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===World War I===
===World War I===
[[File:Ernest Hemingway in Milan 1918 retouched.jpg|thumb|Hemingway photographed in Milan, 1918, dressed in uniform. For two months he drove ambulances until he was wounded.|alt=young man dressed in a uniform sitting on a chair facing the camera]]
[[File:Ernest Hemingway in Milan 1918 retouched 3.jpg|thumb|Hemingway photographed in Milan, 1918, dressed in uniform. For two months he drove ambulances until he was wounded.|alt=young man dressed in a uniform sitting on a chair facing the camera]]
Early in 1918 Hemingway responded to a [[Red Cross]] recruitment effort and signed on to be an ambulance driver in Italy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992|pp=48–49}}</ref> He left New York in May, and arrived in Paris as the city was under bombardment from German artillery.<ref name="Meyers p27">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=27}}</ref> By June he was stationed at the [[Italian Campaign (World War I)|Italian Front]], and the day he arrived in Milan he was sent to the scene of a munitions factory explosion where rescuers retrieved the shredded remains of female workers. He described the incident in his [[non-fiction]] book ''[[Death in the Afternoon]]'': "I remember that after we searched quite thoroughly for the complete dead we collected fragments".<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992|p=57}}</ref> A few days later he was stationed at [[Fossalta di Piave]]. On July&nbsp;8 he was seriously wounded by mortar fire, having just returned from the canteen to deliver chocolate and cigarettes to the men at the front line.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992|p=59–60}}</ref> Despite his wounds, Hemingway carried an Italian soldier to safety, for which he received the [[Silver Medal of Military Valor|Italian Silver Medal of Bravery]].<ref name="Meyers pp30-31">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=30–31}}</ref> Still only eighteen, Hemingway said of the incident: "When you go to war as a boy you have a great illusion of immortality. Other people get killed; not you&nbsp;... Then when you are badly wounded the first time you lose that illusion and you know it can happen to you."<ref name = "Putnam">{{Harvnb|Putnam}}</ref> He sustained shrapnel wounds to both legs; underwent an operation at a distribution center; spent five days at a field hospital; and was transferred to the Red Cross hospital in Milan for recuperation.<ref name="Desnoyers p3">{{Harvnb|Desnoyers| p=3}}</ref> Hemingway spent six months in the hospital, where he met and fell in love with [[Agnes von Kurowsky]], a Red Cross nurse seven years his senior.<ref name="Meyers p37">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=37}}</ref> Agnes and Hemingway planned to marry, but she became engaged to an Italian officer in March&nbsp;1919, an incident that provided material for the short and bitter work "[[A Very Short Story]]".<ref>{{Harvnb|Scholes}}</ref> Biographer Jeffrey Meyers claims Hemingway was devastated by Agnes' rejection, and that he followed a pattern of abandoning a wife before she abandoned him in future relationships. During his six months in recuperation Hemingway met and formed a strong friendship with [[Eric Dorman-Smith|"Chink" Dorman-Smith]] that lasted for decades.<ref name="Meyers pp40-42">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=40–42}}</ref>
Early in 1918 Hemingway responded to a [[Red Cross]] recruitment effort and signed on to be an ambulance driver in Italy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992|pp=48–49}}</ref> He left New York in May, and arrived in Paris as the city was under bombardment from German artillery.<ref name="Meyers p27">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=27}}</ref> By June he was stationed at the [[Italian Campaign (World War I)|Italian Front]], and the day he arrived in Milan he was sent to the scene of a munitions factory explosion where rescuers retrieved the shredded remains of female workers. He described the incident in his [[non-fiction]] book ''[[Death in the Afternoon]]'': "I remember that after we searched quite thoroughly for the complete dead we collected fragments".<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992|p=57}}</ref> A few days later he was stationed at [[Fossalta di Piave]]. On July&nbsp;8 he was seriously wounded by mortar fire, having just returned from the canteen to deliver chocolate and cigarettes to the men at the front line.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992|p=59–60}}</ref> Despite his wounds, Hemingway carried an Italian soldier to safety, for which he received the [[Silver Medal of Military Valor|Italian Silver Medal of Bravery]].<ref name="Meyers pp30-31">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=30–31}}</ref> Still only eighteen, Hemingway said of the incident: "When you go to war as a boy you have a great illusion of immortality. Other people get killed; not you&nbsp;... Then when you are badly wounded the first time you lose that illusion and you know it can happen to you."<ref name = "Putnam">{{Harvnb|Putnam}}</ref> He sustained shrapnel wounds to both legs; underwent an operation at a distribution center; spent five days at a field hospital; and was transferred to the Red Cross hospital in Milan for recuperation.<ref name="Desnoyers p3">{{Harvnb|Desnoyers| p=3}}</ref> Hemingway spent six months in the hospital, where he met and fell in love with [[Agnes von Kurowsky]], a Red Cross nurse seven years his senior.<ref name="Meyers p37">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=37}}</ref> Agnes and Hemingway planned to marry, but she became engaged to an Italian officer in March&nbsp;1919, an incident that provided material for the short and bitter work "[[A Very Short Story]]".<ref>{{Harvnb|Scholes}}</ref> Biographer Jeffrey Meyers claims Hemingway was devastated by Agnes' rejection, and that he followed a pattern of abandoning a wife before she abandoned him in future relationships. During his six months in recuperation Hemingway met and formed a strong friendship with [[Eric Dorman-Smith|"Chink" Dorman-Smith]] that lasted for decades.<ref name="Meyers pp40-42">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=40–42}}</ref>


Revision as of 17:17, 10 June 2010

Ernest Hemingway
Hemingway in 1939
Hemingway in 1939
NationalityAmerican
Notable awardsPulitzer Prize for Fiction 1953, Nobel Prize in Literature 1954
SpouseElizabeth Hadley Richardson (1921–1927)
Pauline Pfeiffer (1927–1940)
Martha Gellhorn (1940–1945)
Mary Welsh Hemingway (1946–1961)
ChildrenJack Hemingway (1923–2000)
Patrick Hemingway (1928–)
Gregory Hemingway (1931–2001)
Signature

Ernest Miller Hemingway (July 21, 1899 – July 2, 1961) was an American writer and journalist. His distinctive writing style, characterized by economy and understatement, influenced 20th-century fiction, as did his apparent life of adventure and the public image he cultivated. He produced most of his work between the mid-1920s and the mid-1950s, and his career peaked in 1954 when he won the Nobel Prize in Literature. Hemingway's fiction was successful because the characters he presented exhibited authenticity that reverberated with his audience. Many of his works are classics of American literature. He published seven novels, six short story collections, and two non-fiction works during his lifetime, with a further three novels, four collections of short stories, and three non-fiction works published after his death.

Hemingway was born and raised in Oak Park, Illinois. After leaving high school he worked for a few months as a reporter, before leaving for the Italian front to become an ambulance driver during World War I, which became the basis for his novel A Farewell to Arms. He was seriously wounded and returned home within the year. In 1922 Hemingway married Hadley Richardson, the first of his four wives, and the couple moved to Paris, where he worked as a foreign correspondent. During his time there he met and was influenced by modernist writers and artists of the 1920s expatriate community known as the "Lost Generation". His first novel, The Sun Also Rises, was written in 1924.

After divorcing Hadley Richardson in 1927 Hemingway married Pauline Pfeiffer; they divorced following Hemingway's return from covering the Spanish Civil War, after which he wrote For Whom the Bell Tolls. Martha Gellhorn became his third wife in 1940, but he left her for Mary Welsh Hemingway after World War II, during which he was present at D-Day and the liberation of Paris.

Shortly after the publication of The Old Man and the Sea in 1952 Hemingway went on safari to Africa, where he was almost killed in a plane crash that left him in pain or ill-health for much of the rest of his life. Hemingway had permanent residences in Key West, Florida, and Cuba during the 1930s and 40s, but in 1959 he moved from Cuba to Idaho, where he committed suicide in the summer of 1961.

Biography

Early life

an infant dressed in light colored clothing propped on a chair faces the camera
Ernest Hemingway was the second child, and first son, born to his parents Clarence and Grace Hemingway.

Ernest Miller Hemingway was born on July 21, 1899 in Oak Park, Illinois, a suburb of Chicago.[1] His father Clarence Edmonds Hemingway was a physician, and his mother Grace Hall-Hemingway a musician. Both were well-educated and well-respected in the conservative community of Oak Park.[2] When Clarence and Grace Hemingway married in 1896, they moved in with Grace's father, Ernest Hall,[3] after whom they named their first son.[note 1] Hemingway claimed to dislike his name, which he "associated with the naive, even foolish hero of Oscar Wilde's play The Importance of Being Earnest".[4] The family's seven-bedroom home in a respectable neighborhood contained a music studio for Grace and a medical office for Clarence.[5]

Hemingway's mother frequently performed in concerts around the village. As an adult Hemingway professed to hate his mother, although biographer Michael Reynolds points out that Hemingway mirrored her energy and enthusiasm.[6] Her insistence that he learn the cello became a "source of conflict", but he admitted the music lessons were useful to his writing, as in the "contrapunctal structure" of For Whom the Bell Tolls.[7] The family owned a summer home called Windemere on Walloon Lake, near Petoskey, Michigan where Hemingway learned to hunt, fish and camp in the woods and lakes of Northern Michigan. His early experiences in nature instilled a passion for outdoor adventure, living in remote or isolated areas, as well as hunting and fishing.[8]

gabled two-story house with corner turret and wrap-around porch under a clear sky
The Hemingway family seven-bedroom home in Oak Park, Illinois. Hemingway lived here until he graduated from high school.

Hemingway attended Oak Park and River Forest High School from 1913 until 1917. He took part in a number of sports—boxing, track and field, water polo, and football—and had good grades in English classes.[9] He and his sister Marcelline performed in the school orchestra for two years.[6] Hemingway wrote for and edited the Trapeze and Tabula (the school's newspaper and yearbook), where he imitated the language of sportswriters and used the pen name Ring Lardner, Jr.—a nod to Ring Lardner of the Chicago Tribune whose byline was "Line O'Type".[10] Like Mark Twain, Stephen Crane, Theodore Dreiser and Sinclair Lewis, Hemingway was a journalist before becoming a novelist; after leaving high school he went to work for The Kansas City Star as a cub reporter.[11] Although he stayed there for only six months he relied on the Star's style guide as a foundation for his writing: "Use short sentences. Use short first paragraphs. Use vigorous English. Be positive, not negative."[12]

World War I

young man dressed in a uniform sitting on a chair facing the camera
Hemingway photographed in Milan, 1918, dressed in uniform. For two months he drove ambulances until he was wounded.

Early in 1918 Hemingway responded to a Red Cross recruitment effort and signed on to be an ambulance driver in Italy.[13] He left New York in May, and arrived in Paris as the city was under bombardment from German artillery.[14] By June he was stationed at the Italian Front, and the day he arrived in Milan he was sent to the scene of a munitions factory explosion where rescuers retrieved the shredded remains of female workers. He described the incident in his non-fiction book Death in the Afternoon: "I remember that after we searched quite thoroughly for the complete dead we collected fragments".[15] A few days later he was stationed at Fossalta di Piave. On July 8 he was seriously wounded by mortar fire, having just returned from the canteen to deliver chocolate and cigarettes to the men at the front line.[16] Despite his wounds, Hemingway carried an Italian soldier to safety, for which he received the Italian Silver Medal of Bravery.[17] Still only eighteen, Hemingway said of the incident: "When you go to war as a boy you have a great illusion of immortality. Other people get killed; not you ... Then when you are badly wounded the first time you lose that illusion and you know it can happen to you."[18] He sustained shrapnel wounds to both legs; underwent an operation at a distribution center; spent five days at a field hospital; and was transferred to the Red Cross hospital in Milan for recuperation.[19] Hemingway spent six months in the hospital, where he met and fell in love with Agnes von Kurowsky, a Red Cross nurse seven years his senior.[20] Agnes and Hemingway planned to marry, but she became engaged to an Italian officer in March 1919, an incident that provided material for the short and bitter work "A Very Short Story".[21] Biographer Jeffrey Meyers claims Hemingway was devastated by Agnes' rejection, and that he followed a pattern of abandoning a wife before she abandoned him in future relationships. During his six months in recuperation Hemingway met and formed a strong friendship with "Chink" Dorman-Smith that lasted for decades.[22]

Toronto and Chicago

Hemingway returned home early in 1919 to a time of readjustment. At not yet 20 years old, the war had created in him a maturity at odds with living at home without a job and the need for recuperation.[23] Biographer Michael Reynolds explains Hemingway "could not really tell his parents what he thought when he saw his bloody knee. He could not say how scared he was in another country with surgeons who could not tell him in English if his leg was coming off or not."[24] That summer he spent time in Michigan with high school friends, fishing and camping;[18] and in September he spent a week in the back-country. The trip became the inspiration for his short story "Big Two-Hearted River", in which the semi-autobiographical character Nick Adams takes to the country to find solitude after returning from war.[25] A family friend offered him a job in Toronto; having nothing else to do he accepted. Late that year he began as a freelancer, staff writer and foreign correspondent for the Toronto Star Weekly.[26] However he returned to Michigan the following June,[26] and then moved to Chicago in September 1920 to live with friends, while still filing stories for the Toronto Star.

In Chicago he worked as associate editor of the monthly journal Cooperative Commonwealth, where he met Sherwood Anderson.[27] When St. Louis native Hadley Richardson came to Chicago to visit Hemingway's roommate's sister, Hemingway, who was infatuated, later claimed "I knew she was the girl I was going to marry". Hadley was red-haired, with a "nurturing instinct", and eight years older than Hemingway.[28] Despite the difference in age, Hadley, who had an overprotective mother, seemed less mature than usual for a young woman her age.[29] Bernice Kert, author of The Hemingway Women, claims Hadley was "evocative" of Agnes, but that Hadley had a childishness that Agnes lacked. The two corresponded for a few months, and then decided to marry and travel to Europe.[28] They wanted to visit Rome, but Sherwood Anderson convinced them to visit Paris instead.[30] They were married on September 3, 1921; two months later Hemingway was hired as foreign correspondent for the Toronto Star; and the couple left for Paris. Of Hemingway's marriage to Hadley, Meyers claims: "With Hadley, Hemingway achieved everything he had hoped for with Agnes: the love of a beautiful woman, a comfortable income, a life in Europe."[31]

Paris

front face view of dark-haired, dark-eyed young man dressed in shirt, tie and jacket
Hemingway's 1923 passport photo. At this time he lived in Paris with his wife Hadley, and worked as a journalist.

The first Hemingway biographer Carlos Baker believes while Anderson suggested Paris because "the monetary exchange rate" made it an inexpensive place to live, more importantly it was where "the most interesting people in the world" resided. There Hemingway would meet writers such as Gertrude Stein, James Joyce and Ezra Pound who "could help a young writer up the rungs of a career".[30] The Hemingway of the early Paris years was a "tall, handsome, muscular, broad-shouldered, brown-eyed, rosy-cheeked, square-jawed, soft-voiced young man."[32] He and Hadley lived in a small walk-up at 74 Rue du Cardinal Lemoine in the Latin Quarter, and he worked in a rented room in a nearby building.[30] Anderson wrote letters of introduction to Gertrude Stein and other writers in Paris.[33] Stein, who was the bastion of modernism in Paris,[34] became Hemingway's mentor for a period, introducing him to the expatriate artists and writers of the Montparnasse Quarter. She referred to artists as the "Lost Generation"—a term Hemingway popularized with the publication of The Sun Also Rises.[35] A regular at Stein's salon, Hemingway met influential painters such as Pablo Picasso, Joan Miro, and Juan Gris.[36] However, Hemingway eventually withdrew from Stein's influence and their relationship deteriorated into a literary quarrel that spanned decades.[37] The American poet Ezra Pound, older than Hemingway by 14 years, had been living in Paris since 1907. The two met by chance at the Sylvia Beach's Shakespeare and Company in 1922, toured Italy in 1923 and lived on the same street in 1924.[32] They forged a strong friendship and in Hemingway Pound recognized and fostered a young talent.[36] Pound—who had recently finished editing The Waste Land—introduced Hemingway to the Irish writer James Joyce,[32] with whom Hemingway frequently embarked on "alcoholic sprees".[38]

three men, dressed in light colored trousers and wearing hats, and two women, wearing light colored dresses, sitting at a sidewalk table
Ernest Hemingway with Lady Duff Twysden, Hadley Hemingway, and three unidentified people at a cafe in Pamplona, Spain, July 1925

During his first 20 months in Paris, Hemingway filed 88 stories for the Toronto Star.[39] He covered the Greco-Turkish War, where he witnessed the burning of Smyrna; wrote travel pieces such as "Tuna Fishing in Spain" and "Trout Fishing All Across Europe: Spain Has the Best, Then Germany"; and an article dedicated to bullfighting—"Pamplona in July; World's Series of Bull Fighting a Mad, Whirling Carnival".[40] Hemingway was devastated on learning that Hadley had lost a suitcase filled with his manuscripts at the Gare de Lyon as she was travelling to Geneva to meet him in December 1922.[41] The following September, because Hadley was pregnant, the couple returned to Toronto, where their son John Hadley Nicanor was born on October 10, 1923. During their absence Hemingway's first book, Three Stories and Ten Poems, was published. Two of the stories it contained were all that remained of his work after the loss of the suitcase, and the third had been written the previous spring in Italy. Within months a second volume, in our time (without capitals), was published. The small volume included six vignettes and a dozen stories Hemingway had written the previous summer during his first visit to Spain where he discovered the thrill of the corrida. He missed Paris, considered Toronto boring, and wanted to return to the life of a writer, rather than live the life of a journalist.[42]

Hadley, Hemingway, and their son (nicknamed Bumby), returned to Paris in January 1924 and moved into a new apartment on the Rue Notre Dame des Champs.[42] Hemingway helped Ford Madox Ford edit the Transatlantic Review in which were published works by Pound, John Dos Passos, and Gertrude Stein as well as some of Hemingway's own early stories such as "Indian Camp".[43] When In Our Time (with capital letters) was published in 1925, the dust jacket had comments from Ford.[44][45] "Indian Camp" received considerable praise; Ford saw it as an important early story by a young writer,[46] and critics in the United States claimed Hemingway reinvigorated the short story with his use of declarative sentences and his crisp style.[47] Six months earlier, Hemingway met F. Scott Fitzgerald, and the pair formed a friendship of "admiration and hostility".[48] Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby had been published that year: Hemingway read it, liked it, and decided his next work had to be a novel.[49]

a man, wearing a striped sweater and trousers and a hat, with a woman, wearing a skirt and a cardigan, holding the hand of a boy wearing shorts, on a walking path
Ernest, Hadley, and Bumby Hemingway in Schruns, Austria in 1926, months before they separated.

Since his first visit to see the bullfighting at the Festival of San Fermín in Pamplona in 1923, Hemingway was fascinated by the sport; he saw in it the brutality of war juxtaposed against a cruel beauty. In June 1925, Hemingway and Hadley left Paris for their annual visit to Pamplona accompanied by a group of American and British expatriates.[50] The trip inspired Hemingway's first novel, The Sun Also Rises, which he began to write immediately after the fiesta, finishing in September.[49] The novel presents the culture of bullfighting with the concept of afición, an authentic way of life, whereas the Parisian bohemians are depicted as inauthentic.[51] Hemingway decided to slow his pace and devoted six months to the novel's rewrite.[49] The manuscript arrived in New York in April,[52] and he corrected the final proof in Paris in August 1926.[53] Scribner's published the novel in October.[54] The Sun Also Rises epitomized the post-war expatriate generation,[55] received good reviews and is "recognized as Hemingway's greatest work".[56] However, Hemingway himself later wrote to his editor Max Perkins that the "point of the book" was not so much about a generation being lost, but that "the earth abideth forever"; he believed the characters in The Sun Also Rises may have been "battered" but were not lost.[57]

Hemingway's marriage to Hadley deteriorated as he was working on The Sun Also Rises.[53] In the spring of 1926, Hadley became aware of his affair with Pauline Pfeiffer,[58] although she endured Pauline's presence in Pamplona that July.[59] On their return to Paris, Hadley and Hemingway decided to separate; and in November she formally requested a divorce. They split their possessions while Hadley accepted Hemingway's offer of the proceeds from The Sun Also Rises.[60] The couple were divorced in January 1927, and Hemingway married Pauline Pfeiffer in May.[61]

Pauline was from Arkansas—her family was wealthy and Catholic—and before the marriage Hemingway converted to Catholicism.[62][63] In Paris she worked for Vogue.[62] After a honeymoon in Grau-du-Roi, where he contracted anthrax, Hemingway planned his next collection of short stories,[64] Men Without Women, published in October 1927.[65] By the end of the year Pauline, who was pregnant, wanted to move back to America. John Dos Passos recommended Key West, and they left Paris in March 1928. Some time that spring Hemingway suffered a severe injury in their Paris bathroom, when he pulled a skylight down on his head thinking he was pulling on a toilet chain. This left him with a prominent forehead scar, subject of numerous legends, which he carried for the rest of his life. When Hemingway was asked about the scar he was reluctant to answer.[66] After his departure from Paris, Hemingway "never again lived in a big city".[67]

Key West and the Caribbean

two story square house with tall windows and exterior shutters and a second story porch
Hemingway home in Key West where he lived with Pauline. He wrote To Have or Have Not in the second story den of this house.

In the late spring Hemingway and Pauline travelled to Kansas City where their son Patrick Hemingway was born on June 28, 1928. Pauline had a difficult delivery, which Hemingway fictionalized in A Farewell to Arms.[68] After Patrick's birth, Pauline and Hemingway travelled to Wyoming, Massachusetts and New York.[68] In the fall he was in New York with Bumby, about to board a train to Florida, when he received a cable telling him that his father had committed suicide.[note 2][69] Hemingway was devastated, having earlier sent a letter to his father telling him not to worry about financial difficulties; the letter arrived minutes after the suicide. He realized how Hadley must have felt after her own father's suicide in 1903, and he suggested, "I'll probably go the same way."[70]

Upon his return to Key West in December, Hemingway worked on the draft of A Farewell to Arms before leaving for France in January. The draft had been finished in August but he delayed the revision. The serialization in Scribner's Magazine was scheduled to begin in May, but by April Hemingway was still working on the ending, which he may have rewritten as many as seventeen times. A Farewell to Arms was published on September 27.[71] Biographer James Mellow believes Hemingway's stature as an American writer was secured with the publication of A Farewell to Arms, which has a complexity not apparent in The Sun Also Rises.[72] While in Spain during the summer of 1929, Hemingway researched his next work, Death in the Afternoon. He wanted to write a comprehensive treatise of bullfighting, with explanations of the toreros and corridas, complete with glossaries and appendices, because he believed bullfighting was "of great tragic interest, being literally of life and death."[73]

During the early 1930s Hemingway spent his winters in Key West and summers in Wyoming, where he found "the most beautiful country he had seen in the American West" and hunting that included deer, elk, and grizzly bear.[74] His third son, Gregory Hancock Hemingway, was born on November 12, 1931 in Kansas City.[75][note 3] Pauline's uncle bought the couple a house in Key West with the second floor of the carriage house converted to a writing den.[76] While in Key West he enticed his friends to join him on fishing expeditions—inviting Waldo Peirce, John Dos Passos, and Max Perkins[77]—with one all male trip to the Dry Tortugas, and he frequented the local bar, Sloppy Joe's.[78] He continued to travel to Europe and to Cuba, and although he wrote of Key West in 1933, "We have a fine house here, and kids are all well," Mellow believes he "was plainly restless."[79]

a man, a woman, and three boys standing on a pier with four large fish suspended from hooks above their heads
Ernest, Pauline, Bumby, Patrick, and Gregory Hemingway pose with marlins after a fishing trip to Bimini in 1935

In 1933 Hemingway and Pauline went on safari to East Africa. The 10-week trip provided material for Green Hills of Africa, as well as the short stories "The Snows of Kilimanjaro" and "The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber".[80] They visited Mombasa, Nairobi, and Machakos in Kenya, then on to Tanganyika, where they hunted in the Serengeti, around Lake Manyara and west and southeast of the present-day Tarangire National Park. Hemingway contracted amoebic dysentery that caused a prolapsed intestine, and he was evacuated by plane to Nairobi, an experience reflected in "The Snows of Kilimanjaro". Their guide was the noted "white hunter" Philip Hope Percival, who had guided Theodore Roosevelt on his 1909 safari. On his return to Key West in early 1934 Hemingway began work on Green Hills of Africa, published in 1935 to mixed reviews.[81]

Hemingway bought a boat in 1934, named it the Pilar, and began sailing the Caribbean.[82] In 1935 he discovered Bimini, where he spent a considerable amount of time.[80] During this period he also worked on To Have and Have Not, published in 1937 while he was in Spain, the only novel he wrote during the 1930s.[83]

a man in a uniform and hat, a man with a mustache wearing a cardigan and a hat, a man wearing a uniform and a hat
Hemingway with Dutch filmmaker Joris Ivens, and Ludwig Renn (German writer as International Brigades officer). Spanish Civil War, 1937.

Spanish Civil War and World War II

In 1937 Hemingway agreed to report on the Spanish Civil War for the North American Newspaper Alliance (NANA).[84] In March he arrived in Spain with Dutch filmmaker Joris Ivens.[85] Ivens, who was filming The Spanish Earth, needed Hemingway as a screenwriter to replace John Dos Passos, who left the project when his friend José Robles was arrested and later executed.[86] The incident changed Dos Passos' opinion of the leftist republicans, which created a rift between him and Hemingway, who spread a rumor that Dos Passos was a coward for leaving Spain.[87]

Journalist and writer Martha Gellhorn, whom Hemingway had met in Key West the previous Christmas (1936), joined him in Spain. Like Hadley, Martha was a native of St. Louis, and like Pauline, she had worked for Vogue in Paris. Of Martha, Kert explains, "she never catered to him the way other women did."[88] Late in 1937, while in Madrid with Martha, Hemingway wrote his only play, The Fifth Column, as the city was being bombarded.[89] He returned to Key West for a few months, then back to Spain twice in 1938. He was present at the Battle of the Ebro, the last republican stand, and was among fellow British and American journalists who were some of the last to leave the battle as they crossed the river.[90][91]

a dark-haired man wearing a light shirt with two dark-haired boys wearing shorts, sitting on a stone patio playing with three kittens
Ernest Hemingway and sons Patrick (left) and Gregory, with cats Good Will, Princessa, and Boise. Finca Vigia (Hemingway home), San Francisco de Paula, Cuba, November 1946

In the spring of 1939, Hemingway crossed to Cuba in his boat to live in the Hotel Ambos Mundos in Havana, writing short stories and beginning For Whom the Bell Tolls. This was the separation phase of a slow and painful split from Pauline, which had begun when Hemingway met Martha.[92] Martha soon joined him in Cuba, and they almost immediately rented "Finca Vigia" ("Lookout Farm"), a 15-acre property 15 miles from Havana. Pauline and the children left Hemingway that summer, after the family was re-united during a visit to Wyoming. After Hemingway's divorce from Pauline was finalized, he and Martha were married November 20, 1940, in Cheyenne, Wyoming.[93] As he had after his divorce from Hadley, he changed locations; moving his primary summer residence to Ketchum, Idaho, just outside the newly built resort of Sun Valley, and his winter residence to Cuba.[94] He was at work on For Whom the Bell Tolls, which he began in March 1939 and finished in July 1940. Published in October 1940,[95] For Whom the Bell Tolls became a book-of-the-month choice, sold half a million copies within months, was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize, and as Meyers describes, "triumphantly re-established Hemingway's literary reputation".[96]

In January 1941 Martha was sent to China on assignment for Collier's magazine, and Hemingway accompanied her. Although Hemingway wrote dispatches for PM, he had little affinity for China.[97] He returned to Cuba on the outbreak of World War II, and convinced the Cuban government to help him refit the Pilar to ambush German submarines.[18]

a dark haired man with mustache dressed in army boots, tucked in muddy pants, shirt and vest, with a light haired man dressed in army clothing standing in front of rubble
Hemingway with Col. Charles (Buck) T. Lanham in Germany, 1944, during the fighting in Hürtgenwald, after which he became ill with pneumonia.

During World War II, he was in Europe from June to December 1944. At the D-Day landing, military officials who considered him "precious cargo", kept him to a landing craft. Late in July he attached himself to "the 22nd Regiment commanded by Col. Charles 'Buck' Lanaham, as it drove toward Paris", and he led a small band of village militia in Rambouillet, outside of Paris.[98] Of Hemingway's exploits, World War II historian Paul Fussell remarks: "Hemingway got into considerable trouble playing infantry captain to a group of Resistance people that he gathered because a correspondent is not supposed to lead troops, even if he does it well".[18] This was in fact in contraversion to the Geneva Convention, and Hemingway was brought up on formal charges; he said he "beat the rap" by claiming that his entire participation was to give advice.[99] On August 25 he was present at the liberation of Paris, although the assertion that he was first in the city, or that he liberated the Ritz is considered part of the Hemingway legend.[100][101] While in Paris he attended a reunion hosted by Sylvia Beach, and "made peace with" Gertrude Stein.[102] Hemingway was present at heavy fighting in the Hürtgenwald near the end of 1944.[103] On December 17, a feverish and ill Hemingway had himself driven to Luxembourg to cover what would later be called The Battle of the Bulge. However, as soon as he arrived, Lanham handed him to the doctors, who hospitalized him with pneumonia, and by the time he recovered a week later, the main fighting was over.[99]

In 1947 Hemingway was awarded a Bronze Star for his bravery during World War II. He was recognized for his valor in having been "under fire in combat areas in order to obtain an accurate picture of conditions", with the commendation that "through his talent of expression, Mr. Hemingway enabled readers to obtain a vivid picture of the difficulties and triumphs of the front-line soldier and his organization in combat".[18]

When Hemingway initially arrived in England, he met Time magazine correspondent Mary Welsh in London, and was infatuated. Martha (who had been forced to cross the Atlantic in a ship filled with explosives because he refused to help her get a press pass on a plane) arrived in London to find Hemingway hospitalized with a concussion from a car accident. Unsympathetic to his plight, she accused him of being a bully, and told him she was "through, absolutely finished."[104] The last time he saw her was in March 1945, as he was preparing to return to Cuba.[105] Meanwhile, he had asked Mary Welsh to marry him on their third meeting.[104]

Cuba

white-bearded man wearing light colored clothing writing at a small table
Ernest Hemingway on safari in Kenya in 1953, shortly before he was injured in two plane accidents

Hemingway said he "was out of business as a writer" from 1942 to 1945.[106] In 1946 he married Mary, who had an ectopic pregnancy five months later. Hemingway and Mary had a series of accidents and health problems after the war: in a 1945 car accident he "smashed his knee" and sustained another "deep wound on his forehead"; Mary broke her right ankle and then her left ankle in successive skiing accidents. In 1947 his sons Patrick and Gregory were in a car accident, leaving Patrick with a head wound and severely ill.[107] He became depressed as his literary friends died: in 1939 Yeats and Ford Madox Ford; in 1940 Scott Fitzgerald; in 1941 Sherwood Anderson and James Joyce; in 1946 Gertrude Stein; and the following year in 1947, Max Perkins, Hemingway's long time editor and friend.[108] During this period he had severe headaches, high blood pressure, weight problems, and eventually diabetes—much of which was the result of previous accidents and heavy drinking.[109] Nonetheless, early in 1946 he began work on The Garden of Eden, finishing 800 pages by June.[110][note 4] During the post–war years he also began work on a trilogy to be called "The Land", "The Sea" and "The Air" which he intended to combine in one novel known as The Sea Book. However, both projects stalled and Mellow considers his inability to continue "a symptom of his troubles" during these years.[111][note 5]

In 1948 Hemingway and Mary travelled to Europe. In Italy he returned to the site of his World War I accident, and shortly afterwards began work on Across the River and Into the Trees, which he continued through 1949; it was published in 1950 to bad reviews.[112] The next year he wrote the draft of Old Man and the Sea in eight weeks, considering it "the best I can write ever for all of my life".[109] The Old Man and the Sea became a book-of-the month selection, made Hemingway an international celebrity, and won the Pulitzer Prize in May 1952, a month before he left for his second trip to Africa.[113][114]

In Africa he was seriously injured in two successive plane crashes. Hemingway chartered a sightseeing flight of the Belgian Congo as a Christmas present to Mary. On their way to photograph Murchison Falls from the air, the plane struck an abandoned utility pole and "crash landed in heavy brush." Hemingway's injuries included a head wound serious enough to leak cerebral fluid, while Mary broke two ribs.[115] The next day, attempting to reach medical care in Entebbe, they boarded a second plane that exploded at take-off with Hemingway suffering burns and another concussion.[116] They eventually arrived in Entebbe to find reporters covering the story of Hemingway's "death". He briefed the reporters, and spent the next few weeks recuperating and reading his "obituaries".[117] Despite his injuries, Hemingway accompanied Patrick and his wife on a planned fishing expedition in February, but pain caused him to be irascible and difficult to get along with.[118] When a bushfire broke out he was again injured, with second degree burns on his legs, front torso, lips, left hand and right forearm.[119] Months later in Venice, "according to Mary they learned the full extent of Hemingway's injuries". She reported to friends that he had two cracked discs, a kidney and liver rupture, a dislocated shoulder and a broken skull.[118] The accidents may have precipitated the physical deterioration that was to follow. After the plane crashes, Hemingway, who had been "a thinly controlled alcoholic throughout much of his life, drank more heavily than usual to combat the pain of his injuries."[120]

white-haired, white-bearded man with striped shirt
Ernest Hemingway in the cabin of his boat Pilar, off the coast of Cuba

In October 1954 Hemingway received the Nobel Prize in Literature. He modestly told the press that Carl Sandburg, Isak Dinesen and Bernard Berenson deserved the prize,[121] but the prize money would be welcome.[122] Mellow claims Hemingway "had coveted the Novel Prize", but when he won it, months after his plane accidents and the ensuing world-wide press coverage, "there must have been a lingering suspicion in Hemingway's mind that his obituary notices had played a part in the academy's decision."[123] Because he was suffering pain from the African accidents, he decided against travelling to Stockholm.[124] Instead he sent a speech to be read, defining the writer's life: "Writing, at its best, is a lonely life. Organizations for writers palliate the writer's loneliness but I doubt if they improve his writing. He grows in public stature as he sheds his loneliness and often his work deteriorates. For he does his work alone and if he is a good enough writer he must face eternity, or the lack of it, each day."[125][note 6]

From the end of the year in 1955 to early 1956, Hemingway was bedridden.[126] He was told to stop drinking to mitigate liver damage, advice he initially followed but then disregarded.[127] In October 1956 he returned to Europe and met Basque writer Pio Baroja, who was seriously ill and died weeks later. During the trip Hemingway became ill again, and was treated for "high blood pressure, liver disease, and arteriosclerosis".[126] That November he recovered trunks left in the "basement of the Ritz Hotel in Paris when he left for Key West in 1928", filled with notebooks and writing from his Paris years. Back in Cuba in 1957 he started to shape the recovered work into his memoir A Moveable Feast.[128] The Finca Vigia became crowded with guests and tourists, as Hemingway, beginning to become unhappy with life there, considered a permanent move to Idaho. In 1959 he bought a home overlooking the Big Wood River, outside of Ketchum, and left Cuba—although he apparently remained on easy terms with the Castro government, telling the New York Times he was "delighted" with Castro's overthrow of Havana.[129][130] In 1960 the Finca Vigia was expropriated by the Cuban government after the Bay of Pigs Invasion, (two months before Hemingway's death), complete with Hemingway's collection of "four to six thousand books"; the Hemingways were forced to leave art and manuscripts in a bank vault in Havana.[131]

Idaho and suicide

a white-bearded man dressed in a jacket, trousers and a head visor with a woman wearing a jacket and trousers, and a third man wearing jacket, trousers and a hat with water in the background.
Hemingway in Sun Valley, January 1959. With him is Gary Cooper, a friend first met at Sun Valley 20 years before, and who played Robert Jordan in the 1943 film adaptation of For Whom the Bell Tolls

He continued to work on A Moveable Feast through the end of the 1950s,[128][132] and in the summer of 1959 he visited Spain to research a series of bullfighting articles for Life Magazine.[133] Back in Ketchum at Christmas he appeared to be suffering from paranoia; at a restaurant one night with friends, he claimed the lights were on in the adjacent bank building because the FBI were "checking our accounts". By January he returned to Cuba and continued work on the Life magazine series. The manuscript grew to 63,000 words—Life wanted only 10,000 words—and he asked A. E. Hotchner to help organize the work that would become The Dangerous Summer. Hotchner found Hemingway to be "unusually hesitant, disorganized, and confused."[134][135]

Although Hemingway's mental deterioration was noticeable in the summer of 1960, he again travelled to Spain to obtain photographs for the manuscript. Without Mary, he was lonely and took to his bed for days, retreating into silence. The first installments of The Dangerous Summer were published in Life in September 1960 to good reviews. When he left Spain, he went straight to Idaho,[136] but was worried about money and his safety.[134] As his paranoia increased, he believed the FBI was actively monitoring his movements.[137][note 7] Hemingway suffered from physical problems as well: his health declined and his eyesight was failing.[138] In November he was admitted to the Mayo Clinic in Minnesota,[136] where he may have believed he was to be treated for hypertension.[139] Meyers writes that "an aura of secrecy surrounds Hemingway's treatment at the Mayo", but confirms that in December 1960 he received electroconvulsive therapy as many as 15 times, then in January 1961 he was "released in ruins".[140] According to Lisa Tyler, Hemingway's illness was bipolar disorder.[141]

gravestones on the grass under three trees
Ernest and Mary Hemingway are buried in the town cemetery in Ketchum, Idaho.

Three months later, back in Ketchum, Mary "found Hemingway holding a shotgun". His personal physician Dr. Saviers arrived, sedated him, and admitted him to the Sun Valley hospital; from there he was returned to the Mayo for more shock treatments.[142] He was released in late June and arrived home in Ketchum on June 30. Two days later, in the early morning hours of July 2, 1961, Hemingway "quite deliberately" shot himself with his favorite shotgun.[143] He unlocked the gun cabinet, went to the front entrance of their Ketchum home, and "pushed two shells into the twelve-gauge Boss shotgun, put the end of the barrel into his mouth, pulled the trigger and blew out his brains."[144] Mary called the Sun Valley Hospital, and Dr. Scott Earle arrived at the house within "fifteen minutes". Despite his finding that Hemingway "had died of a self-inflicted wound to the head", the story told to the press was that the death had been "accidental".[145]

During his final years, Hemingway's behavior was similar to his father's before he committed suicide;[146] his father may have had the genetic disease haemochromatosis, in which the inability to metabolize iron culminates in mental and physical deterioration.[147] Medical records made available in 1991 confirm that Hemingway's haemochromatosis had been diagnosed in early 1961.[148] His sister Ursula and his brother Leicester also committed suicide.[149] Added to Hemingway's physical ailments was the additional problem that he had been a heavy drinker for most of his life.[109]

Hemingway's family and friends flew to Ketchum for the funeral, which was officiated by the local Catholic priest who believed the death accidental.[145] Of the funeral (during which an altar boy fainted at the head of the casket), his brother Leicester wrote: "It seemed to me Ernest would have approved of it all."[150]

In a press interview five years later Mary Hemingway admitted her husband had committed suicide.[151]

Writing style

The New York Times wrote in 1926 of Hemingway's first novel: "No amount of analysis can convey the quality of The Sun Also Rises. It is a truly gripping story, told in a lean, hard, athletic narrative prose that puts more literary English to shame".[152] The Sun Also Rises is written in the spare, tightly written prose, for which Hemingway is famous; a style that has influenced countless crime and pulp fiction novels.[153] In 1954, when Hemingway was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature, it was for "his mastery of the art of narrative, most recently demonstrated in The Old Man and the Sea, and for the influence that he has exerted on contemporary style".[154]

Henry Louis Gates believes Hemingway's style was fundamentally shaped "in reaction to [his] experience of world war". After World War I, he and other modernists "lost faith in the central institutions of Western civilization", by reacting against the "elaborate style" of 19th century writers; and by creating a style "in which meaning is established through dialogue, through action, and silences—a fiction in which nothing crucial—or at least very little—is stated explicitly."[18]

If a writer of prose knows enough of what he is writing about he may omit things that he knows and the reader, if the writer is writing truly enough, will have a feeling of those things as strongly as though the writer had stated them. The dignity of movement of an ice-berg is due to only one-eighth of it being above water. A writer who omits things because he does not know them only makes hollow places in his writing.
—Ernest Hemingway in Death in the Afternoon[155]

Because he began as a writer of short stories, Baker believes Hemingway learned to "get the most from the least, how to prune language how to multiply intensities, and how to tell nothing but the truth in a way that allowed for telling more than the truth".[156] Hemingway referred to his style as the iceberg theory: in his writing the facts float above water; the supporting structure and symbolism operate out-of-sight.[156] Writing in "The Art of the Short Story", he explains: "A few things I have found to be true. If you leave out important things or events that you know about, the story is strengthened. If you leave or skip something because you do not know it, the story will be worthless. The test of any story is how very good the stuff that you, not your editors, omit."[157]

Jackson Benson believes Hemingway used autobiographical details as framing devices about life in general—not only about his life. For example, Benson postulates that Hemingway used his experiences and drew them out with "what if" scenarios: "what if I were wounded in such a way that I could not sleep at night? What if I were wounded and made crazy, what would happen if I were sent back to the front?"[158] The concept of the iceberg theory is sometimes referred to as the "theory of omission." Hemingway believed the writer could describe one thing (such as Nick Adams fishing in "The Big Two-Hearted River") though an entirely different thing occurs below the surface (Nick Adams concentrating on fishing to the extent that he does not have to think about anything else).[159]

The simplicity of the prose is deceptive. Zoe Trodd believes Hemingway crafted skeletal sentences in response to Henry James's observation that World War I had "used up words". Hemingway offers a "multi-focal" photographic reality. His iceberg theory of omission is the foundation on which he builds. The syntax, which lacks subordinating conjunctions, creates static sentences. The photographic "snapshot" style creates a collage of images. Many types of internal punctuation (colons, semicolons, dashes, parentheses) are omitted in favor of short declarative sentences. The sentences build upon another, as events build to create a sense of the whole. Multiple strands exist in one story; an "embedded text" bridges to a different angle. He also uses other cinematic techniques of "cutting" quickly from one scene to the next; or of "splicing" a scene into another. Intentional omissions allow the reader to fill the gap, as though responding to instructions from the author, and create three-dimensional prose.[160]

In the late summer that year we lived in a house in a village that looked across the river and the plain to the mountains. In the bed of the river there were pebbles and boulders, dry and white in the sun, and the water was clear and swiftly moving and blue in the channels. Troops went by the house and down the road and the dust they raised powdered the trees.
—Opening passage of A Farewell to Arms showing Hemingway's use of the word and[161]

In his literature, and in his personal writing, Hemingway habitually used the word "and" in place of commas. This use of polysyndeton may serve to convey immediacy. Hemingway's polysyndetonic sentence—or in later works his use of subordinate clauses—uses conjunctions to juxtapose startling visions and images; Jackson Benson compares them to haikus.[162][163] Many of Hemingway's followers misinterpreted his lead and frowned upon all expression of emotion; Saul Bellow satirized this style as "Do you have emotions? Strangle them."[164] However, Hemingway's intent was not to eliminate emotion, but to portray it more scientifically. Hemingway thought it would be easy, and pointless, to describe emotions; he sculpted collages of images in order to grasp "the real thing, the sequence of motion and fact which made the emotion and which would be as valid in a year or in ten years or, with luck and if you stated it purely enough, always".[165] This use of an image as an objective correlative is characteristic of Ezra Pound, T. S. Eliot, James Joyce, and Proust.[166] Hemingway's letters refer to Proust's Remembrance of Things Past several times over the years, and indicate he read the book at least twice.[167] His writing was likely also influenced by the Japanese poetic canon.[168][note 8]

Themes

Recurring themes in American literature exist with clarity in Hemingway's work. Leslie Fiedler sees the theme he defines as "The Sacred Land"—the American West—extended in Hemingway's work, to include mountains in Spain, Switzerland and Africa, and to the streams of Michigan. The American West is given a symbolic nod with the naming of the "Hotel Montana" in The Sun Also Rises and For Whom the Bell Tolls.[169] Although Hemingway writes about sports, Carlos Baker believes the emphasis is more on the athlete than the sport.[170] According to Stoltzfus and Fiedler, Hemingway's nature is a place for rebirth, for therapy, and the hunter or fisherman has a moment of transcendence when the prey is killed.[171] Nature is where men are without women: men fish; men hunt; men find redemption in nature.[169]

Fiedler believes Hemingway inverts the American literary theme of the evil "Dark Woman" versus the good "Light Woman". The dark woman—Brett Ashley of The Sun Also Rises—is a goddess; the light woman—Margot Macomber of "The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber"—is a murderess.[169] Robert Sholes admits that early Hemingway stories, such as "A Very Short Story", present "a male character favorably and a female unfavorably."[172] According to Rena Sanderson, early Hemingway critics lauded his male-centric world of masculine pursuits, and the fiction divided women into "castrators or love-slaves." Feminist critics attacked Hemingway as "public enemy number one", although more recent re-evaluations of his work "have given new visibility to Hemingway's female characters (and their strengths) and have revealed his own sensitivity to gender issues, thus casting doubts on the old assumption that his writings were one-sidedly masculine."[173] Nina Baym believes that Brett Ashley and Margot Macomber "are the two outstanding examples of Hemingway's 'bitch women.'"[174]

The theme of women and death is evident in stories as early as "Indian Camp". The theme of death permeates Hemingway's work. Young believes the emphasis in "Indian Camp" was not so much on the woman who gives birth or the father who commits suicide, but on Nick Adams who witnesses these events as a child, and becomes a "badly scarred and nervous young man." Hemingway sets the events in "Indian Camp" that shape the Adams persona. Young believes "Indian Camp" holds the "master key" to "what its author was up to for some thirty-five years of his writing career." [175] Stoltzfus considers Hemingway's work to be more complex with a representation of the truth inherent in existentialism: if "nothingness" is embraced, then redemption is achieved at the moment of death. Those who face death with dignity and courage live an authentic life. Francis Macomber dies happy because the last hours of his life are authentic; the bullfighter in the corrida represents the pinnacle of a life lived with authenticity.[171] In his paper The Uses of Authenticity: Hemingway and the Literary Field, Timo Müller writes that Hemingway's fiction is successful because the characters live an "authentic life", and the "soldiers, fishers, boxers and backwoodsmen are among the archetypes of authenticity in modern literature".[51]

The theme of emasculation is prevalent in Hemingway's work, most notably in The Sun Also Rises. Emasculation, according to Fiedler, is a result of a generation of wounded soldiers; and of a generation in which women such as Brett gained emancipation.[169] Baker believes Hemingway's work emphasizes the "natural" versus the "unnatural". In "Alpine Idyll" the "unnaturalness" of skiing in the high country late spring snow is juxtaposed against the "unnaturalness" of the peasant who allowed his wife's dead body to linger too long in the shed during the winter. The skiers and peasant retreat to the valley to the "natural" spring for redemption.[176]

Hemingway's work has been characterized as misogynistic and homophobic. Susan Beegel analyzed four decades of Hemingway criticism, published in her essay "Critical Reception". She found, particularly in the 1980s, "critics interested in multiculturalism" simply ignored Hemingway; although some "apologetics" have been written. Typical is this analysis of The Sun Also Rises: "Hemingway never lets the reader forget that Cohn is a Jew, not an unattractive character who happens to be a Jew but a character who is unattractive because he is a Jew." During the same decade, according to Beegel, criticism was published that investigated the "horror of homosexuality", and racism in Hemingway's fiction.[177]

Influence and legacy

Hemingway's legacy to American literature is his style: writers who came after him emulated it or avoided it.[178] As early as the 1930s Hemingway's style was parodied, while critics pointed to it as "lazy" within the context of the "American literary tradition".[179] After his reputation was sealed with the publication of The Sun Also Rises, he became the spokesperson for the post-World War I generation, having established a style to follow.[153] His books were burned in Berlin in 1933, "as being a monument of modern decadence", and disavowed by his parents as "filth".[180] Reynolds asserts the legacy is that "he left stories and novels so starkly moving that some have become part of our cultural heritage."[181] In a 2004 speech at the John F. Kennedy Library, Russell Banks declared that he, like many male writers of his generation, was influenced by Hemingway's writing philosophy, style, and public image.[182]

Walkway named for Ernest Hemingway, Ronda, Spain

Benson believes the details of Hemingway's life have become a "prime vehicle for exploitation", creating a "Hemingway industry".[183] Hemingway scholar Hallengren believes the "hard boiled style", and the machismo, must be separated from the author himself.[180] Benson agrees, describing him as introverted and private as J. D. Salinger, although Hemingway masked his nature with braggadocio.[184] In fact, during World War II, Salinger met and corresponded with Hemingway, whom he acknowledged as an influence.[185] In a letter to Hemingway, Salinger wrote that their talks "had given him his only hopeful minutes of the entire war", and jokingly "named himself national chairman of the Hemingway Fan Clubs".[186]

The extent of Hemingway's influence is seen in the tributes, and echoes of his fiction found in popular culture. The International Imitation Hemingway Competition was created in the 1980s to publicly acknowledge his influence and the comically misplaced efforts of lesser authors to imitate his style. Entrants are encouraged to submit one "really good page of really bad Hemingway", and winners are flown to Italy to Harry's Bar there.[187] A minor planet, discovered in 1978 by Soviet astronomer Nikolai Stepanovich Chernykh, was named for him (3656 Hemingway);[188] Ray Bradbury wrote The Kilimanjaro Device, with Hemingway transported to the top of Mount Kilimanjaro;[75] the 1993 motion picture Wrestling Ernest Hemingway, about the friendship of two retired men, Irish and Cuban, in a seaside town in Florida, starred Robert Duvall, Richard Harris, Shirley MacLaine, Sandra Bullock, and Piper Laurie.[189] The influence is evident with the many restaurants named "Hemingway"; and the proliferation of bars called "Harry's" (a nod to the bar in Across the River and Into the Trees).[190] A line of Hemingway furniture, promoted by Hemingway's son Jack (Bumby), has pieces such as the "Kilimanjaro" bedside table, and a "Catherine" slip-covered sofa. Montblanc offers a Hemingway fountain pen, and a line of Hemingway safari clothes has been created.[191]

In 1965 Mary Hemingway established the Hemingway Foundation, and in the 1970s she donated her husband's papers to the John F. Kennedy Library. In 1980 a group of Hemingway scholars gathered to assess the donated papers, subsequently forming the Hemingway Society, "committed to supporting and fostering Hemingway scholarship."[192]

Almost exactly 35 years after Hemingway's death, on July 1, 1996, his granddaughter Margaux Hemingway died in Santa Monica, California. Margaux was a supermodel and actress, co-starring with her sister Mariel in the 1976 movie Lipstick.[193] Her death was later ruled a suicide, making her "the fifth person in four generations of her family to commit suicide."[194] Margaux's sister, Mariel, is an actress and model, writer and film producer.[195]

Selected list of works

Main article: Bibliography of Ernest Hemingway

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^ Hemingway had five siblings: Marcelline (1898); Ursula (1902); Madelaine (1904); Carol 19110; and Leicester (1915). See Reynolds 2000, pp. 17–18 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFReynolds2000 (help)
  2. ^ Clarence Hemingway used his father's Civil War pistol to shoot himself. See Meyers 1985, p. 2
  3. ^ Gregory Hemingway underwent sex reassignment surgery in the mid-1990s and thereafter was known as Gloria Hemingway. See Hemingway legacy feud 'resolved'. BBC News. 3 October 2003. Accessed 2010–19–02.
  4. ^ The Garden of Eden was published posthumously in 1986. See Meyers 1985, p. 436
  5. ^ Published posthumously as Islands in the Stream in 1970. See Mellow 1992, p. 552
  6. ^ The full speech is available at The Nobel Foundation
  7. ^ In fact, the FBI had opened a file on him during WWII, when he used the Pilar to patrol the waters off Cuba, and J. Edgar Hoover had an agent in Havana watch Hemingway during the 1950s. See Mellow 1992, pp. 597–598. The FBI knew Hemingway was at the Mayo, as an agent documented in a letter written in January 1961. See Meyers 1985, pp. 543–544
  8. ^ Starrs draws a correlation between the "Imagist" influences of Ezra Pound, who mentored Hemingway in the 1920s. See Starrs 1998, p. 77

Footnotes

  1. ^ Oliver, p. 140
  2. ^ Reynolds 2000, p. 17 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFReynolds2000 (help)
  3. ^ Oliver, p. 134
  4. ^ Meyers 1985, p. 8
  5. ^ Reynolds 2000, pp. 17–18 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFReynolds2000 (help)
  6. ^ a b Reynolds 2000, p. 19 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFReynolds2000 (help)
  7. ^ Meyers 1985, p. 3
  8. ^ Meyers 1985, p. 13
  9. ^ Mellow 1992, p. 21
  10. ^ Meyers 1985, p. 19
  11. ^ Meyers 1985, p. 23
  12. ^ "Star style and rules for writing". The Kansas City Star. KansasCity.com. Retrieved 2009–08–29. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  13. ^ Mellow 1992, pp. 48–49
  14. ^ Meyers 1985, p. 27
  15. ^ Mellow 1992, p. 57
  16. ^ Mellow 1992, p. 59–60
  17. ^ Meyers 1985, pp. 30–31
  18. ^ a b c d e f Putnam
  19. ^ Desnoyers, p. 3
  20. ^ Meyers 1985, p. 37
  21. ^ Scholes
  22. ^ Meyers 1985, pp. 40–42
  23. ^ Meyers 1985, pp. 45–46
  24. ^ Reynolds 1998, p. 21
  25. ^ Mellow 1992, p. 101
  26. ^ a b Meyers 1985, pp. 51–53
  27. ^ Meyers 1985, pp. 56–58
  28. ^ a b Kert 1983, pp. 83–90
  29. ^ Oliver, p. 139
  30. ^ a b c Baker 1972, p. 7
  31. ^ Meyers 1985, pp. 60–62
  32. ^ a b c Meyers 1985, pp. 70–74
  33. ^ Meyers 1985, pp. 61–63
  34. ^ Mellow 1991, p. 8
  35. ^ Mellow 1992, p. 308
  36. ^ a b Reynolds 2000, p. 28 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFReynolds2000 (help)
  37. ^ Meyers 1985, pp. 77–81
  38. ^ Meyers 1985, p. 82
  39. ^ Reynolds, p. 24
  40. ^ Desnoyers, p. 5
  41. ^ Meyers 1985, pp. 69–70
  42. ^ a b Baker 1972, pp. 15–18
  43. ^ Meyers 1985, p. 126
  44. ^ Baker 1972, p. 34
  45. ^ Meyers 1985, p. 127
  46. ^ Mellow, p. 236
  47. ^ Mellow, p. 314
  48. ^ Meyers 1985, pp. 159–160
  49. ^ a b c Baker 1972, pp. 30–34
  50. ^ Meyers 1985, pp. 117–119
  51. ^ a b Müller 2010
  52. ^ Mellow 1992, p. 328
  53. ^ a b Baker 1972, p. 44
  54. ^ Meyers 1985, p. 189
  55. ^ Mellow 1992, p. 302
  56. ^ Meyers 1985, p. 192
  57. ^ Baker 1972, p. 82
  58. ^ Baker 1972, p. 43
  59. ^ Mellow 1992, p. 333
  60. ^ Mellow 1992, pp. 338–340
  61. ^ Meyers 1985, p. 172
  62. ^ a b Mellow 1992, p. 294
  63. ^ Meyers 1985, p. 174
  64. ^ Mellow 1992, p. 348–353
  65. ^ Meyers 1985, p. 195
  66. ^ Robinson, Daniel
  67. ^ Meyers 1985, p. 204
  68. ^ a b Meyers 1985, p. 208
  69. ^ Mellow 1992, p. 367
  70. ^ qtd. in Meyers 1985, p. 210
  71. ^ Meyers 1985, p. 215
  72. ^ Mellow 1992, p. 378
  73. ^ Baker 1972, pp. 144–145
  74. ^ Meyers 1985, p. 222
  75. ^ a b Oliver, p. 144
  76. ^ Meyers 1985, pp. 222–227
  77. ^ Mellow 1992, pp. 376–377
  78. ^ Mellow 1985, p. 402
  79. ^ Mellow 1985, p. 424
  80. ^ a b Desnoyers, p. 9
  81. ^ Mellow 1992, pp. 337–340
  82. ^ Meyers 1985, p. 280
  83. ^ Meyers 1985, p. 292
  84. ^ Mellow 1992, p. 488
  85. ^ Koch 2005, p. 87
  86. ^ Meyers 1985, p. 311
  87. ^ Koch 2005, p. 164
  88. ^ Kert 1983, pp. 287–295
  89. ^ Koch 2005, p. 134
  90. ^ Meyers 1985, p. 321
  91. ^ Thomas 2001, p. 833
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  93. ^ Lynn & 1987 479
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  95. ^ Meyers 1985, p. 334
  96. ^ Meyers 1985, pp. 335–338
  97. ^ Meyers 1985, pp. 356–361
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  99. ^ a b Lynn 1987, pp. 518–519
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  101. ^ Mellow 1992, p. 535
  102. ^ Mellow 1992, p. 540
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  106. ^ qtd in Mellow 1992, p. 552
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  111. ^ Mellow 1992, p. 552
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  115. ^ Baker 1972, pp. 331–333
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  118. ^ a b Mellow 1992, p. 588
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  120. ^ Beegel 1996, p. 273
  121. ^ Lynn 1987, p. 574
  122. ^ Baker 1972, p. 338
  123. ^ Mellow 1992, pp. 588–589
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  134. ^ a b Meyers 1985, pp. 542–544
  135. ^ Mellow 1992, pp. 598–600
  136. ^ a b Mellow 1992, pp. 598–601
  137. ^ Mellow 1992, pp. 597–598
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  139. ^ Meyers 1985, p. 545
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  141. ^ Lisa Tyler, Student Companion to Ernest Hemingway (Student Companions to Classic Writers) Greenwood Press (30 Sep 2001) Hardcover: 187 pages. ISBN 0313310564. From page 13: "[Hemingway] was then diagnosed with what was then called manic-depressive illness but is now called bipolar disorder."
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  146. ^ Burwell 1996, p. 234
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  152. ^ Template:Cite article
  153. ^ a b Nagel 1996, p. 87
  154. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Literature 1954". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2010-03-07.
  155. ^ qtd. in Oliver 1999, p. 322
  156. ^ a b Baker 1972, p. 117
  157. ^ Hemingway, The Art of the Short Story
  158. ^ Benson 1989
  159. ^ Oliver 1999, pp. 321–322
  160. ^ Trodd
  161. ^ qtd. in Mellow 1992, p. 379
  162. ^ McCormick, p. 49
  163. ^ Benson, p. 309
  164. ^ qtd. in Hoberek, p. 309
  165. ^ Hemingway, Ernest. "Death in the Afternoon:Chapter One Excerpt". Simon & Schuster. Retrieved 2009-12-08.
  166. ^ McCormick, p. 47
  167. ^ Burwell 1996, p. 187
  168. ^ Starrs 1998, p. 77
  169. ^ a b c d Fiedler, p. 345–365
  170. ^ Baker, p. 101-121
  171. ^ a b Stoltzfus
  172. ^ Sholes 1990, p. 42
  173. ^ Sanderson 1996, p. 171
  174. ^ Baym 1990
  175. ^ Young 1964, p. 6
  176. ^ Baker, pp. 101–121
  177. ^ Beegel 1996
  178. ^ Oliver 1999, pp. 140–141
  179. ^ Trogdon 1996
  180. ^ a b Hallengren
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  182. ^ Banks, p. 54
  183. ^ Benson 1989, p. 347
  184. ^ Benson 1989, p. 349
  185. ^ Lamb, Robert Paul (Winter 1996). "Hemingway and the creation of twentieth-century dialogue – American author Ernest Hemingway" (reprint). Twentieth Century Literature. Retrieved 2007-07-10.
  186. ^ Baker 1969, p. 420
  187. ^ Wanted: One Really Good Page of Really Bad Hemingway Jack Smith. LA Times, March 15, 1993. Retrieved 2010-03-07.
  188. ^ Schmadel, Lutz D. (2003). Dictionary of Minor Planet Names (5th ed.). New York: Springer Verlag. p. 307. ISBN 3-540-00238-3. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  189. ^ Oliver, p. 360
  190. ^ Oliver, p. 142
  191. ^ A Line of Hemingway Furniture, With a Veneer of Taste Jan Hoffman, The New York Times, June 15, 1999. Retrieved 2009-09-03.
  192. ^ Miller 2006
  193. ^ Holloway, Lynette (3 July 1966). "Margaux Hemingway Is Dead; Model and Actress Was 41". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010–05–14. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  194. ^ Holloway, Lynette (21 August 1996). "Coroner Says Death of Actress Was Suicide". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010–05–14. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  195. ^ "Mariel Hemingway". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010–05–14. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)

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