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Some authors now refer to ''C. indica'' as the [[subspecies]] ''Cannabis sativa'' subsp. ''indica'' and ''C. ruderalis'' as the [[Variety (biology)|variety]] ''Cannabis sativa'' var. ''ruderalis'' reflecting the fact they may not be distinct enough to be classified as separate species. Several other botanical names have also been applied. [http://www.ipni.org/ipni/plantsearch?find_genus=Cannabis&query_type=by_query&back_page=plantsearch IPNI]
Some authors now refer to ''C. indica'' as the [[subspecies]] ''Cannabis sativa'' subsp. ''indica'' and ''C. ruderalis'' as the [[Variety (biology)|variety]] ''Cannabis sativa'' var. ''ruderalis'' reflecting the fact they may not be distinct enough to be classified as separate species. Several other botanical names have also been applied. [http://www.ipni.org/ipni/plantsearch?find_genus=Cannabis&query_type=by_query&back_page=plantsearch IPNI]

Cannabis is used as a food plant by the [[larva]]e of some [[Lepidoptera]] species including [[Ghost Moth]] and [[Nutmeg (moth)|The Nutmeg]].

Hemp and Marijuana:

Myths & Realities


by David P. West, Ph.D.

for the North American Industrial Hemp Council

http://www.naihc.org/hemp_information/content/hemp.mj.html



{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = ''Cannabis
| image = Marijuana.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Rosales]]
| familia = [[Cannabaceae]]
| genus = '''''Cannabis'''''
| genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
''[[Cannabis indica]]''<br/>
''[[Cannabis ruderalis]]''<br/>
''[[Cannabis sativa]]''
}}
[[Image:Greendays01.jpg|190px|thumb|''Cannabis'' field seized by authorities]]
:''This is one of several related articles about cannabis. This article deals with the biology of the genus Cannabis. ''[[Cannabis (drug)]]'' is about marijuana, hashish and related drugs. ''[[Hemp]]'' is about cultivation for non-drug uses, and the non-drug uses themselves. See also ''[[Hemp (disambiguation)]]''.''

'''Cannabis''' is a [[genus]] of [[flowering plant]] that includes one or more species. The plant is believed to have originated in the mountainous regions just north-west of the [[Himalaya]]s in [[India]], though it could also have come from [[Northern Africa]]. It is also known as '''[[hemp]]''', although this term usually refers to varieties of cannabis cultivated for non-drug use. As a [[drug]] it usually comes in the form of dried flowers[http://www.erowid.org/plants/cannabis/cannabis_basics.shtml] ([[marijuana]]), resin ([[hashish]]), or various extracts collectively referred to as [[hash oil]].

==Species==
The genus ''Cannabis'' was formerly placed with [[nettle]]s in the family [[Urticaceae]] or with [[mulberry|mulberries]] in the family [[Moraceae]], but is now considered along with [[Hop (plant)|hops]] (''Humulus'' sp.) to belong to the family [[Cannabaceae]]. All [[cannabis strains|strains]] of ''Cannabis'' can interbreed, and produce fertile offspring, which means all known ''Cannabis'' plants satisfy one criterion for a single [[species]] type called (''[[Cannabis sativa]]'' L.).<ref>[[Greg Green]]. 2005. ''The Cannabis Breeder’s Bible''. ''Green Candy Press'' 15-17</ref> However, ''Cannabis'' has shown three distinct [[landrace]] "land-race" <ref>The art of selection and breeding fine quality cannabis by DJ Short, Cannabis Culture Magazine, CC41 http://cannabisculture.com/articles/2788.html, 07 Mar, 2003 http://cannabisculture.com/articles/2788.html </ref> known as ''[[Cannabis sativa]]'', ''[[Cannabis indica]]'' and ''[[Cannabis ruderalis]]'' that are geographically isolated. Botanists, especially cannabis specialists, breeders and seed breeders, often refer to these three cannabis [[landrace]] as separate species or subspecies types <ref>Indica vs Sativa, http://www.erowid.org/plants/cannabis/cannabis_info6.shtml</ref>. Whether the different [[cannabis strains|strains]] of ''Cannabis'' constitute a single [[species]] (''[[Cannabis sativa]]'' L.) or multiple species has been a contentious issue for well over two centuries.<ref>Small, E., and A. Cronquist. 1976. A practical and natural taxonomy for Cannabis. Taxon 25: 405–435.</ref><ref>Emboden, W. A. 1981. The genus ''Cannabis'' and the correct use of taxonomic categories. ''J. Psychoactive Drugs'' 13: 15–21.</ref><ref name="schultes1980">Schultes, R. E., and A. Hofmann. 1980. ''Botany and Chemistry of Hallucinogens''. C. C. Thomas, Springfield, IL., pp. 82–116.</ref><ref>On Toadstool Soup and Legal Species of Marihuana, Ernest Small. PLANT SCIENCE BULLETIN, September 1975, A Publication of the Botanical Society of America, Inc. Vol. 21 No. 3 http://www.botany.org/PlantScienceBulletin/psb-1975-21-3.php</ref>

It is traditionally (albeit contentiously) divided into at least five [[subspecies]], ''indica/sativa'', ''pure indica'', ''pure sativa'', ''mostly sativa'' and ''mostly indica'', each found as a [[cultivar]] and a wild [[variety (biology)|variety]].<ref>[[Greg Green]]. 2005. ''The Cannabis Breeder’s Bible''. ''Green Candy Press'' 14</ref>''[[Cannabis sativa]]'' male plants show evidence of selection for traits that enhance fiber production and seed-oil (for fuel) but the female plant produce seeds (for food) and flower buds that can be used as a psychoactive substance because it has higher levels of the psychoactive delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), whereas ''[[Cannabis indica]]'' was primarily selected for drug production and has relatively higher levels of cannabidiol (CBD) and Cannabinol (CBN) than THC.
[[Image:CannabisSeeds.jpg|right|thumb|Some ''Cannabis sativa'' seeds]]
Botanists [[Richard E. Schultes]] and Loran Anderson also conducted taxonomic studies of ''Cannabis'', and concluded that sufficient evidence exists to support recognition of three species, ''Cannabis sativa'', ''Cannabis indica'' Lam., and ''[[Cannabis ruderalis]]''.<ref>Schultes, R. E., et. al. 1974. ''Cannabis'': an example of taxonomic neglect. ''Harvard University Botanical Museum Leaflets'' 23: 337–367.</ref><ref>Anderson, L. C. 1974. A study of systematic wood anatomy in ''Cannabis''. ''Harvard University Botanical Museum Leaflets'' 24: 29–36.</ref> According to their species descriptions, ''C. sativa'' is tall and laxly branched with relatively narrow leaflets, ''Cannabis indica'' is shorter, conical in shape, and has relatively wide leaflets, and ''Cannabis ruderalis'' is short, branchless, and grows wild in [[central Asia]]. This concept was embraced by cannabis afficionados who commonly distinguish narrow-leafed "sativa" drug [[cannabis strains|strains]] from wide-leafed "indica" drug [[cannabis strains|strains]].

A recent study of genetic variation in ''Cannabis'' supports recognition of ''C. sativa'' and ''C. indica'' as separate species, although the existence of a third species, ''C. ruderalis'', is less certain. This study assigned hemp (fiber/seed) landraces and feral populations from Europe, central Asia, and [[Asia Minor]] to ''C. sativa''. ''Cannabis indica'' includes both narrow-leafed drug (NLD) and wide-leafed drug (WLD) [[cannabis strains|strains]], as well as southern and eastern Asian hemp [[cannabis strains|strains]] and feral [[Himalaya]]n populations<ref>Hillig, K.W. 2005. Genetic evidence for speciation in ''Cannabis'' (Cannabaceae). ''Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution'' 52: 161-180.</ref>.

In 2005 a DNA study of the variation in ''Cannabis'' according to the DNA in their mitochondria and chloroplasts was conducted. The results showed three distinct "races" of cannabis, including the newly discovered ''[[Cannabis rasta]]''. In central Asia the THC-rich indica predominated, while in western Europe sativa was more common. In India, south-east Asia, Africa, Mexico and Jamaica the rasta variant predominated. It looks similar to the sativa subspecies, but generally contains higher levels of THC [http://www.newscientist.com/channel/being-human/drugs-alcohol/mg18725175.200 NewScientist].

Some authors now refer to ''C. indica'' as the [[subspecies]] ''Cannabis sativa'' subsp. ''indica'' and ''C. ruderalis'' as the [[Variety (biology)|variety]] ''Cannabis sativa'' var. ''ruderalis'' reflecting the fact they may not be distinct enough to be classified as separate species. Several other botanical names have also been applied. [http://www.ipni.org/ipni/plantsearch?find_genus=Cannabis&query_type=by_query&back_page=plantsearch IPNI]

This practice seems to be the result of political pressures to maintain that "all" ''Cannabis'' is designated ''Cannabis sativa'' L. for the purposes of avoiding challenges to current laws in various countries which do not recognize the differences cited in the above mentioned works of Schultes and Anderson, Hilling, and the mitochondrial study published in 2005.{fact}


Cannabis is used as a food plant by the [[larva]]e of some [[Lepidoptera]] species including [[Ghost Moth]] and [[Nutmeg (moth)|The Nutmeg]].
Cannabis is used as a food plant by the [[larva]]e of some [[Lepidoptera]] species including [[Ghost Moth]] and [[Nutmeg (moth)|The Nutmeg]].
Line 68: Line 121:


A well known Cannabis [[seed company]] has published information on the web suggesting that sex determination in Cannabis is strongly influenced by environmental conditions. It has been reported that sex can be reversed in Cannabis using chemical treatment.<ref> {{cite journal | last=Mohan Ram | first= H.Y | coauthors= R. Sett | date= 1982 | title= Induction of fertile male flowers in genetically female Cannabis sativa plants by silver nitrate and silver thiosulfate anionic complex | journal= Theor. Appl. Genet. | volume=62 | pages=369–375}}</ref> Environmental sex determination is known to occur in a variety of species.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Tanurdzic |first=M |coauthors= Banks JA | date= 2004 | title=Sex-determining mechanisms in land plants | journal= Plant Cell | volume=16 |issue= Suppl | pages = S61-71 }}</ref>
A well known Cannabis [[seed company]] has published information on the web suggesting that sex determination in Cannabis is strongly influenced by environmental conditions. It has been reported that sex can be reversed in Cannabis using chemical treatment.<ref> {{cite journal | last=Mohan Ram | first= H.Y | coauthors= R. Sett | date= 1982 | title= Induction of fertile male flowers in genetically female Cannabis sativa plants by silver nitrate and silver thiosulfate anionic complex | journal= Theor. Appl. Genet. | volume=62 | pages=369–375}}</ref> Environmental sex determination is known to occur in a variety of species.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Tanurdzic |first=M |coauthors= Banks JA | date= 2004 | title=Sex-determining mechanisms in land plants | journal= Plant Cell | volume=16 |issue= Suppl | pages = S61-71 }}</ref>

==Aspects of cannabis production and use==

* [[Medical cannabis]] discusses its use as a medication.
* [[Cannabis (drug)]] discusses its use as a recreational [[drug]].
* [[Spiritual use of cannabis]] discusses sacramental and religious use.
* [[Hemp]] discusses its uses as a source of [[housing]], [[Vegetable oil|oil]], [[food]], [[Fiber crop|fibers]], and industrial materials.

==Etymology==

The plant name '''cannabis''' is probably of [[Semitic]] origin, possibly [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]].

Hebrew קְנֵה בֹּשֶׂם '''''qěnēh bośem''''' > קַנַּבּוֹס '''''qannabbôs''''' > Greek κανναβις '''''kannabis''''' > Latin '''''cannabis''''' > English

However, the earlier [[Sumerian]] language used the word "kanubi", which means 'cane of two (sexes?)'. This is possibly the source for the Semitic usage.

The Biblical Hebrew term ''qěnēh bośem'', literally "reed of balm", probably <ref>[[Weston La Barre]]. 1980. ''Hebrew University''. ''Israel'' </ref> refers to cannabis according to some etymologists <ref>[[Sula Benet ]]. 1936. ''Institute of Anthropological Sciences''. ''Warsaw'' </ref>, but is more commonly thought to be lemon grass, calamus , or even sweet cane, due to widespread translation issues. <ref>[[Immanuel Löw]]. 1925. ''Flora der Juden''. ''1924-1934, reprinted 1967'' </ref> The Hebrew Bible mentions it in [[Exodus#Chapters 25 to 31|Exodus 30:23]] where God commands [[Moses]] to make a holy oil of [[myrrh]], [[cinnamon]], ''qěnēh bośem'' and [[cassia]] to anoint the [[Ark of the Covenant]] and the Tabernacle (and thus God's Temple in Jerusalem). Notably, this anointing oil is a special herbal formula that functions as a kind of polish and fragrance for the Ark and Tabernacle, and the Bible forbids its manufacture and use to anoint people [[Exodus#Chapters 25 to 31|(Exodus 30:31-33)]] with the exception of the Aaronic priesthood [[Exodus#Chapters 25 to 31|(Exodus 30:30)]]

Elsewhere, the Hebrew Bible simply uses "reed" ''qānēh'' as the name of a plant in four places whose context seems to mean "reed of balm" as a fragrant resin, [[Isaiah]] 43:24, [[Jeremiah]] 6:20, [[Ezekiel]] 27:19 and [[Song of Songs]] 4:14. The Hebrew name "reed of balm" comes from ''qěnēh'' (the noun construct form of ''qāneh'') means a "reed" or "cane" and ''bośem'' means "balm" or "aromatic" resin. Hebrew may have adapted the name ''qannabbôs'' from "reed of balm" ''qěnēh bośem'' as a substitute for the ambiguous name "reed".

This Biblical Hebrew term is often mistranslated as "[[sweet flag|calamus]]", also called "lemon grass" (Cymbopogon citratus) or "sweet flag" (Acorus calamus), following an ancient misunderstanding in the Greek [[Septuagint]] translation. The Hebrew Bible was written across centuries well up to the 5th Century BCE. However, centuries later, by the time the Septuagint was written around the 2nd Century BCE, the archaic Hebrew word ''qěnēh bośem'' appears to have already abbreviated into the later Hebrew form ''qannabbôs'', which is attested in Post Biblical Hebrew literature. Thus, the Septuagint did not recognize the Hebrew expression "reed of balm" and mistook it to refer to some unidentified plant. As a dynamic equivalent, the Septuagint rendered it as "calamus" (Greek ''kalamos''), which indeed is a "balmy" (scented) reed. The calamus plant was known in Greek mythology and processed into an aphrodisiac.

Unambiguous Hebrew or Aramaic references to cannabis are rare and obscure. Syriac has qanpa (a loan from kannabis) and tanuma (see the Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon.) but neither is found in the Peshitta, the Syriac Bible. Late Syriac Ahiqar texts include qanpa as "ropes of hemp" (tunbei de-qanpa). The Hebrew word qanbes, a loan word from kannabis, is used in the Mishnah as hemp [Kilaim 2:5; 5:8; 9:1,7; Negaim 11:2] in the sense of a constituent of clothing or other items.

The Scythian term ''cannabis'' probably derives from a Semitic origin as well. [[Sara Benetowa]] of the [[Institute of Anthropological Sciences]] in Warsaw is quoted in the [[Book of Grass]] as saying:

<blockquote>''The astonishing resemblance between the Semitic '''kanbos''' and the Scythian '''cannabis''' lead me to suppose that the Scythian word was of Semitic origin. These etymological discussions run parallel to arguments drawn from history. The Iranian Scythians were probably related to the Medes, who were neighbors of the Semites and could easily have assimilated the word for hemp. The Semites could also have spread the word during their migrations through Asia Minor.''</blockquote>

Likely, the name 'cannabis' was known from the Semitic merchants who sold this commodity throughtout the ancient trade routes of Southeast Asia.

Comparing the English word ''hemp'' and the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''kannabis'' shows that the word came down from the presumed [[Proto-Indo-European language]]. Words like ''kanapish'' for "hemp" occur in some [[Finno-Ugrian]] languages. It is likely that, soon after [[agriculture]] started, [[hemp]] as a cultivated plant spread widely, carrying its name with it. Source of Rus. konoplja, Pers. kanab, Lith. kanapes "hemp," and Eng. canvas and hemp.

==References==

<references />
<!-- Dead note anderson1980: Anderson, L. C. 1980. Leaf variation among ''Cannabis'' species from a controlled garden. ''Harvard University Botanical Museum Leaflets'' 28: 61–69. -->

==Further reading==
*''Cannabis: A History'' (2005) Martin Booth ISBN 0-312-32220-8

*''UNODC: World Drug Report 2006, Chapter 2: Cannnabis: Why Should We Care?'' (2006)

==External links==
{{Portal}}
* [http://ston-ed.net ston-ed.net] - a site full of information, pictures and downloads related to cannabis
* [http://variedades.cannabiscafe.net/index.php?_pantalla=en/intro.php Strain's Bible] - A list about the different cannabis strains that exist, with grower reports and photos
*[http://www.see-emc.net/ Society of Studies about Ethnobotany and the Modified States of Conciousness]

{{Cannabis resources}}

[[Category:Rosales]]
[[Category:Cannabis|*]]

[[bg:Марихуана]]
[[ca:Cànem]]
[[de:Hanf]]
[[el:Κάνναβις]]
[[es:Cannabis]]
[[eo:Kanabo]]
[[eu:Marihuana]]
[[fr:Cannabis]]
[[hr:Indijska konoplja]]
[[io:Kanabo]]
[[ilo:Cannabis]]
[[it:Cannabis]]
[[ja:大麻]]
[[no:Hamp]]
[[ug:هعندع كةندعرع]]
[[pl:Marihuana]]
[[pt:Cannabis]]
[[ru:Конопля]]
[[sr:Марихуана]]
[[vi:Cần sa]]
[[tr:Esrar]]


==Aspects of cannabis production and use==
==Aspects of cannabis production and use==

Revision as of 19:35, 28 September 2006

Cannabis
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Plantae
Division:
Magnoliophyta
Class:
Magnoliopsida
Order:
Rosales
Family:
Cannabaceae
Genus:
Cannabis

Species

Cannabis indica
Cannabis ruderalis
Cannabis sativa

File:Greendays01.jpg
Cannabis field seized by authorities
This is one of several related articles about cannabis. This article deals with the biology of the genus Cannabis. Cannabis (drug) is about marijuana, hashish and related drugs. Hemp is about cultivation for non-drug uses, and the non-drug uses themselves. See also Hemp (disambiguation).

Cannabis is a genus of flowering plant that includes one or more species. The plant is believed to have originated in the mountainous regions just north-west of the Himalayas in India, though it could also have come from Northern Africa. It is also known as hemp, although this term usually refers to varieties of cannabis cultivated for non-drug use. As a drug it usually comes in the form of dried flowers[1] (marijuana), resin (hashish), or various extracts collectively referred to as hash oil.

Species

The genus Cannabis was formerly placed with nettles in the family Urticaceae or with mulberries in the family Moraceae, but is now considered along with hops (Humulus sp.) to belong to the family Cannabaceae.

Whether the different strains of Cannabis constitute a single species (Cannabis sativa L.) or multiple species has been a contentious issue for well over two centuries.[1][2][3][4]

All strains of Cannabis can interbreed, and produce fertile offspring, which means all known Cannabis plants satisfy one criterion for a single species type called (Cannabis sativa L.).[5] However, Cannabis has shown three distinct landrace "land-race" [citation needed] known as Cannabis sativa, Cannabis indica and Cannabis ruderalis that are geographically isolated. Botanists, especially cannabis specialists, breeders and seed breeders, often refer to these three cannabis landrace as separate species or subspecies types [citation needed]. Whether the different strains of Cannabis constitute a single species (Cannabis sativa L.) or multiple species has been a contentious issue for well over two centuries.[6][7][3][8]

It is traditionally (albeit contentiously) divided into at least five subspecies, indica/sativa, pure indica, pure sativa, mostly sativa and mostly indica, each found as a cultivar and a wild variety.[9] [verification needed]

Cannabis sativa male plants show evidence of selection for traits that enhance fiber production and seed-oil (for fuel) but the female plant produce seeds (for food) and flower buds that can be used as a psychoactive substance because it has higher levels of the psychoactive delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), whereas Cannabis indica was primarily selected for drug production and has relatively higher levels of cannabidiol (CBD) and Cannabinol (CBN) than THC.

File:CannabisSeeds.jpg
Some Cannabis sativa seeds

Botanists Richard E. Schultes and Loran Anderson also conducted taxonomic studies of Cannabis, and concluded that sufficient evidence exists to support recognition of three species, Cannabis sativa, Cannabis indica Lam., and Cannabis ruderalis.[10][11] According to their species descriptions, C. sativa is tall and laxly branched with relatively narrow leaflets, Cannabis indica is shorter, conical in shape, and has relatively wide leaflets, and Cannabis ruderalis is short, branchless, and grows wild in central Asia. This concept was embraced by cannabis afficionados who commonly distinguish narrow-leafed "sativa" drug strains from wide-leafed "indica" drug strains.

A recent study of genetic variation in Cannabis supports recognition of C. sativa and C. indica as separate species, although the existence of a third species, C. ruderalis, is less certain. This study assigned hemp (fiber/seed) landraces and feral populations from Europe, central Asia, and Asia Minor to C. sativa. Cannabis indica includes both narrow-leafed drug (NLD) and wide-leafed drug (WLD) strains, as well as southern and eastern Asian hemp strains and feral Himalayan populations[12].

In 2005 a DNA study of the variation in Cannabis according to the DNA in their mitochondria and chloroplasts was conducted. The results showed three distinct "races" of cannabis, including the newly discovered Cannabis rasta. In central Asia the THC-rich indica predominated, while in western Europe sativa was more common. In India, south-east Asia, Africa, Mexico and Jamaica the rasta variant predominated. It looks similar to the sativa subspecies, but generally contains higher levels of THC NewScientist.

Some authors now refer to C. indica as the subspecies Cannabis sativa subsp. indica and C. ruderalis as the variety Cannabis sativa var. ruderalis reflecting the fact they may not be distinct enough to be classified as separate species. Several other botanical names have also been applied. IPNI

Cannabis is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including Ghost Moth and The Nutmeg.

Hemp and Marijuana:

Myths & Realities


by David P. West, Ph.D.

for the North American Industrial Hemp Council

http://www.naihc.org/hemp_information/content/hemp.mj.html


Cannabis
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Plantae
Division:
Magnoliophyta
Class:
Magnoliopsida
Order:
Rosales
Family:
Cannabaceae
Genus:
Cannabis

Species

Cannabis indica
Cannabis ruderalis
Cannabis sativa

File:Greendays01.jpg
Cannabis field seized by authorities
This is one of several related articles about cannabis. This article deals with the biology of the genus Cannabis. Cannabis (drug) is about marijuana, hashish and related drugs. Hemp is about cultivation for non-drug uses, and the non-drug uses themselves. See also Hemp (disambiguation).

Cannabis is a genus of flowering plant that includes one or more species. The plant is believed to have originated in the mountainous regions just north-west of the Himalayas in India, though it could also have come from Northern Africa. It is also known as hemp, although this term usually refers to varieties of cannabis cultivated for non-drug use. As a drug it usually comes in the form of dried flowers[2] (marijuana), resin (hashish), or various extracts collectively referred to as hash oil.

Species

The genus Cannabis was formerly placed with nettles in the family Urticaceae or with mulberries in the family Moraceae, but is now considered along with hops (Humulus sp.) to belong to the family Cannabaceae. All strains of Cannabis can interbreed, and produce fertile offspring, which means all known Cannabis plants satisfy one criterion for a single species type called (Cannabis sativa L.).[13] However, Cannabis has shown three distinct landrace "land-race" [14] known as Cannabis sativa, Cannabis indica and Cannabis ruderalis that are geographically isolated. Botanists, especially cannabis specialists, breeders and seed breeders, often refer to these three cannabis landrace as separate species or subspecies types [15]. Whether the different strains of Cannabis constitute a single species (Cannabis sativa L.) or multiple species has been a contentious issue for well over two centuries.[16][17][3][18]

It is traditionally (albeit contentiously) divided into at least five subspecies, indica/sativa, pure indica, pure sativa, mostly sativa and mostly indica, each found as a cultivar and a wild variety.[19]Cannabis sativa male plants show evidence of selection for traits that enhance fiber production and seed-oil (for fuel) but the female plant produce seeds (for food) and flower buds that can be used as a psychoactive substance because it has higher levels of the psychoactive delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), whereas Cannabis indica was primarily selected for drug production and has relatively higher levels of cannabidiol (CBD) and Cannabinol (CBN) than THC.

File:CannabisSeeds.jpg
Some Cannabis sativa seeds

Botanists Richard E. Schultes and Loran Anderson also conducted taxonomic studies of Cannabis, and concluded that sufficient evidence exists to support recognition of three species, Cannabis sativa, Cannabis indica Lam., and Cannabis ruderalis.[20][21] According to their species descriptions, C. sativa is tall and laxly branched with relatively narrow leaflets, Cannabis indica is shorter, conical in shape, and has relatively wide leaflets, and Cannabis ruderalis is short, branchless, and grows wild in central Asia. This concept was embraced by cannabis afficionados who commonly distinguish narrow-leafed "sativa" drug strains from wide-leafed "indica" drug strains.

A recent study of genetic variation in Cannabis supports recognition of C. sativa and C. indica as separate species, although the existence of a third species, C. ruderalis, is less certain. This study assigned hemp (fiber/seed) landraces and feral populations from Europe, central Asia, and Asia Minor to C. sativa. Cannabis indica includes both narrow-leafed drug (NLD) and wide-leafed drug (WLD) strains, as well as southern and eastern Asian hemp strains and feral Himalayan populations[22].

In 2005 a DNA study of the variation in Cannabis according to the DNA in their mitochondria and chloroplasts was conducted. The results showed three distinct "races" of cannabis, including the newly discovered Cannabis rasta. In central Asia the THC-rich indica predominated, while in western Europe sativa was more common. In India, south-east Asia, Africa, Mexico and Jamaica the rasta variant predominated. It looks similar to the sativa subspecies, but generally contains higher levels of THC NewScientist.

Some authors now refer to C. indica as the subspecies Cannabis sativa subsp. indica and C. ruderalis as the variety Cannabis sativa var. ruderalis reflecting the fact they may not be distinct enough to be classified as separate species. Several other botanical names have also been applied. IPNI

This practice seems to be the result of political pressures to maintain that "all" Cannabis is designated Cannabis sativa L. for the purposes of avoiding challenges to current laws in various countries which do not recognize the differences cited in the above mentioned works of Schultes and Anderson, Hilling, and the mitochondrial study published in 2005.{fact}

Cannabis is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including Ghost Moth and The Nutmeg.

Reproduction

Like all flowering plants, the reproductive structures of Cannabis are flowers. Cannabis has imperfect (or unisexual) flowers; the male (stamenate) reproductive structures are completely separate from the female (carpellate, sometimes called pistillate) structures. [23]

Some populations have been described as primarily monoecious, while other populations have been described as primarily dioecious. Many populations have been described as sexually labile. Most varieties of Cannabis are Short day plants, with the exception of C. ruderalis which is commonly described as "auto-flowering" and may be either day-neutral or require long days.

All varieties of cannabis are wind-pollinated.

Cannabis has been described as having one of the most complicated mechanisms of sex determination in the plant kingdom.[24] Many models have been proposed to explain sex determination in Cannabis.

Based on studies of sex reversal in hemp, it was first reported in 1924 by K. Hirata that an XY sex-determination system is present.[25] At the time, the XY system was the only known system of sex determination. The X:A system was first described in Drosophila spp in 1925.[26] Soon thereafter, Schaffner disputed Hirata's interpretation,[27] and published results from his own studies of sex reversal in hemp, concluding that an X:A system was in use and that futhermore sex was strongly influenced by environmental conditions.[28]

Since then, many different types of sex determination system have been discovered, particularly in plants.[29] Dioecy is relatively uncommon in the plant kingdom, and a very low percentage of dioecious plant species have been determined to use the XY system. In most cases where the XY system is found it is believed to have evolved recently and independently.[30]

Since the 1920's, a number of sex determination models have been proposed for Cannabis, as partially reviewed by Robert A. Nelson in Hemp Husbandry. Ainsworth[31] describes sex determinion in the genus as using "an X/autosome dosage-type."

The question of whether sex chromosomes are indeed present would be most conveniently answered if such chromosomes were clearly visible in a karyotype. Cannabis was one of the first plant species to be karyotyped, however, this was in a period when karyotype preparation was primitive by modern standards (see History of Cytogenetics). In Hemp Husbandry, Nelson refers to a "crude map of the cannabis chromosomes," but according to other researchers no modern karyotype of Cannabis had been published as of 1996.[32] Proponents of the X/Y system refer to chromosome maps and that the Y chromosome is slightly larger than the X chromosome, but that it is difficult to tell the difference.[citation needed]

Most recently, Sakamoto and various co-authors[33][34] have used RAPD to isolate several genetic marker sequences that they name Male-Associated DNA in Cannabis (MADc), and which they interpret as indirect evidence of a male chromosome. Subsequently, another research group[35] has identified additional MADc sequences using RAPD.

A well known Cannabis seed company has published information on the web suggesting that sex determination in Cannabis is strongly influenced by environmental conditions. It has been reported that sex can be reversed in Cannabis using chemical treatment.[36] Environmental sex determination is known to occur in a variety of species.[37]

Aspects of cannabis production and use

Etymology

The plant name cannabis is probably of Semitic origin, possibly Hebrew.

Hebrew קְנֵה בֹּשֶׂם qěnēh bośem > קַנַּבּוֹס qannabbôs > Greek κανναβις kannabis > Latin cannabis > English

However, the earlier Sumerian language used the word "kanubi", which means 'cane of two (sexes?)'. This is possibly the source for the Semitic usage.

The Biblical Hebrew term qěnēh bośem, literally "reed of balm", probably [38] refers to cannabis according to some etymologists [39], but is more commonly thought to be lemon grass, calamus , or even sweet cane, due to widespread translation issues. [40] The Hebrew Bible mentions it in Exodus 30:23 where God commands Moses to make a holy oil of myrrh, cinnamon, qěnēh bośem and cassia to anoint the Ark of the Covenant and the Tabernacle (and thus God's Temple in Jerusalem). Notably, this anointing oil is a special herbal formula that functions as a kind of polish and fragrance for the Ark and Tabernacle, and the Bible forbids its manufacture and use to anoint people (Exodus 30:31-33) with the exception of the Aaronic priesthood (Exodus 30:30)

Elsewhere, the Hebrew Bible simply uses "reed" qānēh as the name of a plant in four places whose context seems to mean "reed of balm" as a fragrant resin, Isaiah 43:24, Jeremiah 6:20, Ezekiel 27:19 and Song of Songs 4:14. The Hebrew name "reed of balm" comes from qěnēh (the noun construct form of qāneh) means a "reed" or "cane" and bośem means "balm" or "aromatic" resin. Hebrew may have adapted the name qannabbôs from "reed of balm" qěnēh bośem as a substitute for the ambiguous name "reed".

This Biblical Hebrew term is often mistranslated as "calamus", also called "lemon grass" (Cymbopogon citratus) or "sweet flag" (Acorus calamus), following an ancient misunderstanding in the Greek Septuagint translation. The Hebrew Bible was written across centuries well up to the 5th Century BCE. However, centuries later, by the time the Septuagint was written around the 2nd Century BCE, the archaic Hebrew word qěnēh bośem appears to have already abbreviated into the later Hebrew form qannabbôs, which is attested in Post Biblical Hebrew literature. Thus, the Septuagint did not recognize the Hebrew expression "reed of balm" and mistook it to refer to some unidentified plant. As a dynamic equivalent, the Septuagint rendered it as "calamus" (Greek kalamos), which indeed is a "balmy" (scented) reed. The calamus plant was known in Greek mythology and processed into an aphrodisiac.

Unambiguous Hebrew or Aramaic references to cannabis are rare and obscure. Syriac has qanpa (a loan from kannabis) and tanuma (see the Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon.) but neither is found in the Peshitta, the Syriac Bible. Late Syriac Ahiqar texts include qanpa as "ropes of hemp" (tunbei de-qanpa). The Hebrew word qanbes, a loan word from kannabis, is used in the Mishnah as hemp [Kilaim 2:5; 5:8; 9:1,7; Negaim 11:2] in the sense of a constituent of clothing or other items.

The Scythian term cannabis probably derives from a Semitic origin as well. Sara Benetowa of the Institute of Anthropological Sciences in Warsaw is quoted in the Book of Grass as saying:

The astonishing resemblance between the Semitic kanbos and the Scythian cannabis lead me to suppose that the Scythian word was of Semitic origin. These etymological discussions run parallel to arguments drawn from history. The Iranian Scythians were probably related to the Medes, who were neighbors of the Semites and could easily have assimilated the word for hemp. The Semites could also have spread the word during their migrations through Asia Minor.

Likely, the name 'cannabis' was known from the Semitic merchants who sold this commodity throughtout the ancient trade routes of Southeast Asia.

Comparing the English word hemp and the Greek word kannabis shows that the word came down from the presumed Proto-Indo-European language. Words like kanapish for "hemp" occur in some Finno-Ugrian languages. It is likely that, soon after agriculture started, hemp as a cultivated plant spread widely, carrying its name with it. Source of Rus. konoplja, Pers. kanab, Lith. kanapes "hemp," and Eng. canvas and hemp.

References

  1. ^ Small, E., and A. Cronquist. 1976. A practical and natural taxonomy for Cannabis. Taxon 25: 405–435.
  2. ^ Emboden, W. A. 1981. The genus Cannabis and the correct use of taxonomic categories. J. Psychoactive Drugs 13: 15–21.
  3. ^ a b c Schultes, R. E., and A. Hofmann. 1980. Botany and Chemistry of Hallucinogens. C. C. Thomas, Springfield, IL., pp. 82–116.
  4. ^ On Toadstool Soup and Legal Species of Marihuana, Ernest Small. PLANT SCIENCE BULLETIN, September 1975, A Publication of the Botanical Society of America, Inc. Vol. 21 No. 3 http://www.botany.org/PlantScienceBulletin/psb-1975-21-3.php
  5. ^ Greg Green. 2005. The Cannabis Breeder’s Bible. Green Candy Press 15-17
  6. ^ Small, E., and A. Cronquist. 1976. A practical and natural taxonomy for Cannabis. Taxon 25: 405–435.
  7. ^ Emboden, W. A. 1981. The genus Cannabis and the correct use of taxonomic categories. J. Psychoactive Drugs 13: 15–21.
  8. ^ On Toadstool Soup and Legal Species of Marihuana, Ernest Small. PLANT SCIENCE BULLETIN, September 1975, A Publication of the Botanical Society of America, Inc. Vol. 21 No. 3 http://www.botany.org/PlantScienceBulletin/psb-1975-21-3.php
  9. ^ Greg Green. 2005. The Cannabis Breeder’s Bible. Green Candy Press 14
  10. ^ Schultes, R. E., et. al. 1974. Cannabis: an example of taxonomic neglect. Harvard University Botanical Museum Leaflets 23: 337–367.
  11. ^ Anderson, L. C. 1974. A study of systematic wood anatomy in Cannabis. Harvard University Botanical Museum Leaflets 24: 29–36.
  12. ^ Hillig, K.W. 2005. Genetic evidence for speciation in Cannabis (Cannabaceae). Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 52: 161-180.
  13. ^ Greg Green. 2005. The Cannabis Breeder’s Bible. Green Candy Press 15-17
  14. ^ The art of selection and breeding fine quality cannabis by DJ Short, Cannabis Culture Magazine, CC41 http://cannabisculture.com/articles/2788.html, 07 Mar, 2003 http://cannabisculture.com/articles/2788.html
  15. ^ Indica vs Sativa, http://www.erowid.org/plants/cannabis/cannabis_info6.shtml
  16. ^ Small, E., and A. Cronquist. 1976. A practical and natural taxonomy for Cannabis. Taxon 25: 405–435.
  17. ^ Emboden, W. A. 1981. The genus Cannabis and the correct use of taxonomic categories. J. Psychoactive Drugs 13: 15–21.
  18. ^ On Toadstool Soup and Legal Species of Marihuana, Ernest Small. PLANT SCIENCE BULLETIN, September 1975, A Publication of the Botanical Society of America, Inc. Vol. 21 No. 3 http://www.botany.org/PlantScienceBulletin/psb-1975-21-3.php
  19. ^ Greg Green. 2005. The Cannabis Breeder’s Bible. Green Candy Press 14
  20. ^ Schultes, R. E., et. al. 1974. Cannabis: an example of taxonomic neglect. Harvard University Botanical Museum Leaflets 23: 337–367.
  21. ^ Anderson, L. C. 1974. A study of systematic wood anatomy in Cannabis. Harvard University Botanical Museum Leaflets 24: 29–36.
  22. ^ Hillig, K.W. 2005. Genetic evidence for speciation in Cannabis (Cannabaceae). Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 52: 161-180.
  23. ^ Lebel-Hardenack (1997). "Genetics of sex determination in flowering plants". Trends in Plant Science. 2 (4). Elsevier: 130–136. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  24. ^ Truta, E (2002). "Biochemical differences in Cannabis sativa L. depending on sexual phenotype" (PDF). Journal of Applied Genetics. 43 (4). Institute of Plant Genetics, Polish Academy of Sciences: 451–462. Retrieved September 3 2006. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  25. ^ Hirata, K (1924). "Sex reversal in hemp". Journal of the Society of Agriculture and Forestry. 16: 145–168.
  26. ^ Bridges, CB (1925). "Sex in relation to chromosomes and genes". American Naturalist. 59. University of Chicago Press: 127–137.
  27. ^ Schaffner, JH (1929). "Heredity and Sex". The Ohio Journal of Science. 29 (1): 289–300.
  28. ^ Schaffner, JH (1931). "The Fluctuation Curve of Sex Reversal in Staminate Hemp Plants Induced by Photoperiodicity". American Journal of Botany. 18 (6): 424–430.
  29. ^ Ainsworth, Charles (2000). "Boys and Girls Come Out to Play: The Molecular Biology of Dioecious Plants". Annals of Botany. 86: 211–221. Retrieved September 5, 2006.
  30. ^ Negrutiu (2001). "Dioecious plants. A key to the early events of sex chromosome evolution". Plant Physiology. 127 (4): 418–24. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |First= ignored (|first= suggested) (help)
  31. ^ Ainsworth, Charles (2000). "Boys and Girls Come Out to Play: The Molecular Biology of Dioecious Plants". Annals of Botany. 86: 211–221. Retrieved September 5, 2006.
  32. ^ Hong, Shao. "Taxonomic studies of Cannabis in China". Journal of the International Hemp Association. 3 (2): 55–60. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  33. ^ Sakamoto, K (1995 Dec). "A male-associated DNA sequence in a dioecious plant, Cannabis sativa L.". Plant & Cell Physiology. 36 (8). Oxford University Press: 1959–54. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  34. ^ Sakamoto, K (2005). "RAPD markers encoding retrotransposable elements are linked to the male sex in Cannabis sativa L". Genome. 48 (5): 931–936. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  35. ^ Törjék, O (2002). "Novel male specific molecular markers (MADC5, MADC6) for sex identification in hemp". Euphytica. 127: 209–218. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  36. ^ Mohan Ram, H.Y (1982). "Induction of fertile male flowers in genetically female Cannabis sativa plants by silver nitrate and silver thiosulfate anionic complex". Theor. Appl. Genet. 62: 369–375. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  37. ^ Tanurdzic, M (2004). "Sex-determining mechanisms in land plants". Plant Cell. 16 (Suppl): S61-71. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  38. ^ Weston La Barre. 1980. Hebrew University. Israel
  39. ^ Sula Benet . 1936. Institute of Anthropological Sciences. Warsaw
  40. ^ Immanuel Löw. 1925. Flora der Juden. 1924-1934, reprinted 1967

Further reading

  • Cannabis: A History (2005) Martin Booth ISBN 0-312-32220-8
  • UNODC: World Drug Report 2006, Chapter 2: Cannnabis: Why Should We Care? (2006)

Aspects of cannabis production and use

Etymology

The plant name cannabis is probably of Semitic origin, possibly Hebrew.

Hebrew קְנֵה בֹּשֶׂם qěnēh bośem > קַנַּבּוֹס qannabbôs > Greek κανναβις kannabis > Latin cannabis > English

However, the earlier Sumerian language used the word "kanubi", which means 'cane of two (sexes?)'. This is possibly the source for the Semitic usage.

The Biblical Hebrew term qěnēh bośem, literally "reed of balm", probably [1] refers to cannabis according to some etymologists [2], but is more commonly thought to be lemon grass, calamus , or even sweet cane, due to widespread translation issues. [3] The Hebrew Bible mentions it in Exodus 30:23 where God commands Moses to make a holy oil of myrrh, cinnamon, qěnēh bośem and cassia to anoint the Ark of the Covenant and the Tabernacle (and thus God's Temple in Jerusalem). Notably, this anointing oil is a special herbal formula that functions as a kind of polish and fragrance for the Ark and Tabernacle, and the Bible forbids its manufacture and use to anoint people (Exodus 30:31-33) with the exception of the Aaronic priesthood (Exodus 30:30)

Elsewhere, the Hebrew Bible simply uses "reed" qānēh as the name of a plant in four places whose context seems to mean "reed of balm" as a fragrant resin, Isaiah 43:24, Jeremiah 6:20, Ezekiel 27:19 and Song of Songs 4:14. The Hebrew name "reed of balm" comes from qěnēh (the noun construct form of qāneh) means a "reed" or "cane" and bośem means "balm" or "aromatic" resin. Hebrew may have adapted the name qannabbôs from "reed of balm" qěnēh bośem as a substitute for the ambiguous name "reed".

This Biblical Hebrew term is often mistranslated as "calamus", also called "lemon grass" (Cymbopogon citratus) or "sweet flag" (Acorus calamus), following an ancient misunderstanding in the Greek Septuagint translation. The Hebrew Bible was written across centuries well up to the 5th Century BCE. However, centuries later, by the time the Septuagint was written around the 2nd Century BCE, the archaic Hebrew word qěnēh bośem appears to have already abbreviated into the later Hebrew form qannabbôs, which is attested in Post Biblical Hebrew literature. Thus, the Septuagint did not recognize the Hebrew expression "reed of balm" and mistook it to refer to some unidentified plant. As a dynamic equivalent, the Septuagint rendered it as "calamus" (Greek kalamos), which indeed is a "balmy" (scented) reed. The calamus plant was known in Greek mythology and processed into an aphrodisiac.

Unambiguous Hebrew or Aramaic references to cannabis are rare and obscure. Syriac has qanpa (a loan from kannabis) and tanuma (see the Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon.) but neither is found in the Peshitta, the Syriac Bible. Late Syriac Ahiqar texts include qanpa as "ropes of hemp" (tunbei de-qanpa). The Hebrew word qanbes, a loan word from kannabis, is used in the Mishnah as hemp [Kilaim 2:5; 5:8; 9:1,7; Negaim 11:2] in the sense of a constituent of clothing or other items.

The Scythian term cannabis probably derives from a Semitic origin as well. Sara Benetowa of the Institute of Anthropological Sciences in Warsaw is quoted in the Book of Grass as saying:

The astonishing resemblance between the Semitic kanbos and the Scythian cannabis lead me to suppose that the Scythian word was of Semitic origin. These etymological discussions run parallel to arguments drawn from history. The Iranian Scythians were probably related to the Medes, who were neighbors of the Semites and could easily have assimilated the word for hemp. The Semites could also have spread the word during their migrations through Asia Minor.

Likely, the name 'cannabis' was known from the Semitic merchants who sold this commodity throughtout the ancient trade routes of Southeast Asia.

Comparing the English word hemp and the Greek word kannabis shows that the word came down from the presumed Proto-Indo-European language. Words like kanapish for "hemp" occur in some Finno-Ugrian languages. It is likely that, soon after agriculture started, hemp as a cultivated plant spread widely, carrying its name with it. Source of Rus. konoplja, Pers. kanab, Lith. kanapes "hemp," and Eng. canvas and hemp.

References

  1. ^ Weston La Barre. 1980. Hebrew University. Israel
  2. ^ Sula Benet . 1936. Institute of Anthropological Sciences. Warsaw
  3. ^ Immanuel Löw. 1925. Flora der Juden. 1924-1934, reprinted 1967

Further reading

  • Cannabis: A History (2005) Martin Booth ISBN 0-312-32220-8
  • UNODC: World Drug Report 2006, Chapter 2: Cannnabis: Why Should We Care? (2006)
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