</ref> However, these historical "swashbucklers" lack the truly supernatural element (even though Dumas' fiction contained many [[fantasy tropes]]) that defines the genre.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Clute|first1=John|last2=Grant|first2=John|last3=Ashley|first3=Mike|last4=Hartwell|first4=David G.|last5=Westfahl|first5=Gary|title=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy|date=1999|publisher=St. Martin's Griffin|location=New York|isbn=0-312-19869-8|page=300|edition=1st St. Martin's Griffin}}</ref> Another influence was early fantasy fiction such as [[Edward Plunkett, 18th Baron of Dunsany|Lord Dunsany]]'s ''[[The Fortress Unvanquishable, Save for Sacnoth]]'' (1910) and [[A. Merritt]]'s ''[[The Ship of Ishtar]]'' (1924).<ref>[http://www.swordandsorcery.org/Timeline.asp ] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100215210121/http://www.swordandsorcery.org/Timeline.asp |date=15 February 2010 }}</ref> All of these authors influenced sword and sorcery for the plots, characters, and landscapes used.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Moorcock|first1=Michael|title=Wizardry & Wild Romance: A Study of Epic Fantasy|date=2004|publisher=MonkeyBrain|location=Austin, Tex.|isbn=1-932265-07-4|page=82|edition=rev.}}</ref>
</blockquote>


The circular structure is common in sword and sorcery series: the hero stays forever young and every day is like the first for him. The main character's victory over his enemies is not final, but in the next short story a new threat arises, against which the hero has to fight once again. The world has a wide variety of exciting and exotic locations designed to act as a stage for the main character's exploits.<ref name=FantasyEnc/><ref>{{cite book|last1=Strahan|first1=Jonathan|last2=Anders|first2=Lou|title=Swords & Dark Magic: The New Sword and Sorcery|date=2010|publisher=Eos|location=New York|isbn=978-0-06-172381-0|page=xi|edition=1st|url=https://archive.org/details/swordsdarkmagict00stra|url-access=registration}}</ref> Many sword and sorcery tales have turned into lengthy series of adventures. Their lower stakes and less-than world-threatening dangers make this more plausible than a repetition of the perils of [[high fantasy]]. So too does the nature of the heroes; most sword and sorcery protagonists, travellers by nature, find peace after adventure deathly dull.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Martin|first1=Philip|title=The Writer's Guide to Fantasy Literature: From Dragon's Lair to Hero's Quest: how to Write Fantasy Stories of Lasting Value|date=2002|publisher=Writer Books|location=Waukesha, WI|isbn=0-87116-195-8|page=37|edition=1st}}</ref>
In addition, many early sword and sorcery writers, such as [[Robert E. Howard]] and [[Clark Ashton Smith]], were heavily influenced by the Middle Eastern tales of the [[Arabian Nights]], whose stories of magical monsters and evil [[Magician (fantasy)|sorcerers]] were a major influence on the genre-to-be.{{Citation needed|date=November 2015}}


Sword and sorcery resembles high fantasy, but is darker and more jagged. The scale of the struggles depicted is smaller, and the main character usually pursues personal gain, such as wealth or love.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Martin|first1=Philip|title=The Writer's Guide to Fantasy Literature: From Dragon's Lair to Hero's Quest: how to Write Fantasy Stories of Lasting Value|date=2002|publisher=Writer Books|location=Waukesha, WI|isbn=0-87116-195-8|page=35|edition=1st}}</ref> The opposition between good and evil characteristic of fantasy also exists in sword and sorcery literature, but it is less absolute and the events often take place in a morally gray area. These features are especially emphasized in newer works of the genre. The stories are fast-paced and action-oriented, with lots of violent fight scenes. Sword and sorcery is by nature a light and [[Escapism|escapist]] genre whose main purpose is to entertain the reader. There is usually no deep message or social statements in the works of this genre.<ref name=BestFantasy/>
Sword and sorcery's frequent depictions of smoky taverns and smelly back alleys draw upon the [[picaresque]] genre; for example, Rachel Bingham notes that [[Fritz Leiber]]'s city of [[Lankhmar]] bears considerable similarity to 16th century [[Seville]] as depicted in [[Cervantes]]' tale ''[[Rinconete y Cortadillo]]''.<ref>Dr. Rachel B. Bingham, "The Enduring Influence of Cervantes" in "Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Spanish Literature and Culture" (published in Spanish, French and English)</ref>


It is typical for the topics that sword and sorcery deals with to be relatively limited. The genre has sometimes been criticized for excessive violence, misogyny and even [[Fascism|fascist]] attitudes.<ref name=SFESandS/>
Sword and sorcery proper only truly began in the [[pulp magazines|pulp]] fantasy magazines, where it emerged from "[[weird fiction]]."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://broaduniverse.org/broadsheet-archive/tales-from-the-brass-bikini-feminist-sword-and-sorcery-november-2011-bs-r |last=Stiles |first=Paula R. |title=Tales From the Brass Bikini: Feminist Sword and Sorcery |work=Broad Universe |date=November 2011 |accessdate=20 June 2012}}</ref> Particularly important was the magazine ''[[Weird Tales]]'', which published Howard's [[Conan the Barbarian|Conan]] stories and [[C. L. Moore]]'s [[Jirel of Joiry]] tales, as well as key S&S influences like Lovecraft and Clark Ashton Smith.{{Citation needed|date=November 2015}}

==History==
===Origins===
In his introduction to the reference ''[[Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers]]'' by [[L. Sprague de Camp]], [[Lin Carter]] notes that the heritage of sword and sorcery is illustrious, and can be traced back to mythology, including the labors of [[Hercules]], as well as to classical epics such as [[Homer]]'s ''[[Odyssey]]'', the [[Norse sagas]], and [[Arthurian legend]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=de Camp|first1=L. Sprague|title=Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers: the Makers of Heroic Fantasy|date=1976|isbn=0-87054-076-9|publisher=Arkham House|page=xi|location=Sauk City, Wisconsin}}</ref>

It also has been influenced by [[historical fiction]]. For instance, the work of [[Sir Walter Scott]] was influenced by Scottish folklore and ballads.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Moorcock|first1=Michael |title=Wizardry & Wild Romance: A Study of Epic Fantasy|date=2004 |publisher=MonkeyBrain|location=Austin, Tex.|isbn=1-932265-07-4|page=79|edition=rev.}}</ref> But few of Scott's stories contain fantastic elements; in most, the appearance of such is explained away.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Clute |first1=John |last2=Grant |first2=John |last3=Ashley |first3=Mike |last4=Hartwell |first4=David G. |last5=Westfahl |first5=Gary |title=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy |date=1999 |publisher=St. Martin's Griffin |location=New York |isbn=0-312-19869-8 |page=845 |edition=1st St. Martin's Griffin}}</ref> Its themes of adventure in a strange society influenced the adventures set in foreign lands by [[H. Rider Haggard]] and [[Edgar Rice Burroughs]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Moorcock|first1=Michael |title=Wizardry & Wild Romance: A Study of Epic Fantasy|date=2004|publisher=MonkeyBrain|location=Austin, Tex.|isbn=1-932265-07-4|pages=80–81|edition=rev.}}</ref> Haggard's works included many fantastic elements.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Clute|first1=John |last2=Grant|first2=John|last3=Ashley|first3=Mike|last4=Hartwell|first4=David G.|last5=Westfahl|first5=Gary |title=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy |date=1999|publisher=St. Martin's Griffin |location=New York|isbn=0-312-19869-8|pages=444–445|edition=1st St. Martin's Griffin}}</ref>

Sword and sorcery's immediate progenitors are the [[swashbuckling]] tales of [[Alexandre Dumas, père]] (''[[The Three Musketeers]]'' (1844), etc.), [[Rafael Sabatini]] (''[[Scaramouche (novel)|Scaramouche]]'' (1921), etc.) and their [[pulp magazine]] imitators, such as [[Talbot Mundy]], [[Harold Lamb]], and [[H. Bedford-Jones]], who all influenced Howard.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Pringle|first1=David|last2=Pratchett|first2=Terry|title=The Ultimate Encyclopedia of Fantasy|date=2007|publisher=Random House Australia|location=North Sydney, N.S.W.|isbn=9781741665826|page=34}}</ref> However, these historical "swashbucklers" lack the supernatural element (even though Dumas' fiction contained many [[fantasy tropes]]) which defines the genre.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Clute |first1=John |last2=Grant |first2=John |last3=Ashley |first3=Mike |last4=Hartwell |first4=David G. |last5=Westfahl |first5=Gary |title=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy |date=1999 |publisher=St. Martin's Griffin |location=New York |isbn=0-312-19869-8 |page=300 |edition=1st St. Martin's Griffin}}</ref>

Another influence was early fantasy fiction such as [[Edward Plunkett, 18th Baron of Dunsany|Lord Dunsany]]'s "[[The Fortress Unvanquishable, Save for Sacnoth]]" (1910) and [[A. Merritt]]'s ''[[The Ship of Ishtar]]'' (1924).<ref>[http://www.swordandsorcery.org/Timeline.asp] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100215210121/http://www.swordandsorcery.org/Timeline.asp|date=15 February 2010}}</ref> All these authors influenced sword and sorcery for the plots, characters, and landscapes used.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Moorcock |first1=Michael |title=Wizardry & Wild Romance: A Study of Epic Fantasy |date=2004 |publisher=MonkeyBrain |location=Austin, Texas |isbn=1-932265-07-4 |page=82 |edition=rev.}}</ref> The American author [[Gertrude Hall]]'s 1895 novelette "Garden Deadly" appears to anticipate the genre with the tale of a blighted kingdom, a seductive enchantress who turns men into animals, and a brash, brawny outsider who sets out to save the day.<ref>Hall, Gertrude (1895). "Garden Deadly" in ''Foam of the Sea and Other Tales'', Boston: Roberts Brothers, pp. 249-299.</ref>

Also, many early sword and sorcery writers, such as Howard and [[Clark Ashton Smith]], were influenced by the Middle Eastern tales of the [[Arabian Nights]], whose stories of magical monsters and evil [[Magician (fantasy)|sorcerers]] were an influence on the genre-to-be.<ref>{{cite book |last1=de Camp |first1=L. Sprague |title=Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers: The Makers of Heroic Fantasy |date=1976 |publisher=Arkham House |location=Sauk City, Wisconsin |isbn=0-8705-4-076-9 |edition=1st |page=10}}</ref>

Sword and sorcery's frequent depictions of smoky taverns and fetid back alleys draw upon the [[picaresque]] genre; for example, Rachel Bingham notes that [[Fritz Leiber]]'s city of [[Lankhmar]] bears considerable similarity to 16th century [[Seville]] as depicted in [[Miguel de Cervantes]]' tale "[[Rinconete y Cortadillo]]".<ref>Dr. Rachel B. Bingham, "The Enduring Influence of Cervantes" in "Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Spanish Literature and Culture" (published in Spanish, French and English)</ref>

Sword and sorcery proper only truly began in the [[pulp magazines|pulp]] fantasy magazines, where it emerged from "[[weird fiction]]".<ref name="stiles">{{cite web |url=http://broaduniverse.org/broadsheet-archive/tales-from-the-brass-bikini-feminist-sword-and-sorcery-november-2011-bs-r |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111228100610/http://broaduniverse.org/broadsheet-archive/tales-from-the-brass-bikini-feminist-sword-and-sorcery-november-2011-bs-r |archive-date=2011-12-28 |last=Stiles |first=Paula R. |title=Tales From the Brass Bikini: Feminist Sword and Sorcery |work=Broad Universe |date=November 2011 |access-date=20 June 2012}}</ref> The magazine ''[[Weird Tales]]'', which published Howard's [[Conan the Barbarian|Conan]] stories and [[C. L. Moore]]'s [[Jirel of Joiry]] tales, as well as key influences like [[H. P. Lovecraft]] and Smith, was especially important.<ref>{{cite book|last1=de Camp|first1=L. Sprague|title=Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers: The Makers of Heroic Fantasy|date=1976|publisher=Arkham House|location=Sauk City, Wisconsin|isbn=0-8705-4-076-9|edition=1st|page=ix: Chapter IV (Lovecraft), Chapter VIII (Smith)}}</ref>

===Rise in popularity===
{{More citations needed section|date=November 2015}}
From the 1960s until the 1980s, under the guiding force of Carter, a select group of writers formed the [[Swordsmen and Sorcerers' Guild of America]] (SAGA) to promote and enlarge the sword and sorcery genre. From 1973 to 1981, five anthologies featuring short works by SAGA members were published. Edited by Carter, these were collectively known as ''[[Flashing Swords!]]''. Because of these and other anthologies, such as the [[Ballantine Adult Fantasy]] series, his own fiction, and his criticism, Carter is considered one of the most important popularizers of genre fantasy in general, and S&S in particular.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Clute|first1=John|last2=Grant|first2=John|last3=Ashley|first3=Mike|last4=Hartwell|first4=David G.|last5=Westfahl|first5=Gary|title=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy|date=1999|publisher=St. Martin's Griffin|location=New York|isbn=0-312-19869-8|page=171|edition=1st St. Martin's Griffin}}</ref>

Despite such authors' efforts, some critics use sword and sorcery as a dismissive or pejorative term.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Clute|first1=John|last2=Grant|first2=John|last3=Ashley|first3=Mike|last4=Hartwell|first4=David G.|last5=Westfahl|first5=Gary|title=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy|date=1999|publisher=St. Martin's Griffin|location=New York|isbn=0-312-19869-8|page=915|edition=1st St. Martin's Griffin}}</ref> During the 1980s, influenced by the success of the 1982 feature film ''[[Conan the Barbarian (1982 film)|Conan the Barbarian]]'', many fantasy films, some cheaply made, were released in a subgenre that would be called "sword & sorcery".
Examples of these films would include ''[[The Beastmaster (film)|''The Beastmaster'' (film)]]'' (1982), ''[[The Sword and the Sorcerer]]'' (1982), two Italian Hercules films starring [[Lou Ferrigno]], ''[[Krull |''Krull'' (film)]]'' (1983), a Conan sequel, ''[[Conan the Destroyer]]'' (1984) and ''[[Red Sonja (1985 film)|Red Sonja]]'', which, like the Conan films, also starred [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]]. One could potentially include the earlier releases of ''[[Hawk the Slayer]]'' (1980) and [[Clash of the Titans (1981 film)|''Clash of the Titans'' (1981 film)]] which whetted the public’s appetites for such films and the live action adaptation of the Conan-inspired toy range (and subsequent cartoon series) [[Masters of the Universe (film)|''Masters of the Universe'' (film)]], which essentially ended the subgenre’s 80s run.

After the cinema and literary boom of the early-to-mid 1980s, sword and sorcery once again dropped out of favor, with epic fantasy largely taking its place in the fantasy genre. There was, though, another resurgence in sword and sorcery at the end of the 20th century. Sometimes called the "new" or "literary" sword and sorcery, this development places emphasis on literary technique, and draws from epic fantasy and other genres to broaden the genre's typical scope. Stories may feature the wide-ranging struggles of national or world-spanning concerns common to high fantasy, but told from the point of view of characters more common to S&S, and with the sense of adventure common to the latter. Writers associated with this include [[Steven Erikson]], [[Joe Abercrombie]], and [[Scott Lynch]], magazines such as [[Black Gate (magazine)|''Black Gate'']] and the ezines ''Flashing Swords''{{Citation needed|date=April 2023}} (not to be confused with the [[Lin Carter]] anthologies), and ''[[Beneath Ceaseless Skies]]'' publish short fiction in the style.<ref>[http://www.beneath-ceaseless-skies.com/page.php?p=about] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120508103934/http://www.beneath-ceaseless-skies.com/page.php?p=about|date=8 May 2012}}</ref> According to the literary critic Higashi Masao regarding Japanese works ''[[Guin Saga]]'' and ''[[Sorcerous Stabber Orphen]]'', they were initially planned by their authors as novels that could be classified as belonging to the European sword and sorcery [[subgenre]] but had various major elements that distanced themselves from the typical novels in the genre.<ref name="HMAI">{{cite book|last=Higashi|first=Masao|editor1-last=Ai |editor1-first=Ishidou |title=Encyclopedia of Japanese fantasy writers|year=2009| language=ja |publisher=Kokusho Kankōkai|isbn= 9784336051424|pages=45}}</ref>

In the 1990s, sword and sorcery boomed in popularity in [[Great Britain|Britain]] and other parts of the world.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Science fiction |url=https://www.britannica.com/art/science-fiction |access-date=2023-04-24 |publisher=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |language=en}}</ref>

==Women creators and characters==
Despite the importance of C. L. Moore, Leigh Brackett, [[Andre Norton]], and other female authors, as well as Moore's early heroine, sword and sorcery has been characterized as having a masculine bias. Female characters were generally [[Damsel in distress|distressed damsels]] to be rescued or protected, or otherwise served as a reward for a male hero's adventures. Women who had adventures of their own often did so to counter the threat of rape or to gain revenge for same.<ref name="stiles" /><ref>{{cite book |last=Bradley |first=Marion Zimmer |title=Sword and Sorceress |url=https://archive.org/details/swordsorceress00mari |url-access=limited |year= 1984 |publisher=DAW Books |location=New York |isbn=0-87997-928-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/swordsorceress00mari/page/11 11]}}</ref> [[Marion Zimmer Bradley]]'s ''[[Sword and Sorceress series|Sword and Sorceress]]'' anthology series (1984 onwards) tried the reverse, encouraging female writers and protagonists. The stories feature skillful swordswomen and powerful sorceresses working from a variety of motives.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Strahan|first1=Jonathan|last2=Anders|first2=Lou|title=Swords & Dark Magic: The New Sword and Sorcery|date=2010|publisher=Eos|location=New York|isbn=978-0-06-172381-0|page=xvii|edition=1st|url=https://archive.org/details/swordsdarkmagict00stra|url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Bradley|first1=Marion Zimmer|title=Sword and Sorceress XVII|date=2001|publisher=DAW Books|location=New York, NY|isbn=0886779960|pages=9–13}}</ref>

[[Jessica Amanda Salmonson]] similarly sought to broaden the range of roles for female characters in sword and sorcery through her own stories and through editing the [[World Fantasy Award]]-winning<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldfantasy.org/awards/1980.html |title=1980 World Fantasy Award Winners and Nominees |work=World Fantasy Convention |publisher=World Fantasy Board |access-date=18 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120728144349/http://www.worldfantasy.org/awards/1980.html |archive-date=28 July 2012 }}</ref> ''Amazons'' (1979) and ''Amazons II'' (1982) anthologies; both drew on real and folkloric female warriors, often from areas outside of Europe.<ref>{{cite book |last=Salmonson |first=Jessica Amanda |title=Amazons II |year=1982 |publisher=DAW Books |location=New York |isbn=0-87997-736-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/amazonsii00salm/page/7 7–19] |url=https://archive.org/details/amazonsii00salm/page/7 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Clute|first1=John|last2=Grant|first2=John|last3=Ashley|first3=Mike|last4=Hartwell|first4=David G.|last5=Westfahl|first5=Gary|title=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy|date=1999|publisher=St. Martin's Griffin|location=New York|isbn=0-312-19869-8|page=832|edition=1st St. Martin's Griffin}}</ref>

Early sword and sorcery writer [[Robert E. Howard]] had espoused feminist views in his personal and professional life. He wrote to his friends and associates defending the achievements and capabilities of women.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Finn|first1=Mark|title=[[Blood & Thunder: The Life & Art of Robert E. Howard]]|date=2006|publisher=MonkeyBrain Books|location=Austin, Tex.|isbn=1-932265-21-X|page=141}}</ref><ref>[http://www.rehupa.com/short_bio.htm] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929010748/http://www.rehupa.com/short_bio.htm|date=29 September 2011}}</ref> Strong female characters in Howard's works of fiction include [[Dark Agnes de Chastillon]] (first appearing in "Sword Woman", circa 1932–34), the early modern pirate Helen Tavrel ("The Isle of Pirates' Doom", 1928), as well as two pirates and Conan the Barbarian supporting characters, Bêlit ("[[Queen of the Black Coast]]", 1934), and Valeria of the Red Brotherhood ("[[Red Nails]]", 1936).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Finn|first1=Mark|title=[[Blood & Thunder: The Life & Art of Robert E. Howard]]|date=2006|publisher=MonkeyBrain Books|location=Austin, Tex.|isbn=1-932265-21-X|pages=186–187}}</ref>

Introduced as the co-star in a non-fantasy historical story by Howard entitled "[[The Shadow of the Vulture]]", Red Sonya of Rogatino later inspired a fantasy heroine named [[Red Sonja]], who first appeared in the comic book series ''[[Conan (comics)|Conan the Barbarian]]'' written by [[Roy Thomas]] and illustrated by [[Barry Windsor-Smith]]. Red Sonja got her own comic book title and eventually a series of novels by [[David C. Smith (author)|David C. Smith]] and [[Richard L. Tierney]], as well as [[Richard Fleischer]]'s [[Red Sonja (1985 film)|film adaptation]] in 1985.


==Selected works==
==Selected works==
{{prose|section|date=June 2021|reason=section is very weak, basically "also another additional example is also this and that"}}
The genre has been defined, strongly, by the work of Robert E. Howard, particularly his tales of ''[[Conan the Barbarian]]'' and ''[[Kull of Atlantis]]'', mostly in ''Weird Tales'' from 1932 and 1929 respectively.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Waggoner|first1=Diana|title=The Hills of Faraway: A Guide to Fantasy|date=1978|publisher=Atheneum|location=New York|isbn=0-689-10846-X|pages=47–48}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Howard|first1=Robert E.|last2=Sweet|first2=Justin|title=Kull: Exile of Atlantis|date=2006|publisher=Del Rey|location=New York|isbn=0-345-49017-7|page=xix}}</ref>

The genre has been defined by Robert E. Howard's work, especially his tales of ''[[Conan the Barbarian]]'' and ''[[Kull of Atlantis]]'', mostly in ''Weird Tales'' from 1932 and 1929 respectively.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Waggoner|first1=Diana|title=The Hills of Faraway: A Guide to Fantasy|date=1978|publisher=Atheneum|location=New York|isbn=0-689-10846-X|pages=[https://archive.org/details/hillsoffaraway00wagg/page/47 47–48]|url=https://archive.org/details/hillsoffaraway00wagg/page/47}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Howard|first1=Robert E.|last2=Sweet|first2=Justin|title=Kull: Exile of Atlantis|date=2006|publisher=Del Rey|location=New York|isbn=0-345-49017-7|page=xix}}</ref>


Other books and series that define the genre of sword-and-sorcery include:
Other books and series that define the genre of sword-and-sorcery include:
Line 35: Line 83:
*[[Fritz Leiber]]'s ''[[Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser]]'' sequence, beginning with "Two Sought Adventure" (1939).
*[[Fritz Leiber]]'s ''[[Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser]]'' sequence, beginning with "Two Sought Adventure" (1939).
*[[Michael Moorcock]]'s ''[[Elric]]'' sequence, beginning with ''The Dreaming City'' (published in ''[[Science Fantasy (magazine)|Science Fantasy]]'' 1961), notable for its adherence to [[counterstereotype]].
*[[Michael Moorcock]]'s ''[[Elric]]'' sequence, beginning with ''The Dreaming City'' (published in ''[[Science Fantasy (magazine)|Science Fantasy]]'' 1961), notable for its adherence to [[counterstereotype]].
*[[L. Sprague de Camp]]'s ''[[Swords and Sorcery]]'' was the first sword and sorcery anthology. It was published by Pyramid Books in December 1963.
*[[L. Sprague de Camp]]'s ''[[Swords and Sorcery]]'', the first sword and sorcery anthology, was published by Pyramid Books in December 1963.
*[[Karl Edward Wagner]]'s [[Kane (fantasy)|''Kane'']] novels, beginning with ''Darkness Weaves'' (1970), credited with reinvigorating the genre.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Clute|first1=John|last2=Grant|first2=John|last3=Ashley|first3=Mike|last4=Hartwell|first4=David G.|last5=Westfahl|first5=Gary|title=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy|date=1999|publisher=St. Martin's Griffin|location=New York|isbn=0-312-19869-8|page=990|edition=1st St. Martin's Griffin}}</ref>
*[[Karl Edward Wagner]]'s [[Kane (fantasy)|''Kane'']] novels, beginning with ''Darkness Weaves'' (1970), credited with reinvigorating the genre.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Clute|first1=John|last2=Grant|first2=John|last3=Ashley|first3=Mike|last4=Hartwell|first4=David G.|last5=Westfahl|first5=Gary|title=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy|date=1999|publisher=St. Martin's Griffin|location=New York|isbn=0-312-19869-8|page=990|edition=1st St. Martin's Griffin}}</ref>
*[[Robert Lynn Asprin]]'s [[Thieves' World]], a series of shared world anthologies first created in 1978.
*[[Robert Asprin|Robert Lynn Asprin]]'s ''[[Thieves' World]]'', a series of shared world anthologies first created in 1978.
*[[Samuel R. Delany]]'s ''[[Return to Nevèrÿon (series)|Return of Nevèrÿon]]'', a series of three story collections and one novel influenced by [[critical theory]], published from 1979 to 1987.
*[[Samuel R. Delany]]'s ''[[Return to Nevèrÿon (series)|Return of Nevèrÿon]]'', a series of three-story collections and one novel influenced by [[critical theory]], published from 1979 to 1987.
*[[Charles R. Saunders|Charles Saunders]]' ''[[Imaro]]'' novels, beginning with ''Imaro'' (1981), a collection of short stories first published in the seventies for ''Dark Fantasy'' fanzine. It was the first notable black sword and sorcery protagonist.
*[[Charles R. Saunders|Charles Saunders]]'s ''[[Imaro]]'' novels, beginning with ''Imaro'' (1981), a collection of short stories first published in the seventies for ''Dark Fantasy'' fanzine. Imaro was the first notable black sword and sorcery protagonist. L. Sprague de Camp and Lin Carter had created Juma of Kush as a secondary character in a short story published in 1967.
* [[Gardner Fox]]'s Kothar and Kyrik novels and "Crom the Barbarian", the first sword and sorcery comic series.<ref>[https://amazingstories.com/2013/06/crom-the-barbarian-the-first-true-ss-comic/ Crom the Barbarian" is the first true S&S comic]</ref>


Other pulp fantasy fiction—such as Edgar Rice Burroughs' ''[[Barsoom]]'' series and [[Leigh Brackett]]'s ''Sea Kings of Mars''—have a similar feel to sword and sorcery, but, because alien science replaces the supernatural, it is usually described as [[planetary romance]] or [[sword and planet]], and considered to fall more in the area of science fiction.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Clute|first1=John|last2=Grant|first2=John|last3=Ashley|first3=Mike|last4=Hartwell|first4=David G.|last5=Westfahl |first5=Gary|title=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy|date=1999|publisher=St. Martin's Griffin|location=New York|isbn=0-312-19869-8|page=152|edition=1st St. Martin's Griffin}}</ref> Despite this, planetary romance is closely aligned with sword and sorcery, and the work of Burroughs, Brackett, and others in the former field have been significant in creating and spreading S&S proper.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Clute|first1=John|last2=Grant|first2=John|last3=Ashley|first3=Mike|last4=Hartwell |first4=David G.|last5=Westfahl|first5=Gary|title=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy|date=1999|publisher=St. Martin's Griffin|location=New York|isbn=0-312-19869-8|page=915 |edition=1st St. Martin's Griffin}}</ref> Sword and sorcery itself has often blurred the lines between fantasy and science fiction, drawing elements from both like the "weird fiction" it sprang from.<ref name="stiles1">{{cite web |url=http://broaduniverse.org/broadsheet-archive/tales-from-the-brass-bikini-feminist-sword-and-sorcery-november-2011-bs-r |last=Stiles |title=Tales From the Brass Bikini |accessdate=20 June 2012}}</ref>
Other pulp fantasy fiction, such as Edgar Rice Burroughs' ''[[Barsoom]]'' series and [[Leigh Brackett]]'s ''Sea Kings of Mars'', have a similar feel to sword and sorcery. But, because alien science replaces the supernatural, these books are usually described as [[planetary romance]] or [[sword and planet]]. They fall more in the area of science fiction.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Clute|first1=John |last2=Grant|first2=John |last3=Ashley|first3=Mike |last4=Hartwell|first4=David G. |last5=Westfahl |first5=Gary |title=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy |date=1999 |publisher=St. Martin's Griffin |location=New York |isbn=0-312-19869-8 |page=152 |edition=1st }}</ref> Despite this, planetary romance closely aligns with sword and sorcery, and the work of Burroughs, Brackett, and others in the former field have been significant in creating and spreading S&S proper.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Clute|first1=John|last2=Grant|first2=John|last3=Ashley|first3=Mike|last4=Hartwell |first4=David G.|last5=Westfahl|first5=Gary|title=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy|date=1999|publisher=St. Martin's Griffin|location=New York|isbn=0-312-19869-8|page=915 |edition=1st St. Martin's Griffin}}</ref> Sword and sorcery often blurs the lines between fantasy and science fiction, drawing elements from both like the "weird fiction" it sprang from.<ref name="stiles" />

==Revival==
{{Refimprove section|date=November 2015}}
From the 1960s up till the 1980s, under the guiding force of [[Lin Carter]], a select group of writers formed the [[Swordsmen and Sorcerers' Guild of America]] (SAGA) to promote and enlarge the sword and sorcery genre. From 1973 to 1981, five anthologies featuring short works by SAGA members were published. Edited by Carter, these were collectively known as ''[[Flashing Swords!]]''. Because of these and other anthologies, such as the [[Ballantine Adult Fantasy]] series, his own fiction, and his criticism, Carter is considered one of the most important popularizers of genre fantasy in general, and S&S in particular.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Clute|first1=John|last2=Grant|first2=John|last3=Ashley|first3=Mike|last4=Hartwell|first4=David G.|last5=Westfahl|first5=Gary|title=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy|date=1999|publisher=St. Martin's Griffin|location=New York|isbn=0-312-19869-8|page=171|edition=1st St. Martin's Griffin}}</ref>

Another notable sword and sorcery anthology series that ran from 1977 through 1979 was called "[[Swords Against Darkness]]" ([[Zebra Books]]), edited by [[Andrew J. Offutt]]. This series ran to five volumes and featured stories by such authors as [[Poul Anderson]], [[David Drake]], [[Ramsey Campbell]], [[Andre Norton]], and [[Manly Wade Wellman]].

Despite such authors' best efforts, sword and sorcery has more colloquially come to be known as a catch-all phrase for low grade, derivative fantasy.{{Citation needed|date=November 2015}} During the 1980s, influenced by the success of the 1982 feature film ''[[Conan the Barbarian (1982 film)|Conan the Barbarian]],'' many cheaply made fantasy films were released in a subgenera that would be called "Sword & Sorcery".{{citation needed|date=December 2016}} The term is sometimes used in a derogatory manner by writers and readers of the fantasy genre.

After the boom of the early 1980s, sword and sorcery once again dropped out of favor, with epic fantasy largely taking its place in the fantasy genre. However, there was another resurgence in sword and sorcery at the end of the 20th century. Sometimes called the "new" or "literary" sword and sorcery, this development places emphasis on literary technique, and draws from epic fantasy and other genres to broaden the typical scope of S&S. Stories may feature the wide-ranging struggles national or world-spanning concerns common to high fantasy, but told from the point of view of characters more common to S&S, and with the sense of adventure common to the latter. Writers associated with this include [[Steven Erikson]], [[Joe Abercrombie]], and [[Scott Lynch]], magazines such as [[Black Gate (magazine)|''Black Gate'']] and the ezines [[Flashing Swords ezine|''Flashing Swords'']] (not to be confused with the [[Lin Carter]] anthologies), and ''[[Beneath Ceaseless Skies]]'' publish short fiction in the style.<ref>[http://www.beneath-ceaseless-skies.com/page.php?p=about ] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120508103934/http://www.beneath-ceaseless-skies.com/page.php?p=about |date=8 May 2012 }}</ref> These authors and editors are attempting to return the genre to the status it enjoyed during the pulp era of the twenties and thirties.{{citation needed|date=May 2012}}

==Women creators and characters==
Despite the importance of C. L. Moore, Leigh Brackett, [[Andre Norton]], and other female authors, as well as Moore's early heroine, sword and sorcery has been characterized{{By whom|date=December 2015}} as having a strongly masculine bias. Female characters were generally [[Damsel in distress|distressed damsels]] to be rescued or protected, or otherwise served as an inducement or reward for a male hero's adventures. Women who had adventures of their own often did so to counter the threat of rape, or to gain revenge for same.<ref name="stiles1"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Bradley |first=Marion Zimmer |title=Sword and Sorceress |year= 1984 |publisher=DAW Books |location=New York |isbn=0-87997-928-3 |page=11}}</ref> [[Marion Zimmer Bradley]]'s ''[[Sword and Sorceress series|Sword and Sorceress]]'' anthology series (1984 onwards) attempted the reverse. Bradley encouraged female writers and protagonists. The stories feature skillful swordswomen and powerful sorceresses, working from a variety of motives.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Strahan|first1=Jonathan|last2=Anders|first2=Lou|title=Swords & Dark Magic: The New Sword and Sorcery|date=2010|publisher=Eos|location=New York|isbn=978-0-06-172381-0|page=xvii|edition=1st}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Bradley|first1=Marion Zimmer|title=Sword and Sorceress XVII|date=2001|publisher=DAW Books|location=New York, NY|isbn=0886779960|pages=9–13}}</ref> [[Jessica Amanda Salmonson]] similarly sought to broaden the range of roles for female characters in sword and sorcery through both her own stories and in editing the [[World Fantasy Award]]-winning<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldfantasy.org/awards/1980.html |title=1980 World Fantasy Award Winners and Nominees |work=World Fantasy Convention |publisher=World Fantasy Board |accessdate=18 June 2012}}</ref> ''Amazons'' (1979) and ''Amazons II'' (1982) anthologies; both drew on real and folkloric women warriors, often from areas outside of Europe.<ref>{{cite book |last=Salmonson |first=Jessica Amanda |title=Amazons II |year=1982 |publisher=DAW Books |location=New York |isbn=0-87997-736-1 |pages=7–19}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Clute|first1=John|last2=Grant|first2=John|last3=Ashley|first3=Mike|last4=Hartwell|first4=David G.|last5=Westfahl|first5=Gary|title=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy|date=1999|publisher=St. Martin's Griffin|location=New York|isbn=0-312-19869-8|page=832|edition=1st St. Martin's Griffin}}</ref> Today, active female characters who participate equally with the male heroes in the stories are a regular feature in modern sword and sorcery stories.{{Citation needed|date=November 2015}}


Another notable sword and sorcery anthology series from 1977 through 1979 called ''[[Swords Against Darkness]]'', edited by [[Andrew J. Offutt]], ran five volumes and featured stories by such authors as [[Poul Anderson]], [[David Drake]], [[Ramsey Campbell]], [[Andre Norton]], and [[Manly Wade Wellman]].
Early sword and sorcery writer [[Robert E. Howard]] had feminist views despite his era and location{{synth|date=June 2017}}, which he espoused in both personal and professional life. Howard wrote to his friends and associates defending the achievements and capabilities of women.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Finn|first1=Mark|title=[[Blood & Thunder: The Life & Art of Robert E. Howard]]|date=2006|publisher=MonkeyBrain Books|location=Austin, Tex.|isbn=1-932265-21-X|page=141}}</ref><ref>[http://www.rehupa.com/short_bio.htm ] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929010748/http://www.rehupa.com/short_bio.htm |date=29 September 2011 }}</ref> Strong female characters in Howard's works of fiction include the protofeminist [[Dark Agnes de Chastillon]] (first appearing in "Sword Woman", circa 1932–34), the early modern pirate Helen Tavrel ("The Isle of Pirates' Doom", 1928), as well as two pirates and Conan the Barbarian supporting characters, Bêlit ("[[Queen of the Black Coast]]", 1934), and Valeria of the Red Brotherhood ("[[Red Nails]]", 1936).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Finn|first1=Mark|title=[[Blood & Thunder: The Life & Art of Robert E. Howard]]|date=2006|publisher=MonkeyBrain Books|location=Austin, Tex.|isbn=1-932265-21-X|pages=186–187}}</ref>


==See also==
Introduced as the co-star in a non-fantasy historical story by Howard, "[[The Shadow of the Vulture]]", Red Sonya of Rogatino would later inspire a fantasy heroine named [[Red Sonja]], who first appeared in the comic book series ''[[Conan (comics)|Conan the Barbarian]]'' written by [[Roy Thomas]] and illustrated by [[Barry Windsor-Smith]].{{Citation needed|date=November 2015}} Red Sonja received her own comic book title and eventually a series of novels by [[David C. Smith (author)|David C. Smith]] and [[Richard L. Tierney]], as well as [[Richard Fleischer]]'s unsuccessful [[Red Sonja (1985 film)|film adaptation]] in 1985.{{Citation needed|date=November 2015}}
*[[Planetary romance]]
*[[Sword and planet]]
*''[[Wuxia]]'' – the Chinese equivalent of Western sword and sorcery fantasy literatures
*[[List of sword and sorcery films]]


==References==
==References==
{{reflist|30em}}
{{Reflist|30em}}


==External links==
==External links==
{{wiktionary|sword and sorcery}}
* {{wiktionary-inline|sword and sorcery}}
* [http://www.jessesword.com/sf/view/235 Oxford English Dictionary citations for Sword and Sorcery.]
* [http://www.jessesword.com/sf/view/235 ''Oxford English Dictionary'' citations for Sword and Sorcery]
*[http://www.sf-encyclopedia.com/entry/sword_and_sorcery ''Sword and Sorcery''] in ''[[The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction]]''
* [http://www.sf-encyclopedia.com/entry/sword_and_sorcery ''Sword and Sorcery''] in ''[[The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction]]''
* [https://zinewiki.com/wiki/Amra ''Amra''] entry at ZineWiki


{{Fantasy fiction}}
{{Fantasy fiction}}
{{Film genres}}
{{Film genres}}


[[Category:1961 neologisms]]
[[Category:Sword and sorcery| ]]
[[Category:Fantasy genres]]
[[Category:Fantasy genres]]


Revision as of 00:09, 9 May 2024

This article is about the subgenre. For other uses, see Swords & sorcery (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with Sword-and-sandal, a genre of Italian costume adventure epic films

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Illustration of a scene in Robert E. Howard's Conan the Barbarian story "Red Nails"

Sword and sorcery (S&S) or heroic fantasy is a subgenre of fantasy characterized by sword-wielding heroes engaged in exciting and violent adventures. Elements of romance, magic, and the supernatural are also often present. Unlike works of high fantasy, the tales, though dramatic, focus on personal battles rather than world-endangering matters. Sword and sorcery commonly overlaps with heroic fantasy. The genre originated from the early-1930s works of Robert E. Howard. The term "sword and sorcery" was coined by Fritz Leiber in the May 1961 issue of the fantasy fanzine Amra, to describe Howard and the stories that were influenced by his works.[1] In parallel with "sword and sorcery", the term "heroic fantasy" is used, although it is a more loosely defined genre.[2]

Sword and sorcery tales eschew overarching themes of "good vs evil" in favor of situational conflicts that often pit morally gray characters against one another to enrich themselves, or to defy tyranny.

Sword and sorcery is grounded in real-world social and societal hierarchies, and is grittier, darker, and more violent, with elements of cosmic, often Lovecraftian creatures that aren't a staple of mainstream fantasy. The main character is often a barbarian with antihero traits.

Etymology

American author Fritz Leiber coined the term "sword and sorcery" in 1961 in response to a letter from British author Michael Moorcock in the fanzine Amra, demanding a name for the sort of fantasy-adventure story written by Robert E. Howard.[3] Moorcock had initially proposed the term "epic fantasy". Leiber replied in the journal Ancalagon (6 April 1961), suggesting "sword-and-sorcery as a good popular catchphrase for the field". He expanded on this in the July 1961 issue of Amra, commenting:

I feel more certain than ever that this field should be called the sword-and-sorcery story. This accurately describes the points of culture-level and supernatural element and also immediately distinguishes it from the cloak-and-sword (historical adventure) story—and (quite incidentally) from the cloak-and-dagger (international espionage) story too![4]

The term "heroic fantasy" has been used to avoid the garish overtones of "sword and sorcery".[1] This name was coined by L. Sprague de Camp.[5] However, it has also been used to describe a broader range of fantasy, including High fantasy.[6]

Style and themes

Sword and sorcery stories take place in a fictional world where magic exists. The setting can be an Earth in the mythical past or distant future, an imaginary other world or an alien planet. Sometimes sword and sorcery stories are influenced by horror or science fiction. Sword and sorcery, however, does not seek to give a scientific explanation for miraculous events, unlike actual science fiction.

The main character in sword and sorcery stories is usually a powerful warrior who fights against supernatural evil.[1] The typical protagonist is a violent, self-respecting and emotional barbarian who values freedom. The main character often has the characteristics of an antihero.[7] Although the main character mostly behaves heroically, he may ally with an enemy or sacrifice an ally in order to survive.[8] A hero's main weapons are cunning and physical strength. Magic, on the other hand, is usually only used by the villains of the story,[9] who are usually wizards, witches, or supernatural monsters.[8] Most sword and sorcery heroes are masculine male characters, while female characters are usually underdeveloped. A recurring theme in the genre is a damsel in distress.[9] However, some sword and sorcery stories have a female protagonist, and the genre's traditional emphasis on male protagonists has declined since the last decades of the 20th century.[8]

In his introduction to the 1967 Ace edition of Conan The Barbarian, L. Sprague de Camp described the typical sword and sorcery story as:

[A] story of action and adventure laid in a more or less imaginary world, where magic works and where modern science and technology have not yet been discovered. The setting may (as in the Conan stories) be this Earth as it is conceived to have been long ago, or as it will be in the remote future, or it may be another planet or another dimension.

Such a story combines the color and dash of the historical costume romance with the atavistic supernatural thrills of the weird, occult, or ghost story. When well done, it provides the purest fun of fiction of any kind. It is escape fiction wherein one escapes clear out of the real world into one where all men are strong, all women beautiful, all life adventurous, and all problems simple, and nobody even mentions the income tax or the dropout problem or socialized medicine.[5]

The circular structure is common in sword and sorcery series: the hero stays forever young and every day is like the first for him. The main character's victory over his enemies is not final, but in the next short story a new threat arises, against which the hero has to fight once again. The world has a wide variety of exciting and exotic locations designed to act as a stage for the main character's exploits.[8][10] Many sword and sorcery tales have turned into lengthy series of adventures. Their lower stakes and less-than world-threatening dangers make this more plausible than a repetition of the perils of high fantasy. So too does the nature of the heroes; most sword and sorcery protagonists, travellers by nature, find peace after adventure deathly dull.[11]

Sword and sorcery resembles high fantasy, but is darker and more jagged. The scale of the struggles depicted is smaller, and the main character usually pursues personal gain, such as wealth or love.[12] The opposition between good and evil characteristic of fantasy also exists in sword and sorcery literature, but it is less absolute and the events often take place in a morally gray area. These features are especially emphasized in newer works of the genre. The stories are fast-paced and action-oriented, with lots of violent fight scenes. Sword and sorcery is by nature a light and escapist genre whose main purpose is to entertain the reader. There is usually no deep message or social statements in the works of this genre.[9]

It is typical for the topics that sword and sorcery deals with to be relatively limited. The genre has sometimes been criticized for excessive violence, misogyny and even fascist attitudes.[1]

History

Origins

In his introduction to the reference Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers by L. Sprague de Camp, Lin Carter notes that the heritage of sword and sorcery is illustrious, and can be traced back to mythology, including the labors of Hercules, as well as to classical epics such as Homer's Odyssey, the Norse sagas, and Arthurian legend.[13]

It also has been influenced by historical fiction. For instance, the work of Sir Walter Scott was influenced by Scottish folklore and ballads.[14] But few of Scott's stories contain fantastic elements; in most, the appearance of such is explained away.[15] Its themes of adventure in a strange society influenced the adventures set in foreign lands by H. Rider Haggard and Edgar Rice Burroughs.[16] Haggard's works included many fantastic elements.[17]

Sword and sorcery's immediate progenitors are the swashbuckling tales of Alexandre Dumas, père (The Three Musketeers (1844), etc.), Rafael Sabatini (Scaramouche (1921), etc.) and their pulp magazine imitators, such as Talbot Mundy, Harold Lamb, and H. Bedford-Jones, who all influenced Howard.[18] However, these historical "swashbucklers" lack the supernatural element (even though Dumas' fiction contained many fantasy tropes) which defines the genre.[19]

Another influence was early fantasy fiction such as Lord Dunsany's "The Fortress Unvanquishable, Save for Sacnoth" (1910) and A. Merritt's The Ship of Ishtar (1924).[20] All these authors influenced sword and sorcery for the plots, characters, and landscapes used.[21] The American author Gertrude Hall's 1895 novelette "Garden Deadly" appears to anticipate the genre with the tale of a blighted kingdom, a seductive enchantress who turns men into animals, and a brash, brawny outsider who sets out to save the day.[22]

Also, many early sword and sorcery writers, such as Howard and Clark Ashton Smith, were influenced by the Middle Eastern tales of the Arabian Nights, whose stories of magical monsters and evil sorcerers were an influence on the genre-to-be.[23]

Sword and sorcery's frequent depictions of smoky taverns and fetid back alleys draw upon the picaresque genre; for example, Rachel Bingham notes that Fritz Leiber's city of Lankhmar bears considerable similarity to 16th century Seville as depicted in Miguel de Cervantes' tale "Rinconete y Cortadillo".[24]

Sword and sorcery proper only truly began in the pulp fantasy magazines, where it emerged from "weird fiction".[25] The magazine Weird Tales, which published Howard's Conan stories and C. L. Moore's Jirel of Joiry tales, as well as key influences like H. P. Lovecraft and Smith, was especially important.[26]

Rise in popularity

From the 1960s until the 1980s, under the guiding force of Carter, a select group of writers formed the Swordsmen and Sorcerers' Guild of America (SAGA) to promote and enlarge the sword and sorcery genre. From 1973 to 1981, five anthologies featuring short works by SAGA members were published. Edited by Carter, these were collectively known as Flashing Swords!. Because of these and other anthologies, such as the Ballantine Adult Fantasy series, his own fiction, and his criticism, Carter is considered one of the most important popularizers of genre fantasy in general, and S&S in particular.[27]

Despite such authors' efforts, some critics use sword and sorcery as a dismissive or pejorative term.[28] During the 1980s, influenced by the success of the 1982 feature film Conan the Barbarian, many fantasy films, some cheaply made, were released in a subgenre that would be called "sword & sorcery". Examples of these films would include The Beastmaster (film) (1982), The Sword and the Sorcerer (1982), two Italian Hercules films starring Lou Ferrigno, Krull (film) (1983), a Conan sequel, Conan the Destroyer (1984) and Red Sonja, which, like the Conan films, also starred Arnold Schwarzenegger. One could potentially include the earlier releases of Hawk the Slayer (1980) and Clash of the Titans (1981 film) which whetted the public’s appetites for such films and the live action adaptation of the Conan-inspired toy range (and subsequent cartoon series) Masters of the Universe (film), which essentially ended the subgenre’s 80s run.

After the cinema and literary boom of the early-to-mid 1980s, sword and sorcery once again dropped out of favor, with epic fantasy largely taking its place in the fantasy genre. There was, though, another resurgence in sword and sorcery at the end of the 20th century. Sometimes called the "new" or "literary" sword and sorcery, this development places emphasis on literary technique, and draws from epic fantasy and other genres to broaden the genre's typical scope. Stories may feature the wide-ranging struggles of national or world-spanning concerns common to high fantasy, but told from the point of view of characters more common to S&S, and with the sense of adventure common to the latter. Writers associated with this include Steven Erikson, Joe Abercrombie, and Scott Lynch, magazines such as Black Gate and the ezines Flashing Swords[citation needed] (not to be confused with the Lin Carter anthologies), and Beneath Ceaseless Skies publish short fiction in the style.[29] According to the literary critic Higashi Masao regarding Japanese works Guin Saga and Sorcerous Stabber Orphen, they were initially planned by their authors as novels that could be classified as belonging to the European sword and sorcery subgenre but had various major elements that distanced themselves from the typical novels in the genre.[30]

In the 1990s, sword and sorcery boomed in popularity in Britain and other parts of the world.[31]

Women creators and characters

Despite the importance of C. L. Moore, Leigh Brackett, Andre Norton, and other female authors, as well as Moore's early heroine, sword and sorcery has been characterized as having a masculine bias. Female characters were generally distressed damsels to be rescued or protected, or otherwise served as a reward for a male hero's adventures. Women who had adventures of their own often did so to counter the threat of rape or to gain revenge for same.[25][32] Marion Zimmer Bradley's Sword and Sorceress anthology series (1984 onwards) tried the reverse, encouraging female writers and protagonists. The stories feature skillful swordswomen and powerful sorceresses working from a variety of motives.[33][34]

Jessica Amanda Salmonson similarly sought to broaden the range of roles for female characters in sword and sorcery through her own stories and through editing the World Fantasy Award-winning[35] Amazons (1979) and Amazons II (1982) anthologies; both drew on real and folkloric female warriors, often from areas outside of Europe.[36][37]

Early sword and sorcery writer Robert E. Howard had espoused feminist views in his personal and professional life. He wrote to his friends and associates defending the achievements and capabilities of women.[38][39] Strong female characters in Howard's works of fiction include Dark Agnes de Chastillon (first appearing in "Sword Woman", circa 1932–34), the early modern pirate Helen Tavrel ("The Isle of Pirates' Doom", 1928), as well as two pirates and Conan the Barbarian supporting characters, Bêlit ("Queen of the Black Coast", 1934), and Valeria of the Red Brotherhood ("Red Nails", 1936).[40]

Introduced as the co-star in a non-fantasy historical story by Howard entitled "The Shadow of the Vulture", Red Sonya of Rogatino later inspired a fantasy heroine named Red Sonja, who first appeared in the comic book series Conan the Barbarian written by Roy Thomas and illustrated by Barry Windsor-Smith. Red Sonja got her own comic book title and eventually a series of novels by David C. Smith and Richard L. Tierney, as well as Richard Fleischer's film adaptation in 1985.

Selected works

The genre has been defined by Robert E. Howard's work, especially his tales of Conan the Barbarian and Kull of Atlantis, mostly in Weird Tales from 1932 and 1929 respectively.[41][42]

Other books and series that define the genre of sword-and-sorcery include:

Other pulp fantasy fiction, such as Edgar Rice Burroughs' Barsoom series and Leigh Brackett's Sea Kings of Mars, have a similar feel to sword and sorcery. But, because alien science replaces the supernatural, these books are usually described as planetary romance or sword and planet. They fall more in the area of science fiction.[46] Despite this, planetary romance closely aligns with sword and sorcery, and the work of Burroughs, Brackett, and others in the former field have been significant in creating and spreading S&S proper.[47] Sword and sorcery often blurs the lines between fantasy and science fiction, drawing elements from both like the "weird fiction" it sprang from.[25]

Another notable sword and sorcery anthology series from 1977 through 1979 called Swords Against Darkness, edited by Andrew J. Offutt, ran five volumes and featured stories by such authors as Poul Anderson, David Drake, Ramsey Campbell, Andre Norton, and Manly Wade Wellman.

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d Nicholls, Peter (10 October 2022). "Sword and Sorcery". The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction. Retrieved 29 July 2023.
  2. ^ Nicholls, Peter (30 October 2015). "Heroic Fantasy". The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction. Retrieved 29 July 2023.
  3. ^ Moorcock, Mike (May 1961). "Putting a Tag on It". Amra. 2 (15): 15.
  4. ^ Fritz Leiber, Amra, July 1961
  5. ^ a b de Camp, L. Sprague (1967). "Introduction". Conan the Barbarian. Ace Books. p. 13.
  6. ^ Stableford, Brian (2009). "Heroic Fantasy". The A to Z of Fantasy Literature. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 9780810863453.
  7. ^ Westfahl, Gary (2005). The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy. Themes, Works and Wonders. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. pp. 73–75. ISBN 978-0-313-32950-0.
  8. ^ a b c d Clute, John; Grant, John; Ashley, Mike; Hartwell, David G.; Westfahl, Gary (1999). The Encyclopedia of Fantasy (1st St. Martin's Griffin ed.). New York: St. Martin's Griffin. p. 464. ISBN 0-312-19869-8.
  9. ^ a b c "Sword and Sorcery". Best Fantasy Books. Archived from the original on 22 September 2013. Retrieved 29 July 2023.
  10. ^ Strahan, Jonathan; Anders, Lou (2010). Swords & Dark Magic: The New Sword and Sorcery (1st ed.). New York: Eos. p. xi. ISBN 978-0-06-172381-0.
  11. ^ Martin, Philip (2002). The Writer's Guide to Fantasy Literature: From Dragon's Lair to Hero's Quest: how to Write Fantasy Stories of Lasting Value (1st ed.). Waukesha, WI: Writer Books. p. 37. ISBN 0-87116-195-8.
  12. ^ Martin, Philip (2002). The Writer's Guide to Fantasy Literature: From Dragon's Lair to Hero's Quest: how to Write Fantasy Stories of Lasting Value (1st ed.). Waukesha, WI: Writer Books. p. 35. ISBN 0-87116-195-8.
  13. ^ de Camp, L. Sprague (1976). Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers: the Makers of Heroic Fantasy. Sauk City, Wisconsin: Arkham House. p. xi. ISBN 0-87054-076-9.
  14. ^ Moorcock, Michael (2004). Wizardry & Wild Romance: A Study of Epic Fantasy (rev. ed.). Austin, Tex.: MonkeyBrain. p. 79. ISBN 1-932265-07-4.
  15. ^ Clute, John; Grant, John; Ashley, Mike; Hartwell, David G.; Westfahl, Gary (1999). The Encyclopedia of Fantasy (1st St. Martin's Griffin ed.). New York: St. Martin's Griffin. p. 845. ISBN 0-312-19869-8.
  16. ^ Moorcock, Michael (2004). Wizardry & Wild Romance: A Study of Epic Fantasy (rev. ed.). Austin, Tex.: MonkeyBrain. pp. 80–81. ISBN 1-932265-07-4.
  17. ^ Clute, John; Grant, John; Ashley, Mike; Hartwell, David G.; Westfahl, Gary (1999). The Encyclopedia of Fantasy (1st St. Martin's Griffin ed.). New York: St. Martin's Griffin. pp. 444–445. ISBN 0-312-19869-8.
  18. ^ Pringle, David; Pratchett, Terry (2007). The Ultimate Encyclopedia of Fantasy. North Sydney, N.S.W.: Random House Australia. p. 34. ISBN 9781741665826.
  19. ^ Clute, John; Grant, John; Ashley, Mike; Hartwell, David G.; Westfahl, Gary (1999). The Encyclopedia of Fantasy (1st St. Martin's Griffin ed.). New York: St. Martin's Griffin. p. 300. ISBN 0-312-19869-8.
  20. ^ [1] Archived 15 February 2010 at the Wayback Machine
  21. ^ Moorcock, Michael (2004). Wizardry & Wild Romance: A Study of Epic Fantasy (rev. ed.). Austin, Texas: MonkeyBrain. p. 82. ISBN 1-932265-07-4.
  22. ^ Hall, Gertrude (1895). "Garden Deadly" in Foam of the Sea and Other Tales, Boston: Roberts Brothers, pp. 249-299.
  23. ^ de Camp, L. Sprague (1976). Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers: The Makers of Heroic Fantasy (1st ed.). Sauk City, Wisconsin: Arkham House. p. 10. ISBN 0-8705-4-076-9.
  24. ^ Dr. Rachel B. Bingham, "The Enduring Influence of Cervantes" in "Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Spanish Literature and Culture" (published in Spanish, French and English)
  25. ^ a b c Stiles, Paula R. (November 2011). "Tales From the Brass Bikini: Feminist Sword and Sorcery". Broad Universe. Archived from the original on 28 December 2011. Retrieved 20 June 2012.
  26. ^ de Camp, L. Sprague (1976). Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers: The Makers of Heroic Fantasy (1st ed.). Sauk City, Wisconsin: Arkham House. p. ix: Chapter IV (Lovecraft), Chapter VIII (Smith). ISBN 0-8705-4-076-9.
  27. ^ Clute, John; Grant, John; Ashley, Mike; Hartwell, David G.; Westfahl, Gary (1999). The Encyclopedia of Fantasy (1st St. Martin's Griffin ed.). New York: St. Martin's Griffin. p. 171. ISBN 0-312-19869-8.
  28. ^ Clute, John; Grant, John; Ashley, Mike; Hartwell, David G.; Westfahl, Gary (1999). The Encyclopedia of Fantasy (1st St. Martin's Griffin ed.). New York: St. Martin's Griffin. p. 915. ISBN 0-312-19869-8.
  29. ^ [2] Archived 8 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine
  30. ^ Higashi, Masao (2009). Ai, Ishidou (ed.). Encyclopedia of Japanese fantasy writers (in Japanese). Kokusho Kankōkai. p. 45. ISBN 9784336051424.
  31. ^ "Science fiction". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
  32. ^ Bradley, Marion Zimmer (1984). Sword and Sorceress. New York: DAW Books. p. 11. ISBN 0-87997-928-3.
  33. ^ Strahan, Jonathan; Anders, Lou (2010). Swords & Dark Magic: The New Sword and Sorcery (1st ed.). New York: Eos. p. xvii. ISBN 978-0-06-172381-0.
  34. ^ Bradley, Marion Zimmer (2001). Sword and Sorceress XVII. New York, NY: DAW Books. pp. 9–13. ISBN 0886779960.
  35. ^ "1980 World Fantasy Award Winners and Nominees". World Fantasy Convention. World Fantasy Board. Archived from the original on 28 July 2012. Retrieved 18 June 2012.
  36. ^ Salmonson, Jessica Amanda (1982). Amazons II. New York: DAW Books. pp. 7–19. ISBN 0-87997-736-1.
  37. ^ Clute, John; Grant, John; Ashley, Mike; Hartwell, David G.; Westfahl, Gary (1999). The Encyclopedia of Fantasy (1st St. Martin's Griffin ed.). New York: St. Martin's Griffin. p. 832. ISBN 0-312-19869-8.
  38. ^ Finn, Mark (2006). Blood & Thunder: The Life & Art of Robert E. Howard. Austin, Tex.: MonkeyBrain Books. p. 141. ISBN 1-932265-21-X.
  39. ^ [3] Archived 29 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  40. ^ Finn, Mark (2006). Blood & Thunder: The Life & Art of Robert E. Howard. Austin, Tex.: MonkeyBrain Books. pp. 186–187. ISBN 1-932265-21-X.
  41. ^ Waggoner, Diana (1978). The Hills of Faraway: A Guide to Fantasy. New York: Atheneum. pp. 47–48. ISBN 0-689-10846-X.
  42. ^ Howard, Robert E.; Sweet, Justin (2006). Kull: Exile of Atlantis. New York: Del Rey. p. xix. ISBN 0-345-49017-7.
  43. ^ Clute, John; Grant, John; Ashley, Mike; Hartwell, David G.; Westfahl, Gary (1999). The Encyclopedia of Fantasy (1st St. Martin's Griffin ed.). New York: St. Martin's Griffin. p. 661. ISBN 0-312-19869-8.
  44. ^ Clute, John; Grant, John; Ashley, Mike; Hartwell, David G.; Westfahl, Gary (1999). The Encyclopedia of Fantasy (1st St. Martin's Griffin ed.). New York: St. Martin's Griffin. p. 990. ISBN 0-312-19869-8.
  45. ^ Crom the Barbarian" is the first true S&S comic
  46. ^ Clute, John; Grant, John; Ashley, Mike; Hartwell, David G.; Westfahl, Gary (1999). The Encyclopedia of Fantasy (1st ed.). New York: St. Martin's Griffin. p. 152. ISBN 0-312-19869-8.
  47. ^ Clute, John; Grant, John; Ashley, Mike; Hartwell, David G.; Westfahl, Gary (1999). The Encyclopedia of Fantasy (1st St. Martin's Griffin ed.). New York: St. Martin's Griffin. p. 915. ISBN 0-312-19869-8.
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