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==Energy drinks==
==Energy drinks==
Taurine in regularly used as an ingredient in [[energy drinks]], with many containing 1000mg per serving,<ref>rockstar69.com [http://www.rockstar69.com/productIngredients.php?pdt=1 Original Rockstar Ingredients]</ref> and some as much as 1,420 mg.<ref> "Nutritional Information" Red Bull can</ref> A 2003 study by the European Food Safety Authority found no adverse affects for up to 1,000 mg of Taurine per kilogram of bodyweight per day, however this was in regards to Taurine alone, noting they did not compare the effects of Taurine when combined with the other ingredients in energy drinks.<ref>[http://www.efsa.europa.eu/EFSA/efsa_locale-1178620753812_1211902328128.htm EFSA adopts opinion on two ingredients commonly used in some energy drinks] efsa.europa.eu/</ref>
Taurine in regularly used as an ingredient in [[energy drinks]], with many containing 1000mg per serving,<ref>rockstar69.com [http://www.rockstar69.com/productIngredients.php?pdt=1 Original Rockstar Ingredients]</ref> and some as much as 1,420 mg.<ref> "Nutritional Information" Red Bull can</ref> A 2003 study by the European Food Safety Authority found no adverse effects for up to 1,000 mg of Taurine per kilogram of bodyweight per day; however this was in regards to Taurine alone, noting they did not compare the effects of Taurine when combined with the other ingredients in energy drinks.<ref>[http://www.efsa.europa.eu/EFSA/efsa_locale-1178620753812_1211902328128.htm EFSA adopts opinion on two ingredients commonly used in some energy drinks] efsa.europa.eu/</ref>


A review published in 2008 found no documented reports of negative health effects associated with the amount of taurine used in energy drinks, concluding that "The amounts of guarana, taurine, and ginseng found in popular energy drinks are far below the amounts expected to deliver either therapeutic benefits or adverse events".<ref>{{cite paper|title=Safety issues associated with commercially available energy drinks |publisher= |date= |accessdate=2009-06-22 | pmid = 18595815 }}</ref>
A review published in 2008 found no documented reports of negative health effects associated with the amount of taurine used in energy drinks, concluding that "The amounts of guarana, taurine, and ginseng found in popular energy drinks are far below the amounts expected to deliver either therapeutic benefits or adverse events".<ref>{{cite paper|title=Safety issues associated with commercially available energy drinks |publisher= |date= |accessdate=2009-06-22 | pmid = 18595815 }}</ref>

Revision as of 01:02, 7 February 2010

Taurine
Names
IUPAC name
2-aminoethanesulfonic acid
Other names
tauric acid
Identifiers
3D model (JSmol)
ChemSpider
ECHA InfoCard 100.003.168 Edit this at Wikidata
  • NCCS(=O)(O)=O
Properties
C2H7NO3S
Molar mass 125.14 g/mol
Density 1.734 g/cm3 (at −173.15 °C)
Melting point 305.11 °C
Acidity (pKa) <0, 9.06
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
checkY verify (what is checkY☒N ?)

Taurine, or 2-aminoethanesulfonic acid, is an organic acid. It is also a major constituent of bile and can be found in the lower intestine and, in small amounts, in the tissues of many animals, including humans.[1][2] Taurine is a derivative of the sulfur-containing (sulfhydryl) amino acid cysteine. Taurine is one of the few known naturally occurring sulfonic acids.

Taurine is named after the Latin Taurus, which means bull or ox, as it was first isolated from ox bile in 1827 by German scientists Friedrich Tiedemann and Leopold Gmelin.[3] In the strict sense, it is not an amino acid, as it lacks a carboxyl group,[4] but it is often called one, even in scientific literature.[5][6][7] It does contain a sulfonate group and may be called an amino sulfonic acid. Small polypeptides have been identified which contain taurine, but to date no aminoacyl tRNA synthetase has been identified as specifically recognizing taurine and capable of incorporating it into a tRNA.[8]

Average daily consumption from food

Taurine occurs naturally in food, especially in seafood and meat. The mean daily intake from omnivore diets was determined to be around 58 mg (range from 9 to 372 mg) and to be low or negligible from a strict vegan diet. In another study, taurine intake was estimated to be generally less than 200 mg/day, even in individuals eating a high-meat diet. According to another study, taurine consumption was estimated to vary between 40 to 400 mg/day. [9]

Biosynthesis

Mammalian taurine synthesis occurs in the pancreas via the cysteine sulfinic acid pathway. In this pathway, the sulfhydryl group of cysteine is first oxidized to cysteine sulfinic acid by the enzyme cysteine dioxygenase. Cysteine sulfinic acid, in turn, is decarboxylated by sulfinoalanine decarboxylase to form hypotaurine. It is unclear whether hypotaurine is then spontaneously or enzymatically oxidized to yield taurine.

Taurine is naturally produced in the testicles of many mammals. Urban legends surrounding the source of taurine have included bull urine extract and bull semen.[10] While it's true that taurine is found in both sources, taurine in the pharmaceutical or food industry is chemically synthesized (see below).

Health Benefits

Despite being present in many energy foods, taurine has not been proven to be energy-giving. A study of mice hereditarily unable to transport taurine suggests that it is needed for proper maintenance and functioning of skeletal muscles.[11] In addition, it has been shown to be effective in removing fatty liver deposits in rats, preventing liver disease, and reducing cirrhosis in tested animals.[12][13] There is also evidence that taurine is beneficial for adult human blood pressure and possibly, the alleviation of other cardiovascular ailments (in humans suffering essential hypertension, taurine supplementation resulted in measurable decreases in blood pressure).[14]

It is believed that prematurely born infants lack the enzymes needed to convert cystathionine to cysteine and may, therefore, become deficient in taurine. Thus, taurine has been added to many infant formulas as a measure of prudence, since the early 1980s. However, this practice has never been rigorously studied, and as such it has yet to be proven to be necessary, or even beneficial.[15]

Taurine is also used in some contact lens solutions.[16]

Toxicity

Taurine is involved in a number of crucial physiological processes. However, the role of taurine in these processes is not clearly understood and the influence of high taurine doses on these processes is uncertain. A substantial increase in the plasma concentration of growth hormone was reported in some epileptic patients during taurine tolerance testing (oral dose of 50 mg/kg bw/day), suggesting a potential to stimulate the hypothalamus and to modify neuroendocrine function. There is an indication that taurine (2 g/day) has some function in the maintenance and possibly in the induction of psoriasis. It may also be necessary to take into consideration that absorption of taurine from beverages may be more rapid than from foods.[9]

Energy drinks

Taurine in regularly used as an ingredient in energy drinks, with many containing 1000mg per serving,[17] and some as much as 1,420 mg.[18] A 2003 study by the European Food Safety Authority found no adverse effects for up to 1,000 mg of Taurine per kilogram of bodyweight per day; however this was in regards to Taurine alone, noting they did not compare the effects of Taurine when combined with the other ingredients in energy drinks.[19]

A review published in 2008 found no documented reports of negative health effects associated with the amount of taurine used in energy drinks, concluding that "The amounts of guarana, taurine, and ginseng found in popular energy drinks are far below the amounts expected to deliver either therapeutic benefits or adverse events".[20]

Physiological functions

Taurine is conjugated via its amino terminal group with chenodeoxycholic acid and cholic acid to form the bile salts sodium taurochenodeoxycholate and sodium taurocholate. The low pKa [21] of taurine's sulfonic acid group ensures that this moiety is negatively charged in the pH ranges normally found in the intestinal tract and, thus, improves the surfactant properties of the cholic acid conjugate. Taurine crosses the blood-brain barrier[22][23][24] and has been implicated in a wide array of physiological phenomena including inhibitory neurotransmission,[25] long-term potentiation in the striatum/hippocampus,[26] membrane stabilization,[27] feedback inhibition of neutrophil/macrophage respiratory burst, adipose tissue regulation and possible prevention of obesity,[28][29] calcium homeostasis,[30] recovery from osmotic shock,[31] protection against glutamate excitotoxicity[32] and prevention of epileptic seizures.[33] It also acts as an antioxidant and protects against toxicity of various substances (such as lead and cadmium).[34][35][36][37] Additionally, supplementation with taurine has been shown to prevent oxidative stress induced by exercise.[38] In a 2008 study, taurine has been shown to reduce the secretion of apolipoprotein B100 and lipids in HepG2 cells.[39] High concentrations of serum lipids and apolipoprotein B100 (essential structural component of VLDL and LDL) are major risk factors of atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease. Hence, it is possible that taurine supplementation is beneficial for the prevention of these diseases. In a 2003 study, Zhang et al. have demonstrated the hypocholesterolemic (blood cholesterol-lowering) effect of dietary taurine in young overweight adults. Furthermore, they reported that body weight also decreased significantly in the taurine supplemented group.[40] These findings are consistent with animal studies.[41] Taurine has also been shown to help people with congestive heart failure by increasing the force and effectiveness of heart-muscle contractions.[42]

Taurine levels were found to be significantly lower in vegans than in a control group on a standard American diet. Plasma taurine was 78% of control values, and urinary taurine 29%.[43]

In the cell, taurine keeps potassium and magnesium inside the cell while keeping excessive sodium out. In this sense, it works like a diuretic. Because it aids the movement of potassium, sodium, and calcium in and out of the cell, taurine has been used as a supplementation for epileptics as well as for people who have uncontrollable facial twitches.[44]

According to animal studies, taurine produces anxiolytic effect and may act as a modulator or anti-anxiety agent in the central nervous system.[45][46][47]

Taurine is necessary for normal skeletal muscle functioning. This was shown by a 2004 study,[48] using mice with a genetic taurine deficiency. They had a nearly complete depletion of skeletal and cardiac muscle taurine levels. These mice had a reduction of more than 80% of exercise capacity compared to control mice. The authors expressed themselves as "surprised" that cardiac function showed as largely normal (given various other studies about effects of taurine on the heart).

Studies have shown that taurine can influence (and possibly reverse) defects in nerve blood flow, motor nerve conduction velocity, and nerve sensory thresholds in experimental diabetic neuropathic rats.[49][50] In another study on diabetic rats, taurine significantly decreased weight and decreased blood sugar in these animal models.[51] Likewise, a 2008 study demonstrated that taurine administration to diabetic rabbits resulted in 30% decrease in serum glucose levels.[52] According to the single study on human subjects, daily administration of 1.5g taurine had no significant effect on insulin secretion or insulin sensitivity.[53] There is evidence that taurine may exert a beneficial effect in preventing diabetes-associated microangiopathy and tubulointerstitial injury in diabetic nephropathy.[54][55] Taurine acts as a glycation inhibitor. Studies have shown that taurine treated diabetic rats had a decrease in the formation of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) and AGEs content.[56][57]

Lately, cosmetic compositions containing taurine have been introduced, possibly due to its antifibrotic properties. It has been shown that taurine acts as a TGFB1 inhibitor.[58] It also helps to maintain skin hydration.[59]

Taurine and cats

Taurine is an essential dietary requirement for feline health, since cats cannot synthesize the compound. The absence of taurine causes a cat's retina to slowly degenerate, causing eye problems and (eventually) irreversible blindness — a condition known as central retinal degeneration (CRD),[60][61] as well as hair loss and tooth decay. It was discovered in 1987 that taurine deficiency can also cause feline dilated cardiomyopathy.[62] Unlike CRD, the condition is reversible with supplementation. Taurine is now a requirement of the Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO) and any dry or wet food product labeled approved by the AAFCO should have a minimum of 0.1% taurine in dry food and 0.2% in wet food.[63]

Taurine and bird development

Recent research has provided evidence that taurine is essential in early bird development of passerines. Many passerines, regardless of spider availability, seek out many taurine-rich spiders to feed their young particularly in their youngest stages of life. Researchers later compared the behaviors and development of birds fed a taurine-supplemented diet to a control diet and found that juveniles that were fed taurine-rich diets as neonates were much larger risk takers and more adept at spatial learning tasks.[64]

Synthesis and production

In 1993, approximately 5,000–6,000 t. of taurine were produced; 50% for pet food manufacture, 50% in pharmaceutical applications.[65] Synthetic taurine is obtained from isethionic acid (2-hydroxyethanesulfonic acid), which in turn is obtained from the reaction of ethylene oxide with aqueous sodium bisulfite.[66] Another approach is the reaction of aziridine with sulfurous acid. This leads directly to taurine.[citation needed]

See also

References

  1. ^ Bouckenooghe T, Remacle C, Reusens B (2006). "Is taurine a functional nutrient?". Curr Opin Clin Nutr. 9 (6): 728–733.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  2. ^ Brosnan J, Brosnan M (2006). "The sulfur-containing amino acids: an overview". J Nutr. 136 (6 Suppl): 1636S – 1640S. PMID 16702333.
  3. ^ F. Tiedemann, L. Gmelin (1827). "Einige neue Bestandtheile der Galle des Ochsen". Annalen der Physik. 85 (2): 326–337. doi:10.1002/andp.18270850214.
  4. ^ Carey, Francis A. (2006) [1987]. Organic Chemistry (6th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill. p. 1149. ISBN 0-07-282837-4. Amino acids are carboxylic acids that contain an amine function.
  5. ^ Stapleton, PP (1998). "Host defense--a role for the amino acid taurine?". Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition. 22 (1): 42–48. doi:10.1177/014860719802200142. PMID 9437654. Retrieved 2006-08-19. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  6. ^ Weiss, Stephen J. (1982). "Chlorination of Taurine by Human Neutrophils". Journal of Clinical Investigation. 70 (3): 598–607. doi:10.1172/JCI110652. PMID 6286728. Retrieved 2006-08-19. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  7. ^ Kirk, Kiaran (1993). "Volume-regulatory taurine release from a human heart cancer cell line". FEBS Letters. 336 (1): 153–158. doi:10.1016/0014-5793(93)81630-I. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  8. ^ Lahdesmaki, P (1987). "Biosynthesis of taurine peptides in brain cytoplasmic fraction in vitro". Int J Neuroscience. 37 (1–2): 79–84. doi:10.3109/00207458708991804.
  9. ^ a b [1], Opinion on Caffeine, Taurine and D-Glucurono - g -Lactone as constituents of so-called "energy" drinks (expressed on 21 January 1999) . | journal = Directorate-General Health and Consumers, European Commission, European Union.
  10. ^ Fitzgeraldx, Jim. "Columns: See Men Drink". bikemag.com. Retrieved 29 January 2010.
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  12. ^ M. D. J. Kerai, Catherine J. Waterfield, S. H. Kenyon, D. S. Asker, J. A. Timbrell Taurine: Protective properties against ethanol-induced hepatic steatosis and lipid peroxidation during chronic ethanol consumption in rats Amino Acids Volume 15, Numbers 1-2 / March, 1998
  13. ^ McCall, Becky (2005-12-28). "The ultimate hangover cure?". bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2008-09-01.
  14. ^ Militante, J. D. (2002). "Treatment of hypertension with oral taurine: exp0/en.2005-1007". Endocrinology. 147: 3276. doi:10.1210/en.2005-1007. PMID 16627576. Retrieved 2006-08-22. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  15. ^ Heird W.C. Taurine in neonatal nutrition—revisited. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal. Ed 89. F473-F474 2004
  16. ^ James, TJ (2004-04-01). "Ocular Health and Next Generation Solutions". Optometric Management. Retrieved 2008-01-10. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  17. ^ rockstar69.com Original Rockstar Ingredients
  18. ^ "Nutritional Information" Red Bull can
  19. ^ EFSA adopts opinion on two ingredients commonly used in some energy drinks efsa.europa.eu/
  20. ^ "Safety issues associated with commercially available energy drinks". PMID 18595815. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  21. ^ Irving CS, Hammer BE, Danyluk SS, Klein PD (1980). "13C Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Study of the Complexation of Calcium by Taurine". Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry. 13: 137–150.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  22. ^ Urquhart N, Perry TL, Hansen S, Kennedy J. Passage of taurine into adult mammalian brain. Journal of Neurochemistry 1974 May;22(5):871-2.
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  25. ^ Olive MF. Interactions between taurine and ethanol in the central nervous system. Amino Acids 2002;23(4):345-57
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  34. ^ Green TR, Fellman JH, Eicher AL, Pratt KL. Antioxidant role and subcellular location of hypotaurine and taurine in human neutrophils. Biochimica et biophysica acta 1991 Jan 23;1073(1):91-7.
  35. ^ Gürer H, Ozgünes H, Saygin E, Ercal N. Antioxidant effect of taurine against lead-induced oxidative stress. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 2001 Nov;41(4):397-402.
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  41. ^ Choi MJ, Kim JH, Chang KJ. The effect of dietary taurine supplementation on plasma and liver lipid concentrations and free amino acid concentrations in rats fed a high-cholesterol diet. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology 2006;583:235-42.
  42. ^ Congestive Heart Failure, Healthnotes, Inc, PeaceHealth, January 19, 2007
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  44. ^ Kirk J and Kirk K. Inhibition of volume-activated I- and taurine efflux from HeLa cells by P-glycoprotein blockers correlates with calmodulin inhibition. J. Biol. Chem, Nov 1994;269:29389–29394.
  45. ^ Kong WX, Chen SW, Li YL; et al. (2006). "Effects of taurine on rat behaviors in three anxiety models". Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 83 (2): 271–6. doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2006.02.007. PMID 16540157. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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  47. ^ Chen SW, Kong WX, Zhang YJ, Li YL, Mi XJ, Mu XS. Possible anxiolytic effects of taurine in the mouse elevated plus-maze. Life Sciences 2004 Aug 6;75(12):1503-11.
  48. ^ U. Warskulat, U. Flogel, C. Jacoby, H.-G. Hartwig, M. Thewissen, M. W. Merx, A. Molojavyi, B. Heller-Stilb, J. Schrader and D. Haussinger (2004). "Taurine transporter knockout depletes muscle taurine levels and results in severe skeletal muscle impairment but leaves cardiac function uncompromised". Faseb J.: 03–0496fje. doi:10.1096/fj.03-0496fje. PMID 14734644.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  49. ^ Li F, Abatan OI, Kim H, Burnett D, Larkin D, Obrosova IG, Stevens MJ (2006 June). "Taurine reverses neurological and neurovascular deficits in Zucker diabetic fatty rats". Neurobiology of Disease. 22 (3): 669–676. doi:10.1016/j.nbd.2006.01.012. PMID 16624563. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: year (link)
  50. ^ Pop-Busui R, Sullivan KA, Van Huysen C, Bayer L, Cao X, Towns R, Stevens MJ (2001 April). "Depletion of taurine in experimental diabetic neuropathy: implications for nerve metabolic, vascular, and functional deficits". Exp Neurol. 168 (2): 259–272. doi:10.1006/exnr.2000.7591. PMID 11259114. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: year (link)
  51. ^ Yutaka Nakaya, Asako Minami, Nagakatsu Harada, Sadaichi Sakamoto, Yasuharu Niwa and Masaharu Ohnaka (1 January 2000). "Taurine improves insulin sensitivity in the Otsuka Long-Evans Tokushima Fatty rat, a model of spontaneous type 2 diabetes". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 71 (1): 54–58. PMID 10617946.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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  58. ^ Collin C, Gautier B, Gaillard O, Hallegot P, Chabane S, Bastien P, Peyron M, Bouleau M, Thibaut S, Pruche F, Duranton A, Bernard BA. Protective effects of taurine on human hair follicle grown in vitro(1). International Journal of Cosmetic Science 2006 Aug;28(4):289-98.
  59. ^ Janeke G, Siefken W, Carstensen S, Springmann G, Bleck O, Steinhart H, Höger P, Wittern KP, Wenck H, Stäb F, Sauermann G, Schreiner V, Doering T. Role of taurine accumulation in keratinocyte hydration. The Journal of Investigative Dermatology 2003 Aug;121(2):354-61.
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  63. ^ AAFCO
  64. ^ Arnold, K.E. (2007). "Parental prey selection affects risk-taking behaviour and spatial learning in avian offspring" (PDF). Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 274 (1625): 2563–2569. doi:10.1098/rspb.2007.0687. Retrieved 2008-03-26. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  65. ^ Tully, Paul S. Sulfonic Acids. In Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published online 2000. doi:10.1002/0471238961.1921120620211212.a01
  66. ^ Kurt Kosswig. Sulfonic Acids, Aliphatic. in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Wiley-VCH, 2000. doi:10.1002/14356007.a25_503
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