Military history of New Zealand

The Military history of New Zealand spans a period of nearly two centuries, during which New Zealand went from fighting under the control of the British Empire to fighting alongside its allies in various theatres.

Flagstaff War 1845-1846

Further information: [[:Flagstaff War]]

The Flagstaff War, sometimes called Hone Heke's Rebellion or the Northern War, began when Heke cut down the flagstaff at Kororareka on 11 March 1845 to start a series of battles that raged through the Bay of Islands for 10 months. Troops from the British Army's 96th Regiment were involved throughout that period, and were assisted in some of the battles by seamen from the Royal Navy's HMS Hazard and guns from that vessel which were lugged overland to bolster the attacks.

The major battles of this war occurred during the burning of Kororareka March 11, the burning of Pomare's Pa April 30, the attack on Puketutu Pa May 8, the burning of Kapotai Pa May 15, the battle of Te Ahu Ahu June 12, the attack on Ohaeawai Pa on June 23 which led to its total destruction on July 10, and the decisive siege of Ruapekapeka Pa which lasted from December 27 to January 11, 1846.

The New Zealand Wars 1861-1864

Further information: [[:Taranaki War and Invasion of the Waikato]]

A controversial incident during the land wars

The New Zealand Wars were fought mainly over land ownership disputes and confiscation of Māori by the new European settlers, known as the Pākehā, who were assisted by thousands of experienced British Imperial troops. During the conflict, 16 British servicemen were awarded the Victoria Cross.

Wars were fought in the 1850s and 1860s in Taranaki and the Waikato. Some Māori fought on the side of the British Crown. Māori hostile to the Crown won some of the battles but the Imperial and locally raised troops eventually won the war by occupying the land, and exhausting the enemy into surrender.

Muskets played an important part in the wars. As Māori had no firearms before colonisation, their use by both sides was decisive.

A Māori innovation which emerged from the New Zealand wars was trench warfare. At several different sieges of Māori villages, or pa, camouflaged trenches were effectively used to safely attack British regiments from ground level.

Second Boer War 1899-1902

Further information: [[:Second Boer War]]

File:Saw-004.jpg

Members of the Seventh Contingent packing up camp in South Africa.

The Second Boer War, fought from 11 October 1899 until 31 May 1902 and between the British Empire and the two independent Boer republics of the Orange Free State and the South African Republic (Transvaal Republic), resulted from the history of British encroachment into or involvement in areas already settled by Afrikaaners — who were known colloquially as Boers (farmers) — the descendants of the original Dutch settlers. This was exacerbated by the discovery of gold and diamonds in the South African Republic, after which many miners from British Empire countries migrated there.

New Zealand decided to help fight for the Empire and sent 6,500 mounted troops to assist the British efforts. Virtually every man in New Zealand was desperately keen to get to war, so the first soldiers to go were selected on the basis of who could afford to go. If one could provide your own horse, rifle and equipment, to the tune of about 25 pounds, one could go to war. The first two of the 10 contingents paid their own way. The proposal to send the first contingent - 200 mounted rifleman - was approved by Parliament prior to the outbreak of war on September 28, 1899. Prime Minister Richard Seddon's proposition to do so was overwhelmingly supported, meeting opposition from only five members of parliament.

In total, New Zealand provided ten conginents to the British, numbering 6,500 men. New Zealand losses were 71 men killed in action, 25 killed in accidents and 133 of disease. Figures for New Zealanders serving with units outside of the New Zealand contingents are unknown.

First World War 1914-1918

Further information: [[:First World War]]

When the United Kingdom declared war on Germany at the start of the First World War, the New Zealand government followed without hesitation, despite its geographic isolation and small population. It was believed at the time that any declaration of war by the United Kingdom automatically included New Zealand.

The total number of New Zealand troops and nurses to serve overseas in 1914-18, excluding those in British and other Dominion forces, was 103,000, from a population of just over a million. Forty-two percent of men of military age served in the NZEF. 16,697 New Zealanders were killed and 41,317 were wounded during the war - a 58 percent casualty rate. Approximately a further 1,000 men died within five years of the war's end, as a result of injuries sustained, and 507 died whilst training in New Zealand between 1914 and 1918. New Zealand had the highest casualty and death rate per capita of any country involved in the war.

The First World War saw Māori soldiers serve for the first time in a major conflict with the New Zealand Army (although a number had fought in the Second Boer War when New Zealand recruiters chose to ignore British military policy of the time of disallowing 'native' soldiers). A contingent took part in the Gallipoli campaign, and later served with distinction on the Western Front as part of the New Zealand (Māori) Pioneer Battalion. 2688 Māori and 346 Pacific islanders served with New Zealand forces in total.

Samoa

New Zealand's first act of the war, in August 1914, was to send an expeditionary force to seize and occupy German Samoa. On 6 August 1914 the British government indicated that it would be "a great and urgent Imperial service" if New Zealand forces seized Samoa, so a mixed force of 1,413 men plus six nursing sisters sailed on the 15th and, after stopping in Fiji to collect some guides and interpreters landed at Apia on the 29th. Although Germany refused to officially surrender the islands, no resistance was offered and the occupation took place without any fighting - the first German territory to be occupied in the name of King George V.

Middle East

As early as October 1914 the New Zealand Expeditionary Force sailed from Wellington. Diverted from their original destination in Europe, the New Zealanders were landed in Egypt, where they helped repulse a Turkish attack on the Suez Canal in February 1915.

Map of the landing at Anzac Cove on April 25 1915

The New Zealand volunteer soldiers remained encamped in Egypt, alongside their Australian comrades, undergoing training prior to being sent to France. On 25 April 1915, as part of the New Zealand and Australian Division, the New Zealanders landed at Anzac Cove, Gallipoli, and fought in the Battle of Gallipoli under the command of British general Alexander Godley. The combined British Empire and French operation was mounted in order to eventually capture the Ottoman capital of Constantinople (now Istanbul). Because of a navigational error, the Anzacs came ashore about a mile north of the intended landing point in their initial landing. Instead of facing the expected beach and gentle slope they found themselves at the bottom of steep cliffs, offering the few Turkish defenders an ideal defensive position. Establishing a foothold, the Anzacs found an advance to be impossible. On 30 April 1915, when the first news of the landing reached New Zealand a half-day holiday was declared and impromptu services were held - the origin of the commemorative public holiday, ANZAC Day, recognised by New Zealand and Australia.

Despite the blunder at Anzac Cove, the New Zealand soldiers fought valiantly throughout the campaign but the it was a failed venture overall, and an estimated 505,000 soldiers were killed and 262,000 wounded, including New Zealand casualties of 2,701 dead and 4,852 wounded. The Allied forces eventually evacuated in early December and early January of 1916. The significance of the battle of Gallipoli was strongly felt in New Zealand (and Australia) where it was the first great conflict experienced by the fledgling nation. Before Gallipoli the citizens of New Zealand were confident of the superiority of the British Empire and were proud and eager to offer their service. The campaign in Gallipoli shook that confidence.

Back in Egypt, the New Zealand Expeditionary Force was reorganised into the New Zealand Mounted Brigade and the New Zealand Division (infantry). Reinforcements from New Zealand replaced the Australian component of the Division, which embarked for France in April 1916. The New Zealand Mounted Brigade, 147 officers and 2,897 other ranks, remained in Egypt as part of the Anzac Mounted Division. In April 1916 it was deployed to the Sinai Peninsula where it took part in the ultimately successful Sinai and Palestine Campaign against the Turks. New Zealanders fought in most of the battles leading up to the fall of Jerusalem and the defeat of the Ottoman Army, and were praised for their fighting alongside their Australian and British comrades. In 1919 Field-Marshall Sir Edmund Allenby, said this of the New Zealand soldiers in the Sinai campaign;

"Nothing daunted these intrepid fighters: to them nothing was impossible."

A total of 17,723 New Zealanders served in this campaign and New Zealand casualties were 640 killed in action and 1,146 wounded.

Western Front

Infantry from the 2nd Battalion, Auckland Regiment, New Zealand Division in the Switch Line near Flers, taken some time in September 1916, after the Battle of Flers-Courcelette.

In France, the New Zealand Division settled in on the stalemated Western Front and their first major trial was during the Battle of the Somme. It took part in the Fourth Army's attack on 15 September, under the command of the British XV Corps. By the time they were relieved on 4 October, the New Zealanders had advanced three kilometres and captured eight kilometres of enemy front line. 7,048 had become casualties, of whom 1,560 were killed. In June 1917 the New Zealand Division further distinguished itself in the storming of Messines ridge and the capture of the village of Messines. During the fighting at Passchendaele in the following October, however, it was bloodily repulsed in its second attack, with 850 dead in exchange for no more than 500 yards of ground gained. This was the first time the Division had failed in a major operation; but more notably remains the worst disaster in New Zealand's history in terms of lives lost in a single day.

The Division now had four battalions, making it one of the largest on the Western Front, and was stationed in the Polygon Wood area, before again seeing action in a major battle. As the Germans launched their great Spring Offensive of 1918, the New Zealand Division was rushed to stem a breakthrough in the First Battle of the Somme, which threatened Amiens. The gap was between British IV and V Corps in the Ancre Valley. After confused fighting the New Zealanders eventually gained the upper hand and soon were counter-attacking advantageous land, stabilising the British line. Later in the year, they excelled in the open country fighting that was brought about by the Allied counter-offensive.

In their last action of the war, the Division captured the ancient fortress (Vauban-designed) town of Le Quesnoy in a daring assault on 4 November 1918. The day proved to be Division's most successful of their whole time on the Western Front as they pushed east and advanced ten kilometres, capturing 2000 German soldiers and sixty field guns. The town occupied a strategic position in north-eastern France and had been held by the Germans since 1914. Although with no specific orders indicating that the town need to be captured with any haste, the New Zealand soldiers were determined to and just before midday the first New Zealand troops reached the outer walls and scaled them with ladders. Propping the ladders against the precariously narrow inner walls, sections of one New Zealand battalion ascended the walls and engaged with fleeing German defenders. The few thousand strong German garrison surrendered soon after New Zealand soldiers entered the town itself.

Other theatres

New Zealand also contributed to the war at sea. Just after its outbreak, the cruiser HMS Philomel, loaned to New Zealand as a training ship, was augmented with 70 New Zealand reservists and sailed with two Royal Navy cruisers to escort the New Zealand troops sent to occupy German Samoa. Later in 1914 these three ships also escorted the New Zealand Expeditionary Force to Egypt.

From January 1915, Philomel patrolled the Gulf of Alexandretta in the Eastern Mediterranean, supporting several landings and sustaining three fatal casualties, one being the first New Zealander killed in action in the war. She also took part in the defence of the Suez Canal, operations in the Gulf of Aden and patrols in the Persian Gulf. Although refitting from time to time at Malta or Bombay kept her seaworthy, age eventually forced her out of the war and in March 1917 she returned to Wellington for a major overhaul. In June 1917 a German raider laid minefields in New Zealand waters, causing the loss of a merchant ship off Farewell Spit and another off Three Kings Islands. Two fishing trawlers, the Nora Niven and Simplon, were fitted as minesweepers and took up sweeping duties in these areas.

New Zealand had no air force of her own during the First World War but several hundred New Zealanders served with the Royal Flying Corps, the Royal Naval Air Service and the Royal Air Force.

Second World War 1939-1945

File:New Zealand recruits, WWII.jpg

Recruits marching to Papakura camp.

New Zealand entered the Second World War by declaring war on Germany at 9.30 pm 3 September 1939 (NZT). Politically, New Zealand had been a vocal opponent of European fascism and also the appeasement of those dictatorships, national sentiment for a strong show of force was generally supported. Economic and defensive considerations also motivated the New Zealand involvement - reliance on Britain meant that if she were threatened, New Zealand would be too in terms of economic and defensive ties. There was also a strong sentimental link between the former British colony and the United Kingdom, with many seeing Britain as the "mother country" or "Home". Prime Minister of the time Michael Joseph Savage summed this up at the outbreak of war with a quote that would become a popular cry in New Zealand during the war;

"Where Britain goes, we go! Where she stands, we stand!"^[1]

New Zealand provided personnel for service in the Royal Air Force and Royal Navy, the Royal New Zealand Navy was placed at the Admiralty's disposal and new medium bombers waiting in the United Kingdom to be shipped to New Zealand were made available to the RAF. The New Zealand Army contributed the 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force (2NZEF). In total, around 140,000 New Zealand personnel served overseas for the Allied war effort, and an additional 100,000 men were armed for Home Guard duty. At its peak in July 1942, New Zealand had 154,549 men and women under arms (excluding the Home Guard) and by the war's end a total of 194,000 men and 10,000 women had served in the armed forces at home and overseas. The costs for the country were high - 11,625 killed, a ratio of 6684 dead per million in the population which was the highest rate in the Commonwealth (Britain suffered 5123 and Australia 3232 per million population). The 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force was formed under Major-General Bernard Freyberg and would see active service in Greece, Crete, North Africa, Italy, and Yugoslavia. The main fighting unit of the expeditionary force was the New Zealand 2nd Division also commanded by Major-General Bernard Freyberg.

Greece

Main article: Battle of Greece

The 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force was deployed to the war in three echelons - all destined for Egypt, but one was diverted to Scotland (and would arrive there in June, 1941) following the German invasion of France. In April of that year, after a period training in Egypt, 2NZEF's New Zealand 2nd Division, stationed in Egypt, was deployed to take part in the defence of Greece against invasion by Italian troops, and soon German forces too when they joined the invasion. This defence was mounted alongside British and Australian units - the corps-size Commonwealth contingent under the command of British General Henry Maitland Wilson known together as W Force, supporting a weakened Greek Army. As German panzers began a swift advance into Greece on April 6, the British and Commonwealth troops found themselves being outflanked and were forced into retreat. By April 9, Greece had been forced to surrender and the 40,000 W Force troops began a withdrawal from the country to Crete and Egypt, the last New Zealand troops leaving by 29 April. The New Zealanders lost 291 men killed, 1,826 captured and 387 seriously wounded in this brief campaign.

Crete

Main article: Battle of Crete

Most of the New Zealand 2nd Division had been evacuated to Crete from Greece - two out of three brigades (the third and division headquarters to Alexandria) and here they bolstered the Crete garrison to 34,000 British and Commonwealth soldiers (25,000 were evacuees of Greece) and 9,000 Greek troops (see Crete order of battle#Allied Forces for more detail). Evacuated from to Crete on 28 April (having disregarded an order to leave on 23 April), the New Zealand General Freyberg was appointed commander of the Allied forces on Crete on the 30th. Ultra intercepts of German signals had already alerted Allied commanders to the German plans to invade Crete with fallschirmjäger (Luftwaffe paratroopers). With this knowledge of the plans General Freyberg began to prepare the island's defences, hampered by a lack of modern and heavy equipment as the troops from Greece had in most cases had to leave only with their personal weapons. Although German plans had underestimated Greek, British and Commonwealth numbers, and incorrectly presumed that the Cretan population would welcome the invasion, Freyberg was still faced with the harsh prospect that even lightly equipped paratroopers could overwhelm the island's defences.

Operation Mercury opened on 20 May when German fallschirmjäger were landed around the Maleme airfield and Chania area, at around 8:15 pm, by paradrop and gliders. Most of the New Zealand forces were deployed around this north-western part of the island and with British and Greek troops they inflicted heavy casualties upon the initial German attacks. Despite near complete defeat for their landing troops east of the airfield and in the Galatas region, German invaders were able to gain a foothold by mid-morning west of Maleme Airfield (5 Brigade's area) - along the Tavronitis riverbed and in the Ayia Valley to the east (10 Brigade's area - dubbed 'Prison Valley').

Maleme

Map of the positions of 22 Battalion, New Zealand 2nd Division at Maleme in the Battle of Crete, May 20 1941

Over the course morning, the 600-strong New Zealand 22 Battalion defending Maleme Airfield found its situation rapidly worsening. Telephone contact had been lost with the brigade headquarters, the battalion headquarters (in Pirgos) was out of contact with C and D Companies, stationed on the airstrip and along the Tavronitis-side of Hill 107 (see map) respectively and the battalion commander, Lieutenant-Colonel Leslie Andrew (VC) had no idea of the enemy paratrooper strength to his west as his observation posts lacked wireless sets. While a platoon of C Company situated northwest of the airfield, nearest the sea, was able to repel German attacks along the beach, attacks across the Tavronitis bridge by fallschirmjäger were able to overwhelm weaker positions and take the Royal Air Force camp. Not knowing whether C and D Companies had been overrun, and with German mortars firing from the riverbed, Colonel Andrew (with unreliable wireless contact) ordered the firing of white and green signals - the designated emergency signal for 23 Battalion (to the south-east of Pirgos), under the command of Colonel Leckie, to counterattack. The signal was not spotted, and further attempts were made to get the message through to no avail. At 5:00 pm contact was made with Brigadier James Hargest at the New Zealand 2nd Division headquarters, but Hargest responded that 23 Battalion fighting paratroopers in its own area, an untrue and unverified assertion.

Faced with a seemingly desperate situation, Colonel Andrew played his trump card - two Matilda tanks, which were ordered to counterattack with the reserve infantry platoon and some additional gunners turned infantrymen. The counterattack was unsuccessful - one tank had to turn back after technical issues were discovered (the turret would not traverse properly) and the second tank ignored the German positions in the RAF camp and the edge of the airfield, heading straight for the riverbed. This lone tank stranded itself quickly on a boulder and, faced with the same technical difficulties as the first Matilda, the crew abandoned the vehicle. The exposed infantry were repelled by the fallschirmjäger. At around 6:00 pm the failure was reported to Brigadier Hargest and the prospect of a withdrawal was raised. Colonel Andrew was informed that he could withdraw if he wished, with the famous reply "Well, if you must, you must," but that two companies (A Company, 23 Battalion and B Company, 28 (Māori) Battalion) were being sent to reinforce 22 Battalion. To Colonel Andrew the situation seemed bleak; ammunition was running low, the promised reinforcements seemed not to be forthcoming (one got lost, the other simply did not arrive as quickly as expected) and he still had no idea how C and D companies were. The two companies in question were in fact resisting strongly on the airfield and above the Tavronitis riverbed and had inflicted far greater losses on the Germans than they had lost. At 9:00 pm Colonel Andrew made the decision to make a limited withdrawal, and once that had been carried out, a full one to the 21 and 23 Battalion positions to the east. By midnight all of 22 Battalion had left the Maleme area, with the exception of C and D Companies which withdrew in the early morning of the 21st upon discovering that the rest of the Battalion had gone.

This allowed German troops to seize the airfield proper without opposition and take nearby positions to reinforce their hold on the airfield. Ammunition and supplies were flown in by Junkers Ju 52 transport aircraft, as well as the rest of the fallschirmjäger and troops of the 5th Mountain Division. Although the landings were extremely hazardous, with the airstrip under direct British artillery fire, substantial reinforcement was made. On the 21st the village of Maleme was attacked and captured, and a counter attack was made by the 20 Battalion (with reinforcements from the Australian 2/7 Battalion), 28 (Māori) Battalion and later 21 Battalion. The attack was hampered by communications problems and although the New Zealanders made significant advances in some areas, the overall picture was one of stiff German resistance. 5 Brigade fell back to a new line at Platanias, leaving Maleme securely in German hands, allowing them to freely build up their force in this region.

Galatas

On the night of the 23rd, and the morning of the 24th, 5 Brigade withdrew again to the area near Daratsos, forming a new front line running from Galatas to the sea. The relatively fresh 18 Battalion replaced the worn troops from Maleme and Platanias, deploying 400 men on a two kilometre front.

Galatas had come under attack on the first day of the battle - fallschirmjäger and gliders had landed around Chania and Galatas, to suffer extremely heavy casualties. They retreated to 'Prison Valley' where they rallied around the Ayia Prison and repulsed a confused counterattack by two companies of 19 Battalion and three light tanks. Pink Hill (named so for the colour of its soil), a crucial point on the Galatas heights was attacked several times by the Germans that day, and was remarkably held by the Division Petrol Company with aid from Greek soldiers, though at a heavy cost to both sides. The Petrol Company was comprised of poorly armed support troops, primarily drivers and technicians and by the day's end all their officers had been wounded, with most of their NCOs. They withdrew around dusk. On the second day the New Zealanders attacked nearby Cemetery Hill to take pressure off their line, and although they had to withdraw for it was too exposed, the hill became a no man's land as Pink Hill was, relieving the New Zealand front. Day three, the 22nd, saw German soldiers take Pink Hill. The Petrol Company and some infantry reserve prepared a counterattack but a notable incident pre-empted them - as told by Driver A. Pope:

"Out of the trees came [Captain] Forrester of the Buffs, clad in shorts, a long yellow army jersey reaching down almost to the bottom of the shorts, brass polished and gleaming, web belt in place and waving his revolver in his right hand [...] It was a most inspiring sight. Forrester was at the head of a crowd of disorderly Greeks, including women; one Greek had a shot gun with a serrated-edge bread knife tied on like a bayonet, others had ancient weapons—all sorts. Without hesitation this uncouth group, with Forrester right out in front, went over the top of a parapet and headlong at the crest of the hill. The [Germans] fled."^[2]

Days four and five were marked only by skirmishes between the two forces. Luftwaffe air raids targeted Galatas on the 25th at 8:00 am, 12:45 pm and 1:15 pm, and the German ground attack came at around 2:00 pm. 100 Mountain and 3 Parachute Regiment attacked Galatas and the high ground around it, while two battalions of 85 Mountain Regiment attacked eastwards, with the aim of cutting Chania off. The New Zealand defenders were ready, but at a disadvantage - 18 Battalion, 400 men, was the only fresh infantry formation on the line - the rest were non-infantry groups like the Petrol Company and the Composite Battalion, consisting of mechanical, supply and artillery troops. The fighting was fierce, especially along the north of the line, and platoons and companies were forced to make retreats. Brigadier Lindsay Inglis called for reinforcement and received 23 Battalion, who along with an improvised group of reinforcements scraped together at Brigade Headquarters (including the Brigade band and the Kiwi Concert Party) they stabilised the north of the line. South of Galatas, only 18 Battalion and the Petrol Company were defending - 18 Battalion was forced to withdraw, and the Petrol Company on Pink Hill followed suit after becoming aware of this eventually. 19 Battalion was the only formation still in combat on Pink Hill, and they too withdrew. These forces withdrew past Galatas, as no defenders were in the village to link up with.

By nightfall Galatas was occupied by German troops and Lieutenant-Colonel Howard Kippenberger prepared a counter attack. Two tanks led two companies of 23 Battalion into Galatas at a running pace - heavy fire was encountered and as the tanks went ahead towards the town square, the infantry cleared each house of German soldiers as they worked inward. When the infantry caught up with the tanks they found one out of action. With German fire coming primarily from one side of the square a charge was mounted and with bayonets the New Zealanders cleared the German opposition. Patrols quelled resistance elsewhere in Galatas - apart from one small strongpoint, Galatas was back in New Zealand hands.

At a conference between Brigadier Inglis and his commanders, the consensus was that a further counterattack was urgently needed and if it were not to be made, Crete would be lost. Despite hard fighting so far in the battle, the 28 (Māori) Battalion was considered to be the only 'fresh' battalion available and the only one capable of carrying out such an attack. Their commander was willing to mount the attack despite the difficulty, but a representative sent from Brigadier Edward Puttick at New Zealand 2nd Division headquarters recommended against such an attack for fear of being unable to hold the line subsequently. The counter-attack was scrapped, and so too was Galatas, its position beign far too vulnerable to hold. However, without Galatas the whole line was untenable and so the New Zealanders again retreated, forming a line from the coast to Perivolia and Mournies, near the Australian 19th Brigade.

Evacuation

On 26 May the New Zealanders came under attack again, and although there were no major breakthroughs, the situation was grim. Like the New Zealanders, British, Commonwealth and Hellenic forces were being pushed steadily southward across the island by the Germans, using heavy aerial and artillery bombardment that the defenders simply could not match. Recognising that Crete could not be held, General Freyberg began preparations for an evacuation. The New Zealanders and Australians withdrew to take up positions defending '42nd Street' - a section of road between Suda and Chania. A surprise attack here by German soldiers was met with a bayonet charge by the Australians and 28 (Māori) Battalion (who led). German casualties were high and they withdrew. Around midnight 27/28th the New Zealanders and Australians again withdrew, to Sfakia this time, with the commandos of Layforce covering them. Stylos was reached by daytime and the decision was made to risk the threat of attack by the Luftwaffe and continue marching through the day, and two companies of the 28 (Māori) Battalion would remain as a rearguard. The next stopping point for the soldiers was the Askifou Plain, beyond the White Mountains, whose pass reached a height of 3,000 feet. It was a harsh obstacle for these tired soldiers, deployed in battle for the past nine days, but most made it to their rest point. The Māori soldiers of the rearguard made a fighting retreat to meet the main force.

On this day the official evacuation order was issued and the first 300 wounded were evacuated from the beach at Sfakia by Royal Navy destroyers. Later cruisers would join the effort, a total of seven vessels sent from the stretched Mediterreanean fleet by Admiral Andrew Cunningham who was determined that the "navy must not let the army down." When army generals feared he would lose too many ships, Cunningham said that "It takes three years to build a ship, it takes three centuries to build a tradition." Ultimately 17,000 troops were evacuated to Alexandria by the British surrender on 1 June. Most of the New Zealanders made it, but 2,180 were captured. Additonal New Zealand casualties for the Battle of Crete were 671 dead and 967 wounded.

New Zealand Second Lieutenant Charles Upham, the only person to receive two Victoria Crosses during World War II and the only combat soldier to receive the award twice, gained his first award during the battle.

North Africa

A small number of New Zealand transport and signals units supported the British Operation Compass in December 1940, but it was not until November of the following year that the New Zealand 2nd Division became fully involved in the North African Campaign. Following the evacuation from Crete, the Division regrouped at it's camp near Maadi - at the base of the desert slopes of Wadi Digla and Tel al-Maadi - reinforcements arrived from New Zealand to bring the Division back up to strength and the training cut short by the move to Greece and Crete was completed. On 18 November 1941, Operation Crusader was launched to lift the Siege of Tobruk (the third such attack), under the command of General Alan Cunningham and the New Zealand 2nd Division (integrated into the British Eighth Army) took part in the offensive, crossing the Libyan frontier into Cyrenaica. Operation Crusader was an overall success for the British, although Erwin Rommel's Afrika Korps inflicted heavy armour and infantry losses before its weakened and under supplied units retreated to El Agheila and halted the British advance. The New Zealand troops were the ones to relieve Tobruk after fighting around Sidi Rezegh, where Axis tanks had inflicted heavy casualties against the several New Zealand infantry battalions, protected by very little of their own armour. In February, 1942, With Crusader completed, the New Zealand government insisted that the Division be withdrawn to Syria to recover - 879 men were killed and 1700 wounded in Operation Crusader, the most costly battle the Division fought in the Second World War.

On 14 June, the New Zealanders were recalled from their occupation duties in Syria as the Afrika Korps broke through Gazala and captured Tobruk. The New Zealanders, put on the defence, were encircled at Minqar Qa'im but escaped thanks to brutally efficient hand-to-hand fighting by 4 Brigade. Rommel's advance was prevented from reaching Alexandria, Cairo and the Suez Canal by the British in the First Battle of El Alamein, where New Zealand troops captured Ruweisat Ridge in a successful night attack. However, they were unable to bring their anti-tank weapons forward, and more importantly, British armour didn't move forward to support the soldiers. Heavy casualties were suffered by the two New Zealand brigades involved as they were attacking by German tanks, and several thousand men were taken prisoner. Charles Upham earned a bar for his Victoria Cross in this battle. Under the new command of Lieutenant-General Bernard Montgomery, the Eighth Army launched a new offensive on October 23 against the stalled Axis forces, the Second Battle of El Alamein. On the first night, as part of Operation Lightfoot the New Zealand 2nd Division, with other British divisions, moved through the deep Axis minefields while engineers cleared routes for British tanks to follow. The New Zealanders successfully captured their objectives on Miteiriya Ridge. By 2 November, with the attack bogged down, Montgomery launched a new initiative to the south of the battle lines, Operation Supercharge, with the ultimate goal of disintegrating the Axis army. The experienced New Zealand 2nd Division was called to carry out the initial thrust - the same sort of attack they had made in Lightfoot. The understrength Division could not have the required impact and two British brigades assisted. The German line was breached by British armour and on 4 November the Afrika Korps, faced with the prospect of complete defeat, skilfully withdrew.

The New Zealanders continued to advance with the Eighth Army through the Tunisia Campaign, driving the Afrika Korps back into Tunisia, and notably fought at Medenine, the Tebaga Gap and Enfidaville. On 13 May 1943, the North African campaign ended, with the surrender of the last 275,000 Axis troops in Tunisia. On the 15th the Division began the withdrawal back to Egypt and by June 1 the division was back in Maadi and Helwan, on standby for use in Europe. Total New Zealand losses since November 1941, were 2,989 killed, 7,000 wounded and 4,041 taken prisoner.

Italy

• October/November 1943 New Zealand troops assembled in Bari
• November 1943 crossed the Sangro River with a view to breaching the German Gustav Line and advancing to Rome
• 2 December 1943 captured the village Castelfrentano
• 3 December 1943 attacked Orsogna but were repulsed by the strong German defence
• January 1944 withdrew from stalled front line
• 17 February attacked Cassino but it was strongly defended and they withdrew in early April. Cassino was eventually captured on 18 May 1944 by British and Polish troops, with support of NZ artillery
• 16 July 1944 captured Arezzo and reached Florence on 4 August, by the end of October they had reached the Savio River
• 14 December 1944 captured Faenza
• 8 April 1945 crossed the Senio River then began their final push across the Santerno River and Gaiana River and finally the Po River on Anzac Day 1945.
• 28 April 1945 captured Padua
• 1 May 1945 crossed the Izonso River to reach Trieste on 2 May 1945, the day of the German unconditional surrender in Italy

Pacific

When Japan entered the war in December 1941, the New Zealand Government raised another expeditionary force known as the 2nd N.Z.E.F. In the Pacific, or 2nd N.Z.E.F. (I.P.), for service with the Allied Pacific Ocean Areas command. This force supplemented existing garrison troops in the South Pacific. The main fighting formation of the 2nd N.Z.E.F. (I.P.) was the New Zealand 3rd Division. However the 3rd Division never fought as a formation; its component brigades being involved in semi-independent actions as part of the Allied forces in the Solomons, Treasury Islands and Green Island.

The New Zealand army units were eventually replaced by American formations, which released personnel for service with the 2nd Division in Italy, or to cover civilian labour shortages. Air force squadrons and Navy units contributed to the Allied island hopping campaign.

In 1945, troops who had recently returned from Europe with the 2nd Division were drafted to form a contribution (known as J-Force) toward the British Commonwealth Occupation Force (BCOF) in southern Japan. No. 14 Squadron RNZAF, equipped with Corsair fighters, and RNZN ships also joined BCOF.

Other theatres

• On the 13 December 1939 HMNZS Achilles took part in The Battle of the River Plate as part of small British force against the German heavy cruiser Admiral Graf Spee. The action resulted in the German ship retiring to neutral Uruguay and being skuttled a few days later.

• HMNZS Leander
• RAF

Berlin Airlift 1948-49

Further information: [[:Berlin Blockade]]

From June 24, 1948 to May 11, 1949 the Soviet Union blocked Western railroad and street access to West Berlin. In response the British, American and French governments enacted the Berlin Airlift, one of the biggest food-drops in history, transferring supplies to 2.2 million inhabitants of West berlin for 324 successive days. Royal New Zealand Air Force aircrews were seconded to the Royal Air Force and flew in these supply missions - ultimately 278,228 flights were made and 2,326,406 tons of food and supplies were delivered to Berlin. This was the first involvement New Zealand had in what was to become the Cold War.

Korean War 1950-1953

Further information: [[:Korean War]]

File:Kiwi hill, Korean War.jpg

'Kiwi Hill' - the headquarters of the 16th Field Regiment.

When the United Nations Security Council called for combat assistance in the erupting Korean War, New Zealand was one of the first (of sixteen) nations to respond with support. On June 29, just four days after 135,000 North Korean troops crossed the 38th parallel in Korea, the New Zealand government ordered two frigates (Loch class) of the Royal New Zealand Navy - HMNZS Tutira and Pukaki to prepare to make for Korean waters. On July 3 they left Devonport Naval Base, Auckland and met up other Commonwealth forces at Sasebo, Japan, on August 2. These vessels served under the command of a British flag officer and formed part of the US Navy screening force during the Battle of Inchon, performing shore raids and inland bombardment. Further RNZN Loch class frigates joined these later - HMNZS Rotoiti, Hawea, Taupo and Kaniere, as well as a number of smaller craft. Only one RNZN sailor was killed during the conflict - during the Inchon bombardments.

After some debate, on July 26 1950, the New Zealand Government announced it would raise a volunteer military force to serve with UN forces in Korea. The idea was notably opposed initially by Chief of the General Staff Major General K. L. Steward, who did not believe the force would be large enough to be self-sufficient. His opposition was ignored and the government raised what was known as KAYFORCE, a total of 1044 men were selected from among volunteers. An artillery regiment and support elements arrived later during the conflict from New Zealand. The force arrived at Pusan on New Year's Eve and on January 21 joined the 27th British Infantry Brigade. The New Zealanders immediately saw combat and spent the next two and a half years taking part in the operations which led the United Nations forces back to and over the 38th Parallel, recapturing Seoul in the process.

Following the armistice, Royal New Zealand Navy deployments continued, together with Army support elements until 1957 as Kayforce was gradually reduced in size. The majority of Kayforce had returned to New Zealand by 1955, though it was not until 1957 that the last New Zealand soldiers had left Korea. A single New Zealand military liaison officer on the Commonwealth Liaison Mission, Korea, remained in the country until 1971. A total of 3,794 New Zealand soldiers served in KAYFORCE and 1300 in the RNZN deploymen. 33 were killed in action, 79 wounded and 1 soldier was taken prisoner. That prisoner was held in North Korea for eighteen months and repatriated after the armistiics. A New Zealander flying with the Royal Air Force was also captured when he was shot down near P'yongyang, and was repatriated at around the same time.

Kashmir 1952-76

New Zealand provided military observers for the United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan.

Malayan Emergency 1950-1960

Further information: [[:Malayan Emergency]]

The Malayan Emergency was declared by the British government on June 18 1948 after guerillas of the Malayan Races Liberation Army, the militant arm of the Malayan Communist Party killed three British rubber planters. New Zealand's first contribution came in 1949, when the C-47s Dakotas of No. 41 Squadron were attached to the Royal Air Force's Far East Air Force. The Dakotas were used to drop supplies to British and Malay forces engaging the MRLA, and one aircraft was stationed permanently in Kuala Lumpur to carry out this role, away from No. 41 Squadron's usual station in Hong Kong. By the time the New Zealand planes were withdrawn in December 1951, they had carried out 211 sorties, dropping 284,000 kilograms of supplies. From 1949 there were also several New Zealand Army officers serving on secondment to British units in Malaya. A further ten offciers, along with fourteen non-commissioned officers arrived in January 1951 leading the 1st Batallion of the Fiji Infantry Regiment. Commanded initially by Lieutenant-Colonel R. A. Tinker the unit gained a high reputation for effectiveness in operations against the guerrillas. By the time it was withdrawn in 1956 about forty New Zealanders had served with it, and two had been accidentally killed. In 1954 a Royal New Zealand Navy frigate, HMNZS Pukaki, carried out a bombardment of a suspected guerrilla camp, while operating with the Royal Navy's Far East Fleet - the first of a number of bombardments by RNZN ships over the next five years.

File:NZSAS parachute training - Malaya.jpg

New Zealand Special Air Service troopers training for service in Malaya.

New Zealand became more directly involved in the Emergency in 1955, following its decision to contribute forces to the British Commonwealth Far East Strategic Reserve, the primary role of which was to deter communist aggression in South-East Asia, and to provide a capacity for the immediate implementation of defence plans in the event that deterrence failed. As a secondary role, the forces committed to the Reserve were permitted to take part in actions against the guerrillas. The initial New Zealand contribution to this Reserve was a Special Air Service squadron which, commanded by Major Frank Rennie, served with the British Special Air Service's 22nd Regiment. It numbered six officers and 127 men. Their operations consisted of seeking out the guerrillas in their jungle sanctuary. From April 1956 this squadron was deployed to the Fort Brooke area, bordering the states of Perak and Kelantan, and during 1957 it operated in Negri Sembilan, between the towns of Seremban, Kuala Pilah, and Tampin. In both locations the squadron was involved in successful operations eliminating the local MRLA groups. In all, this squadron spent two years on service in Malaya, and the soldiers spent an average of 17 months on jungle operations.

On 1 May 1955, the Royal New Zealand Air Force carried out its first operational strike mission since the Second World War and its first with jet aircraft, de Havilland Vampires of No. 14 Squadron. Between April 1955 and March 1958 the squadrion was reequipped with de Havilland Venoms and mounted 115 strike missions, which fell into two categories - 'Firedogs' (pre-planned bombing, strafing, and rocket attacks against suspected guerrilla targets) and 'Smash Hits' (immediate on-call strikes against opportunity targets in response to a guerrilla raid or 'hot' information). The squadron was replaced in 1958 by No. 75 Squadron flying English Electric Canberras from its station in Tengah. The effectiveness of the air strikes against targets in the jungle was inevitably limited but they provided much valuable training experience to the New Zealand pilots. In July 1955 No. 41 Squadron returned to Malaya and resumed supply dropping operations in support of anti-guerrilla forces, this time using the highly effective Bristol Freighter aircraft.

From March 1958 the 1st Battalion of the New Zealand Regiment replaced the New Zealand SAS Squadron and as part of the 28th Commonwealth Infantry Brigade Group took part in operations designed to clear Perak of insurgents. It mounted a series of deep jungle patrols from Ipoh and Grik, it mounted a series of deep jungle patrols, in which it achieved great success. By the time the 2nd Battalion of the New Zealand Regiment arrived in late 1959, to replace the 1st Batallion, most of the Communist guerrillas had retreated across the border into southern Thailand and the Malayan government saw the security situation to be stable enough to declare the Emergency on 31 July 1960. New Zealand soldiers would be periodically deployed to Border Security Area as part of counter-insurgency measures over the next four years.

Of the 1300 New Zealanders to serve in the Malayan Emergency between 1948 and 1964, fifteen lost their lives - including only three killed as a result of enemy action and the crew of a Bristol Freighter which flew into a mountain in 1956. For a New Zealand Army with little experience of jungle warfare, the Emergency marked a new departure and an important stage in the development of the New Zealand armed forces from a non-regular to a regular framework of organisation. Experience gained in Malaya helped the New Zealand armed forces when they returned to South-East Asia's jungles during the Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation and the Vietnam War.

Indonesia-Malaysia Confrontation 1962-66

Further information: [[:Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation]]

As a part of its withdrawal from its Southeast Asian colonies, the United Kingdom moved to combine its colonies on Borneo, Sarawak and British North Borneo, with those on peninsular Malaya, to form the Federation of Malaysia. This move was opposed by the government of Indonesia; President Sukarno argued that Malaysia was a puppet of the British, and that the consolidation of Malaysia would increase British control over the region, threatening Indonesia's independence. The Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation began on January 20 1963 when Indonesian Foreign Minister Subandrio announced that Indonesia would pursue a policy of Konfrontasi (Confrontation) with the Malaysia.

British forces conducted a successful counter-insurgency campaign against Indonesian guerillas (often regular Indonesian Army soldiers) but it was a strain on the resources and by early 1965 60,000 British and Malaysian servicemen were deployed in the region, together with a Royal Navy surface fleet of more than eighty warships, including two aircraft-carriers. Repeated requests had been made since December 1963 to New Zealand and Australia to provide combat forces for Borneo. Prime Minister Keith Holyoake's National Party government initially refused - while it was felt that Malaysia should definitely be supported against an enemy that had clearly acted as an agrressor, the government did not wish to see New Zealand embroiled in a major war with Indonesia. Indonesia is New Zealand's closest Asian neighbour and there was a fear of spoiling future relations. In refusing, the government argued that present British and Malaysian forces were sufficient to contain the insurgency. In 1964 Sukarno decided to intensify the Confrontation by extending military operations to the Malay Peninsula. When 98 Indonesian paratroopers landed in Johore in September, the 1st Battalion of Royal New Zealand Infantry Regiment was one of the only Commonwealth units in the region and with the New Zealand government's permission hunted down the infiltrators. The following month, 52 soldiers landed in Pontian on the Johore-Malacca border and were also captured by New Zealand soldiers.

A change in New Zealand policy came as Sukarno increased the flow of Indonesian insurgents into Borneo and British military resources were stretched to almost breaking point. The New Zealand government could no longer deny the genuine appeals for assistance and the first New Zealand deployment was made to fight the insurgency - a Special Air Service detachment and the 1st Battalion of the Royal New Zealand Infantry Regiment, along with former Royal Navy minesweepers HMNZS Hickleton and Santon and the frigate HMNZS Taranaki. The SAS detachment, and its later replacement, took part in Operation Claret alongside British and Australian SAS soldiers. The 1st Batallion did not see actioin until May 1965, when it relieved a Gurkha battalion in Sarawak, where it was involved in series of skirmishes. The battalion was relieved in October 1965 and was not to see further combat - when it returned to Borneo in May 1966, Confrontation was essentially over. Towards the end of 1965, General Suharto came to power in Indonesia, following a coup d'état. Due to this domestic conflict, Indonesian interest in pursuing the war with Malaysia declined, and combat eased. On May 28 1966 at a conference in Bangkok, the Malaysian and Indonesian governments declared the conflict was over. Violence ended in June, and a peace treaty was signed on August 11 and ratified two days later.

Vietnam War 1964-75

Further information: [[:Vietnam War, Tet Offensive]]

The Vietnam War would prove to be a highly controversial conflict for New Zealand, sparking wide-spread protest at home organised by anti-Vietnam War movements modelled on their American counterparts. This conflict was also the first in which New Zealand did not fight alongside the United Kingdom, instead following the loyalties of the ANZUS Pact.

Initial contributions

New Zealand's initial response was carefully considered and characterised by Prime Minister Keith Holyoake's cautiousness towards the entire Vietnam question. While it was recognised that New Zealand should support Vietnam, as Holyoake simply put it;

"Whose will is to prevail in South Vietnam the imposed will of the North Vietnamese communists and their agents, or the freely expressed will of the people of South Vietnam?"^[3]

the government preferred minimal involvement, with other South East Asian deployments already having a strain on the New Zealand armed forces. From 1961, New Zealand came under pressure from the United States of America to contribute military and economic assistance to South Vietnam, but refused. In 1962, Australia sent advisors, as the United States had, but again New Zealand refused to make a similar contribution. Instead, a detachment of Royal New Zealand Engineers and a surgical team was sent to Vietnam, the former consisting of two officers and 20 other ranks. The Engineers were sent to the Southern Republic in a non-combatant capacity to undertake reconstruction tasks in and around the town of Thu Do Mot. At the same time a small administrative headquarters was established in Saigon. These engineers would be withdrawn in 1965. The surgical team was made up of seven men and would eventually grow to sixteen, and remained in the country until 1975. The team worked for civilians at the Binh Dinh Province Hospital, in Dong Song, an overcrowded, and dirty facility almost completely lacking equipment and bedding. This contingent was despatched in June 1964.

New Zealand non-military economic assistance would continue from 1966 onwards and averaged at US$347,500 annually. This funding went to several mobile health teams to support refugee camps, the training of village vocational experts, to medical and teaching equipment for Hue University, equipment for a technical high school and a contribution toward the construction of a science building at the University of Saigon. Private civilian funding was also donated for 80 Vietnamese students to take scholarships in New Zealand.

Military assistance

Members of 161 Battery, Royal New Zealand Artillery, carry out a fire mission

American pressure continued for New Zealand to contribute military assistance, as the United States would be deploying combat units (as opposed to merely advisors) itself soon, as would Australia. Holyoake justified New Zealand's lack of assistance by pointing to its military contribution to the Indonesia-Malaysian Confrontation, but eventually the government decided to contribute. It was seen as in the nation's best interests to do so - failure to contribute even a token force to the effort in Vietnam would have undermined New Zealand's position in ANZUS and could have had an adverse effect on the alliance itself. New Zealand had also established its post-Second World War security agenda around countering communism in South-East Asia and of sustaining a strategy of forward defence, and so needed to be seen to be acting upon these principles. On 27 May 1965 Holyooake, announced the government's decision to send 161 Battery, Royal New Zealand Artillery to South Vietnam in a combat role. The Engineers were replaced by the Battery in July 1965, which comprised of nine officers and 101 other ranks and four 105mm L5 pack howitzers (later increased to six, and in 1967 replaced with 105mm M2A2 howitzers). 161 Battery was initially under command of the United States Army's 173rd Airborne Brigade based at Bien Hoa near Saigon, but would later serve with Royal Australian Artillery field regiments when it was reassigned to the 1st Australian Task Force at Nui Dat, in Phuoc Tuy Province east of Saigon in June 1966. The gunners were noted for their key role in assisting the Australian 6th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment, during the important action at Xa Long Tan, in which 18 Australians were killed holding off a regimental sized enemy force in August 1966. The Battery left Vietnam in May 1971 after providing virtually continuous fire support usually in support of Australian and New Zealand infantry units for six years, with 750 men having served with the Battery since its deployment.

In 1966, when Confrontation came to an end and Australia decided to expand the 1st Australian Task Force, New Zealand came under pressure to increase its commitment and did so. In May 1967, a 182-strong rifle company, (Victor One Company) was deployed to Vietnam from the 1st Battalion of the Royal New Zealand Infantry Regiment in Malaysia. In December Victor One was joined by Whisky One Company, also from the 1st Battalion, and they were placed under the 1st Australian Task Force's command, as part of the Royal Australian Regiment's 2nd Battalion. In March 1968 they were integrated - forming the 2RAR/NZ (ANZAC) Battalion, with New Zealand personnel assuming various positions in the battalion, including that of second in command. The rifle companies were deployed on infantry operations in Phuoc Tuy Province and were replaced several times, usually after a 12-month tour of duty. Whiskey Three Company was withdrawn without replacement in November 1970 and Victor Six Company was withdrawn without replacement in December 1971.

File:New Zealand forces with Viet Cong prisoners during the Vietnam War.jpg

New Zealand forces with Viet Cong prisoners

New Zealand's military presence in South Vietnam was also increased in April 1967 with the arrival of the The 1st New Zealand Services Medical Team was, a 19-strong tri-service detachment with the role of providing medical and surgical assistance to South Vietnamese civilians and developing local knowledge in this field. The New Zealanders relieved a United States Army medical team at Bong Son in Binh Dinh province. They also treated military casualties who were brought to the Bong Son Dispensary, including Army of the Republic of Vietnam personnel and Viet Cong prisoners. In June 1969 the team moved to the new 100-bed Bong Son Impact Hospital. The average bed-state was 92 and approximately 46,000 outpatients (mostly civilians) were treated annually before the team's withdrawal in December 1971. In 1967 also, a Royal New Zealand Air Force pilot was seconded to the Royal Australian Air Force's No. 9 Squadron, which was flying UH-1 Iroquois helicopters as troop transports. Two more RNZAF pilots joined No. 9 Squadron in 1968 and from December 1968 two forward air controllers served with the Seventh Air Force, United States Air Force.

In November 1968, New Zealand's contribution to the 1st Australian Task Force was increased by the deployment of 4 Troop, New Zealand Special Air Service, comprising an officer and 25 other ranks. The arrival of this Troop raised New Zealand's deployment to Vietnam to its peak - 543 men. The Troop was attached to the Australian SAS Squadron at Nui Dat and carried out long-range reconnaissance and the ambushing of enemy supply routes until being withdrawn in February 1971, having mounted 155 patrols during its deloyment. As American focus shifted to President Richard Nixon's 'Vietnamization' - a policy of slow disengagement from the war, by gradually building up the Army of the Republic of Vietnam so that it could fight the war on its own, New Zealand dispatched the 2nd New Zealand Army Training Team Vietnam in January 1971. Numbering 25 men, it assisted the United States Army Training Team in Chi Lang. In February 1972 a second training team, 18 strong (including two Royal New Zealand Navy personnel), was deployed to Vietnam and wa based at Dong Ba Thin, near Cam Ranh Bay. It assisted with the training of Cambodian infantry battalions. This team also provided first aid instruction and specialist medical instruction at Dong Ba Thin's 50-bed hospital.

Withdrawal

In line with reductions in American and Australian strength in Vietnam, New Zealand began the gradual withdrawal of its combat forces as the training teams were arriving. Prime Minister Holyoake said in 1971 that New Zealand's combat forces would be withdrawn by "about the end of this year," and they were - Whiskey Three Company went in November 1970, the SAS Troop and 161 Battery followed in February and May 1971 respectively, and Victor Six Company and the tri-service medical team left with the 1st Australian Task Force in December 1971, ending New Zealand's combat involvement in the Vietnam War. One of the first acts of Prime Minister Norman Kirk's Labour Paty government (elected in December 1972) was to withdraw both training teams and and the New Zealand headquarters in Saigon. By then, a total of 3890 New Zealand military personnel (volunteers) had served in Vietnam, berween June 1964 and December 1972. Thirty-seven of them (36 Army and 1 RNZAF) were killed and 187 wounded.

Protest

Although New Zealand's involvement in the war was very limited compared to the contributions of some its allies, it still triggered a large anti-Vietnam War movement at home. New Zealand protests were similar to those in the United States - criticising the policies of the United States government and challenging seriously for the first time New Zealand's alliance-based security, calling for a more 'independent' foreign policy which was not submissive to that of the United States and denying that communism posed any real threat to New Zealand. Campaigns were also waged on moral grounds ranging from pacifist convictions to objections to the weapons being used to fight the war. In the earl 1970s, anti-Vietnam war groups organised 'mobilisations', when thousands marched in protest against the war in all the country's major centres. While Prime Minister Holyoake and his government had their own misgivings about the viability of the war, they were consistent in their public belief that they were maintaining both New Zealand's foreign policy principles and treaty-bound obligations. Despite popular sentiment apparently against the conflict, especially in its final years, Holyoake's National Party was reelected into government twice during the course of the war.

Agent Orange

Like veterans from many of the other allied nations, as well as Vietnamese civilians, New Zealand veterans of the Vietnam War claimed that they (as well as their children and grandchildren) had suffered serious harm as a result of exposure to Agent Orange - the code name for a powerful herbicide and defoliant used by the U.S. military in its Herbicidal Warfare program during the conflict. In 1984, Agent Orange manufacturers paid New Zealand, Australian and Canadian veterans in an out-of-court settlement ^[4], and in 2004 Prime Minister Helen Clark's government apologised to Vietnam War veterans who were exposed to Agent Orange or other toxic defoliants^[5], following a health select committee's inquiry into the use of Agent Orange on New Zealand servicemen and its effects^[6].

Protesting statistics • 1967: 21 arrests during an Auckland protest against the visit of South Vietnam’s Premier, Air Vice-Marshal Ky. • 1967: A big fight between police and protestors outside the home of the American consul at Partitai Drive in Auckland • 1969: Flour bombs, paint and eggs thrown in protest over a visit of a high ranking United States politician • 1969: Fire crackers thrown at an election meeting addressed by the Prime Minister with 30 arrests. • 1970: 200 police control a riot outside the hotel of the United States Vice president.

Armilla patrol 1982-83

The Royal New Zealand Navy's HMNZS Canterbury and Waikato joined the Armilla Patrol - the Royal Navy's permanent presence in the Persian Gulf in 1982. They spent two years in the Gulf, monitoring merchant shipping belligerent activities during the Iran-Iraq War.

Gulf War 1990-91

Further information: [[:Gulf War]]

When the Gulf War broke out, as a result of Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, New Zealand joined the 34-nation United States-led coalition. When military action was taken against Iraq in 1991, New Zealand contributed three Royal New Zealand Air Force C-130 Hercules transport aircraft and a tri-service medical team to assist the coalition forces. The war ended with a peace deal after a decisive victory for the coalition forces, which drove Iraqi forces out of Kuwait with minimal coalition deaths.

Somalian Civil War 1992-94

Further information: [[:History of Somalia#Somali Civil War|History of Somalia § Somali Civil War]]

In 1991, the northern portion of Somalia declared its independence as Somaliland. UN Security Council Resolution 794 was unanimously passed on December 3, 1992, which approved a coalition of United Nations peacekeepers led by the United States to form UNITAF, tasked with ensuring humanitarian aid being distributed and peace being established in Somalia. The UN humanitarian troops landed in 1993 and started a two-year effort (primarily in the south) to alleviate famine conditions. New Zealand was part of this coalition and provided an army supply detachment, Royal New Zealand Air Force transport aircraft and staff officers. The UN withdrew on March 3 1995, having suffered significant casualties - order in Somalia still has not been restored.

Haiti 1994-95

New Zealand provided military observers for service in Haiti during the United Nation mission.

Kuwait 1998

Further information: [[:Iraq disarmament crisis timeline 1997-2000]]

In 1998, the Iraqi disarmament situation escalated dramatically. A Special Air Service detachment was deployed to Kuwait joined by a Australian Special Air Service Regiment squadron, as part of the US-led Operation Desert Thunder. While this crisis was resolved peacefully, if military action had been taken the NZSAS role would have been that of rescuing the crews of aircraft shot down by Iraqi air defences.

East Timor 1999-2003

Further information: [[:History of East Timor#Towards independence|History of East Timor § Towards independence]]

During the 1990s, Indonesia came under increasing international pressure to grant independence to East Timor, which grew to such levels that in March 1999 the Indonesian government decided to hold a referendum about the future of East Timor. In April violence started - pro-Indonesia militia, numbering up to 30,000 people total, armed themselves with machetes and rifles and used violence to intimidate Timorese voters to oppose independence. The United Nations dispatched 280 police officers and 50 military liaison officers to oversee voter registration and the ballot itself in June, and violence continued right up until the polling itself on August 30. The result was announced on September 3 - a clear majority 78.5% of voters voted in favour of independence from Indonesia. Directly after this, Indonesian-backed paramilitaries as well as Indonesian soldiers carried out a campaign of violence and terrorism in retaliation. Activists in Portugal, Australia, the United States, and elsewhere pressured their governments to take action, with United States President Bill Clinton eventually threatening Indonesia, in dire economic straits already, with the withdrawal of IMF loans. The Indonesian government consented to withdraw its troops and allow a multinational force into Timor to stablilize the area - with Security Council Resolution 1264 the United Nations created INTERFET (International Force for East Timor) led by Major-General Peter Cosgrove of the Australian Army. INTERFET was comprised of contributions from 17 nations, about 9,900 in total. At it's peak, the New Zealand Defence Force had 1,100 personnel in East Timor - New Zealand's largest overseas military deployment since the Korean War.

File:Wn04009730.jpg

A Royal New Zealand Air Force medic assisting an East Timorese civilian

On September 13 New Zealand dispatched its first contribution to the UN effort - the Royal New Zealand Navy's HMNZS Endeavour, a tanker loaded with helicopter fuels and supplies. A day later the Anzac class frigate HMNZS Te Kaha joined vessels from other UN countries patrolling off the coast of Dili, and supported the lnadings of INTERFER troops. HMNZS Canterbury joined Te Kaha later, and two private vessels (MV Edisongracht and MV Edamgracht) were chartered to transport New Zealand Defence Force equipment. On September 17 Prime Minister Shipley announced New Zealand's further initial contribution of a Company Group of 420 soldiers, as well as 265 navy and air personnel, whose primary role would be to keep the East Timorese people safe from the militia. The Army contribution soon grew to a Battalion Group of 830 personnel - six Battalion Groups were deployed, one at a time on 6 month rotations, and a total of 3,200 New Zealand Regular and Territorial Force soldiers served in East Timor with these. The New Zealand personnel were based at the town of Suai, from where the Battalion Group, New Zealand Special Air Service personnel and six UH-1 Iroquois helicopters of No. 3 Squadron carried out patrols, observing and following the militia. Two Royal New Zealand Air Force C-130 Hercules aircraft and a chartered Boeing 747 flew supplies to Suai from New Zealand and Australia. New Zealand Defence Force personnel were responsible for a 1,700 square kilometre south-western area of operations, a rugged area with poor infrastructure. This included portion of the border with West Timor and from Indonesia there were sporadic cross-border raids against INTERFET/UNTAET troops. In addition to their operations against militia, the New Zealand troops were also involved in construction of roads and schools, water supplies and other infrastructural assistance. English lessons and medical aid were also provided.

On February 28, 2000, INTERFET handed over command of military operations to the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor. Elections were held in late 2001 for a constituent assembly to draft a constitution, a task finished in February 2002. East Timor became formally independent on May 20, 2002 when Xanana Gusmão was sworn in as the country's President and the UN handed control over to the East Timorese government, now a recognised sovereign state and the peacekeepers were transferred to the United Nations Mission of Support to East Timor. New Zealand Defence Force personnel were completely withdrawn by November 2002, though some officers remained behind and four are still present training the East Timorese military. Four New Zealand peacekeepers were killed on operations in East Timor.

Solomon Islands 2000-current

Further information: [[:History of the Solomon Islands#Civil war and the Regional Assistance Mission to the Solomon Islands|History of the Solomon Islands § Civil war and the Regional Assistance Mission to the Solomon Islands]]

In early 1999 long-simmering tensions between the Solomon Islands' local Gwale people on Guadalcanal and more recent migrants from the neighbouring island of Malaita, erupted into a civil war. The Isatabu Freedom Movement (IFM), began terrorising Malaitans in the rural areas of the island, to make them leave their homes and the Malaita Eagle Force (MEF) was formed in response to uphold Malaitan interests. The MEF seized the parliament by force on June 5 and Prime Minister Bartholomew Ulufa’alu was forced to step down. Parliament elected Manasseh Sogavare in his place by a narrow margin on the 30th, whose corrupt government only worsened the economic situation and saw the further deterioration of law and order. He was replaced in December 2001 by Allan Kemakeza.

File:Mc04042336.jpg

New Zealand Chief of Defence Force, Air Marshal Bruce Ferguson watching the closing ceremony and parade with CDFs from Australia, Tonga, Fiji and Papua New Guinea

In July, 2003 the Governor-General of the Solomon Islands John Lapli issued an official request for international help, which was subsequently endorsed by a unanimous vote of the parliament - the latter to provide the international force with greater powers and resolve some legal ambiguities. On July 6, in response a proposal was made to send 300 police and 2,000 troops from New Zealand, Australia, Fiji, Tonga and Papua New Guinea and later that month parliament voted unamimously in favour of the proposed intervention. The international force gathered at Townsville, Australia, and entered the Solomon Islands in Ausgust as the Regional Assistance Mission to the Solomon Islands (RAMSI), also known as Operation Helpem Fren, led by the Australian Federal Police. RAMSI, at its peak, consisted of over 2000 police, military and civilian personnel from New Zealand, Australia, Fiji, Tonga and Papua New Guinea and 20 other Pacific nations. RAMSI acted as an interim police force and has been successful in improving the country's overall security conditions, including brokering the surrender of a notorious warlord, Harold Keke.

File:IriquoisHenderson.jpg

Royal New Zealand Air Force UH-1 Iroquois helicopters at Henderson Airfield

The New Zealand Defence Forces’s initial contribution was a detachment of four UH-1 Iroquois helicopters and 65 personnel to support them, 12 engineers and 28 support and medical staff. On August 25, a platoon the Royal New Zealand Infantry Regiment joined the mission bringing the number of New Zealand personnel to about 230. The platoon was on a three-month rotation and four rotations were made before RAMSI was scaled down in July, 2004, as stablility had gradually been restored to the country.

The Regional Assistance Mission to the Solomon Islands is now primarily a police force - New Zealand, Australia, Fiji, Papua New Guinea, and Tonga are rotating responsibility for a small military contribution and it is currently New Zealand's turn, with a platoon of 33 personnel in the Solomon Islands, which will leave on July 31 2006. 35 New Zealand Police officers are also there with counterparts from other RAMSI contributors as part of the 246-strong Participating Police Force who work with and provide training for the Royal Solomon Islands Police.

Afghanistan 2001-current

Further information: [[:Operation Enduring Freedom, Operation Anaconda, International Security Assistance Force]]

In September, 2001, in the wake of the September 11, 2001 attacks, the United States of America threatened Afghanistan's Taliban government with retributive attacks for harbouring al-Qaeda leaders and fighters and demanded the handover of all al-Qaeda leaders (including Osama bin Laden) and the closure and inspection of all "terrorist training camp[s]". The demands were not met and shortly afterward, the United States, aided by the United Kingdom and supported by a coalition of other countries including the NATO alliance, initiated military action against the Taliban. The stated intent was to remove the Taliban from power because of their refusal to hand over Osama bin Laden for his involvement in the September 11 attacks, and in retaliation for the Taliban's aid to him. In December, 2001 New Zealand took contributed 50 Special Air Service personnel to the United States invasion of Afghanistan. In March 2002 the New Zealand SAS took part in Operation Anaconda against about 500 to 1000 al-Qaeda and Taliban forces in the Shahi-Kot Valley and Arma Mountains southeast of Zorma, Afghanistan.

File:RNZAF Hercules over base, Afghanistan.jpg

A Royal New Zealand Air Force C-130 Hercules flying over the New Zealand base in the Bamian Province of Afghanistan

In the aftermath of the invasion, New Zealand Defence Force staff officers have been attached to the Coalition Joint Task Force Headquarters since 2002 and two Royal New Zealand Air Force C-130 Hercules aircraft and New Zealand Army personnel (including SAS troops) are currently in Afghanistan working as part of the International Security Assistance Force. A 122-strong triservice Provincial Reconstruction Team of 122 personnel has been located in Bamyan Province since 2003. Their role focuses on "creating a secure environment for the provision of development assistance and assists security sector reform, local government, disarmament and demobilisation processes."^[7] This includes reconstruction work on roads and bridges, construction of district police stations and provision of police vehicles, demining, destructing of ammuntion and arms caches and seizing and destroying illegal drugs, among other things. Two New Zealand Army non-commissioned officers are currently part of the United Kingdom Afghan National Army Training Team, training the Afghan National Army, and two New Zealand Police officers are doing likewise with the Afghan police in Bamyan.

Iraq 2003-current

Further information: [[:Iraq War, Post Invasion Iraq]]

File:NZ engineers busy at work on the Al Tannumah Bridge, Basra, Iraq.jpg

NZ forces in Iraq

The New Zealand government opposed and officially condemned the 2003 Invasion of Iraq by the United States-led "Coalition of the Willing" and did not contribute any combat forces. In October, 2003 61 New Zealand Defence Force personnel were deployed (consistent with United Nations Security Council Resolution 1483) to Iraq as a Light Engineer Group to assist in post-war reconstruction and provision of humanitarian aid. The four staff officers, 40 engineers and 16 logistical support staff came from the New Zealand Army and Royal New Zealand Navy and were deployed to Basra in Southeast Iraq where they worked alongside (and were under the command of) of British engineers. Their tasks included work on hospitals, health clinics, schools, police stations, law courts, municipal and government buildings, restoring electricity, the rebuilding of bridges and water pipelines. The engineers returned home in October, 2004 and New Zealand is still represented in Iraq by liaison and staff officers working with coalition forces.

East Timor

Further information: [[:2006 East Timor crisis]]

File:NZ Solider Dili.jpg

A New Zealand soldier outside the country's embassy in Dili

On 26 May 2006 New Zealand deployed 42 troops, with a second contingent of 120 troops leaving Christchurch on 27 May, en route to Townsville, Queensland Australia before being sent to East Timor.

See also

• Military of New Zealand
• Participants in World War II
• List of New Zealander Victoria Cross recipients
• List of New Zealand divisions in World War II

References

• "War and Society". New Zealand's history online.
• "A History of the New Zealand Army, 1840 to 1990s". A History of the New Zealand Army, 1840 to 1990s.
• "Australian & New Zealand Military History from 1788". Australian & New Zealand Military History from 1788.
• John Crawford (1999). "New Zealand and the Boer War". New Zealand Defence Quarterly.
• Wright, Matthew (2005). Western Front : the New Zealand Division in the First World War 1916-18. Auckland: Reed. ISBN 0790009900. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• "WARS – FIRST WORLD WAR, 1914–18". An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand, edited by A. H. McLintock.
• "New Zealand in the First World War". New Zealand and the Commonwealth War Graves Commission.
• "NZ Forces". The AIF & NZEF in the Great War.
• "ROYAL NEW ZEALAND FORCES". The Korean War.
• ^ Larsen, Lieutenant General Stanley Robert (1985). Allied Participation in Vietnam. Washington D.C.: Department of the Army. LCC 74-28217. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Subritzky, Michael (1995). The Vietnam Scrapbook The Second ANZAC Adventure. Blenheim: Three Feathers. ISBN 0958348405. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• ^ "Korea orders Agent Orange payments". Mercury News. January 26 2006. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
• ^ "Government apology for Vietnam War veterans". New Zealand Herald. December 15 2004. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
• ^ Health Committee (2004). "Inquiry into the exposure of New Zealand defence personnel to Agent Orange and other defoliant chemicals during the Vietnam War and any health effects of that exposure, and transcripts of evidence" (PDF). {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
• "East Timor". New Zealand Army Overseas.
• "East Timor". New Zealand Defence Force: Deployments.
• "East Timor". Riots, Rebellion, Gunboats and Peace Keepers.
• "Timor Leste". New Zealand Defence Force: Deployments.
• Controller and Auditor-General (2001). "New Zealand Defence Force: Deployment to East Timor" (PDF). {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
• "NZ Commitment To Timor To Become Battalion". Scoop. September 30 1999. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
• "Solomon Islands". New Zealand Army Overseas.
• "Solomon Islands". New Zealand Police: Overseas Assistance.
• "NZ contribution to Solomon Islands to continue" (Press release). New Zealand Defence Force. July 6 2004. {{cite press release}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
• "Ongoing assistance to Solomon Islands" (Press release). New Zealand Defence Force. August 5 2004. {{cite press release}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
• "Afghanistan". New Zealand Defence Force: Deployments.
• ^ "Goff positive about Afghanistan contribution" (Press release). New Zealand Defence Force. February 1 2006. {{cite press release}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
• "Iraq - UNMOVIC". New Zealand Army Overseas.
• RNZ (May 27 2006). "More troops as Dili violence escalates". Television New Zealand. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)</ref>

External links

• NZhistory.net.nz - war and society
• Official History of New Zealand in the Second World War
• WW2 day by day
• New Zealand Fighter Pilots Museum
• New Zealand Victoria Cross winners
• New Zealand in the Second World War