Thai language

Not to be confused with Southwestern Tai languages or Central Tai languages.

Thai
Siamese
ภาษาไทย Phasa Thai
Pronunciation	[pʰāːsǎː tʰāj]
Region	Thailand (Central, Western, Eastern Thailand, Nakhon Ratchasima and Uttaradit Province)
Ethnicity	Central Thai and Thai Chinese
Native speakers	20 million (2000) 44 million L2 speakers with Lanna, Isan, Southern Thai, Northern Khmer, and Lao (2001)
Language family	Kra–Dai Tai Southwestern (Thai) Chiang Saen Thai
Writing system	Thai script Thai Braille
Official status
Official language in	Thailand
Recognised minority language in	Cambodia (Koh Kong Province)
Regulated by	Royal Society of Thailand
Language codes
ISO 639-1	th
ISO 639-2	tha
ISO 639-3	tha
Glottolog	thai1261
Linguasphere	47-AAA-b

Thai, Central Thai, or Siamese, is the national and official language of Thailand and the first language of the Thai people and the vast majority of Thai Chinese. It is a member of the Tai group of the Tai–Kadai language family. Over half of its words are borrowed from Pali, Sanskrit, Mon, and Old Khmer. It is a tonal and analytic language.

Thai also has a complex orthography and system of relational markers. Spoken Thai is mutually intelligible with Laotian, the language of Laos; the two languages are written with slightly different scripts but are linguistically similar.

Varieties and related languages

Thai is the official language of Thailand, natively spoken by over 20 million people (2000). Standard Thai is based on Ayutthaya dialect, and register in the educated classes. In addition to Central Thai, Thailand is home to other related Tai languages. Although linguists usually classify these idioms as related, but distinct languages, native speakers often identify them as regional variants or dialects of the "same" Thai language, or as "different kinds of Thai".

Dialects

Central Plains Thai

• Ayutthaya dialect (Standard Thai), spoken in Ayutthaya, Ang Thong, Nonthaburi, Pathum Thani and Samut Prakan Provinces
• Eastern dialect, spoken in Chanthaburi, Trat, Sa Kaeo, Prachinburi, Chachoengsao and part of Chonburi Provinces
• Thonburi dialect (also called Bangkok dialect), spoken in Thonburi side of Bangkok
• Suphanburi dialect, spoken in Suphan Buri, Sing Buri, Nakhon Pathom, Kanchanaburi, Samut Songkhram, Samut Sakhon, Rayong and part of Ratchaburi Provinces
• Rayong dialect, spoken in Rayong Province, Bang Lamung and Sattahip Districts
• Vientiane Thai, spoken in Tha Bo District and some place in Ratchaburi Province

Capital Core Thai

• Krung Thep dialect (also called Phra Nakhon dialect), spoken in Phra Nakhon side of Bangkok. Very high Teochew influences.
• Chonburi dialect, spoken in Chonburi, Chachoengsao, Nakhon Nayok, Prachinburi, part of Chanthaburi Provinces, Aranyaprathet and Nang Rong Districts. Very high Teochew influences.
• Southern Thailand Central Thai, spoke as minority in Southern Thailand but majority in Hat Yai District and Bandon district. Have some Teochew and Southern Thai influences but classified as Central Thai.

Upper Central Thai

• Sukhothai dialect, spoken in Sukhothai, Kamphaeng Phet, Phichit and part of Tak Provinces
• Phitsanulok dialect, spoken in Phitsanulok, Phetchabun and part of Uttaradit Provinces
• Pak Nam Pho dialect, spoken in Nakhon Sawan, Uthai Thani, Chainat, part of Phichit and Kamphaeng Phet Provinces

Southwestern Thai

• Spoken in Ratchaburi, Phetchaburi and Prachuap Khiri Khan Provinces (except Thap Sakae, Bang Saphan and Bang Saphan Noi District)

Khorat Thai

Main article: Khorat Thai

Related languages

Main article: Southwestern Tai languages

• Isan (Northeastern Thai), the language of the Isan region of Thailand, a collective term for the various Lao dialects spoken in Thailand that show some Central Thai influences, which is written with the Thai script. It is spoken by about 20 million people. Thais from both inside and outside the Isan region often simply call this variant "Lao" when speaking informally.
• Northern Thai (Phasa Nuea, Lanna, Kam Mueang, or Thai Yuan), spoken by about 6 million (1983) in the formerly independent kingdom of Lanna (Chiang Mai). Shares strong similarities with Lao to the point that in the past the Siamese Thais referred to it as Lao.
• Southern Thai (Thai Tai, Pak Tai, or Dambro), spoken by about 4.5 million (2006)
• Phu Thai, spoken by about half a million around Nakhon Phanom Province, and 300,000 more in Laos and Vietnam (2006).
• Phuan, spoken by 200,000 in central Thailand and Isan, and 100,000 more in northern Laos (2006).
• Shan (Thai Luang, Tai Long, Thai Yai), spoken by about 100,000 in north-west Thailand along the border with the Shan States of Burma, and by 3.2 million in Burma (2006).
• Lü (Lue, Yong, Dai), spoken by about 1,000,000 in northern Thailand, and 600,000 more in Sipsong Panna of China, Burma, and Laos (1981–2000).
• Nyaw language, spoken by 50,000 in Nakhon Phanom Province, Sakhon Nakhon Province, Udon Thani Province of Northeast Thailand (1990).
• Song, spoken by about 30,000 in central and northern Thailand (2000).

Registers

Central Thai is composed of several distinct registers, forms for different social contexts:

• Street or Common Thai (Template:Wiktth, phasa phut, spoken Thai): informal, without polite terms of address, as used between close relatives and friends.
• Elegant or Formal Thai (Template:Wiktth, phasa khian, written Thai): official and written version, includes respectful terms of address; used in simplified form in newspapers.
• Rhetorical Thai: used for public speaking.
• Religious Thai: (heavily influenced by Sanskrit and Pāli) used when discussing Buddhism or addressing monks.
• Royal Thai (ราชาศัพท์, racha sap): influenced by Khmer, this is used when addressing members of the royal family or describing their activities. (See Monarchy of Thailand § Rachasap.)

Most Thais can speak and understand all of these contexts. Street and Elegant Thai are the basis of all conversations. Rhetorical, religious, and royal Thai are taught in schools as the national curriculum.

Script

Main articles: Thai alphabet and Thai braille

Many scholars believe that the Thai script is derived from the Khmer script. Certainly the numbers were lifted directly from Khmer. The language and its script are closely related to the Lao language and script. Most literate Lao are able to read and understand Thai, as more than half of the Thai vocabulary, grammar, intonation, vowels and so forth are common with the Lao language.

Much like the Burmese adopted the Mon script (which also has Indic origins), the Thais adopted and modified the Khmer script to create their own writing system. While in Thai the pronunciation can largely be inferred from the script, the orthography is complex, with silent letters to preserve original spellings and many letters representing the same sound. While the oldest known inscription in the Khmer language dates from 611 CE, inscriptions in Thai writing began to appear around 1292 CE. Notable features include:

1. It is an abugida script, in which the implicit vowel is a short /a/ in a syllable without final consonant and a short /o/ in a syllable with final consonant.
2. Tone markers, if present, are placed above the final onset consonant of the syllable.
3. Vowels sounding after an initial consonant can be located before, after, above or below the consonant, or in a combination of these positions.

Transcription

Main article: Romanization of Thai

There is no universally applied method for transcribing Thai into the Latin alphabet. For example, the name of the main airport is transcribed variously as Suvarnabhumi, Suwannaphum, or Suwunnapoom. Guide books, textbooks and dictionaries may each follow different systems. For this reason, most language courses recommend that learners master the Thai script.

Official standards are the Royal Thai General System of Transcription (RTGS), published by the Royal Institute of Thailand, and the almost identical ISO 11940-2 defined by the International Organization for Standardization. The RTGS system is increasingly used in Thailand by central and local governments, especially for road signs. Its main drawbacks are that it does not indicate tone or vowel length. As the system is based on pronunciation, not orthography, reconstruction of Thai spelling from RTGS romanisation is not possible.

Transliteration

Main article: Thai transliteration

The ISO published an international standard for the transliteration of Thai into Roman script in September 2003 (ISO 11940). By adding diacritics to the Latin letters, it makes the transcription reversible, making it a true transliteration. Notably, this system is used by Google Translate, although it seems not to appear in many other contexts, such as textbooks and other instructional media. This may be because the particular problems of writing Thai for foreigners, including silent letters and placement of vowel markers, decrease the usefulness of literal transliteration.

Phonology

Consonants

Initials

Thai distinguishes three voice-onset times among plosive and affricate consonants:

• voiced
• tenuis (unvoiced, unaspirated)
• aspirated

Where English makes a distinction between voiced /b/ and aspirated /pʰ/, Thai distinguishes a third sound that is neither voiced nor aspirated, which occurs in English only as an allophone of /pʰ/, for example after an /s/ as in the sound of the p in "spin". There is similarly an alveolar /d/, /t/, /tʰ/ triplet in Thai. In the velar series there is a /k/, /kʰ/ pair and in the postalveolar series a /t͡ɕ/, /t͡ɕʰ/ pair, but the language lacks the corresponding voiced sounds /ɡ/ and /dʑ/. (In loanwords from English, English /ɡ/ and /d͡ʒ/ are borrowed as the tenuis stops /k/ and /t͡ɕ/.)

In each cell below, the first line indicates International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), the second indicates the Thai characters in initial position (several letters appearing in the same box have identical pronunciation). Note also that ห, one of the two h letters, is also used to help write certain tones (described below).

		Labial	Alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal		[m] ม	[n] ณ,น		[ŋ] ง
Plosive	voiced	[b] บ	[d] ฎ,ด
	tenuis	[p] ป	[t] ฏ,ต	[tɕ] จ	[k] ก	[ʔ] อ**
	aspirated	[pʰ] ผ,พ,ภ	[tʰ] ฐ,ฑ,ฒ,ถ,ท,ธ	[tɕʰ] ฉ,ช,ฌ	[kʰ] ข,ฃ,ค,ฅ,ฆ*
Fricative		[f] ฝ,ฟ	[s] ซ,ศ,ษ,ส			[h] ห,ฮ
Approximant		[w] ว	[l] ล,ฬ	[j] ญ,ย
Trill			[r] ร

^* ฃ and ฅ are no longer used. Thus, modern Thai is said to have 42 consonant letters.

^** Initial อ is silent and therefore considered as a glottal stop.

Finals

Although the overall 44 Thai consonant letters provide 21 sounds in case of initials, the case for finals is different. For finals, only eight sounds, as well as no sound, called mātrā (Template:Wiktth) are used. To demonstrate, at the end of a syllable, บ (/b/) and ด (/d/) are devoiced, becoming pronounced as /p/ and /t/ respectively. Additionally, all plosive sounds are unreleased. Hence, final /p/, /t/, and /k/ sounds are pronounced as [p̚], [t̚], and [k̚] respectively.

Of the consonant letters, excluding the disused ฃ and ฅ, six (ฉ ผ ฝ ห อ ฮ) cannot be used as a final and the other 36 are grouped as following.

	Labial	Alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal	[m] ม	[n] ญ,ณ,น,ร,ล,ฬ		[ŋ] ง
Plosive	[p] บ,ป,พ,ฟ,ภ	[t] จ,ช,ซ,ฌ,ฎ,ฏ,ฐ,ฑ, ฒ,ด,ต,ถ,ท,ธ,ศ,ษ,ส		[k] ก,ข,ค,ฆ	[ʔ]*
Approximant	[w] ว		[j] ย

^* The glottal plosive appears at the end when no final follows a short vowel

Clusters

In Thai, each syllable in a word is considered separate from the others, so combinations of consonants from adjacent syllables are never recognised as a cluster. Thai has phonotactical constraints that define permissible syllable structure, consonant clusters, and vowel sequences. Original Thai vocabulary introduces only 11 combined consonantal patterns:

• /kr/ (กร), /kl/ (กล), /kw/ (กว)
• /kʰr/ (ขร,คร), /kʰl/ (ขล,คล), /kʰw/ (ขว,คว)
• /pr/ (ปร), /pl/ (ปล)
• /pʰr/ (พร), /pʰl/ (ผล,พล)
• /tr/ (ตร)

The number of clusters increases when a few more combinations are presented in loanwords such as /tʰr/ (ทร) in Template:Wiktth (/intʰraː/, from Sanskrit indrā) or /fr/ (ฟร) in Template:Wiktth (/friː/, from English free); however, it can be observed that Thai language supports only those in initial position, with either /r/, /l/, or /w/ as the second consonant sound and not more than two sounds at a time.

Vowels

The vowel nuclei of the Thai language, which includes monophthongs and opening diphthongs, are given in the following table. The top entry in every cell is the symbol from the International Phonetic Alphabet, the second entry gives the spelling in the Thai alphabet, where a dash (–) indicates the position of the initial consonant after which the vowel is pronounced. A second dash indicates that a final consonant must follow.

Monophthongs of Thai. From Tingsabadh & Abramson (1993:25)

Diphthongs of Thai. From Tingsabadh & Abramson (1993:25)

	Front		Central		Back
					Unrounded		Rounded
	short	long	short	long	short	long	short	long
Opening	/ia̯/  เ–ียะ	/iːa̯/  เ–ีย			/ɯa̯/  เ–ือะ	/ɯːa̯/  เ–ือ	/ua̯/  –ัวะ	/uːa̯/  –ัว
Close	/i/  -ิ	/iː/  -ี			/ɯ/  -ึ	/ɯː/  -ื-	/u/  -ุ	/uː/  -ู
Close-mid	/e/ เ-ะ	/eː/ เ-			/ɤ/ เ-อะ	/ɤː/ เ-อ	/o/ โ-ะ	/oː/ โ-
Open-mid	/ɛ/ แ-ะ	/ɛː/ แ-					/ɔ/ เ-าะ	/ɔː/ -อ
Open			/a/ -ะ, -ั-	/aː/ -า

The vowels each exist in long-short pairs: these are distinct phonemes forming unrelated words in Thai, but usually transliterated the same: เขา (khao) means "he" or "she", while ขาว (khao) means "white".

The long-short pairs are as follows:

Long					Short
Thai	IPA	Example			Thai	IPA	Example
–า	/aː/	Template:Wiktth	/fǎːn/	'to slice'	–ะ	/a/	Template:Wiktth	/fǎn/	'to dream'
–ี	/iː/	Template:Wiktth	/krìːt/	'to cut'	–ิ	/i/	Template:Wiktth	/krìt/	'kris'
–ู	/uː/	Template:Wiktth	/sùːt/	'to inhale'	–ุ	/u/	Template:Wiktth	/sùt/	'rearmost'
เ–	/eː/	Template:Wiktth	/ʔēːn/	'to recline'	เ–ะ	/e/	Template:Wiktth	/ʔēn/	'tendon, ligament'
แ–	/ɛː/	Template:Wiktth	/pʰɛ́ː/	'to be defeated'	แ–ะ	/ɛ/	Template:Wiktth	/pʰɛ́ʔ/	'goat'
–ื-	/ɯː/	Template:Wiktth	/kʰlɯ̂ːn/	'wave'	–ึ	/ɯ/	Template:Wiktth	/kʰɯ̂n/	'to go up'
เ–อ	/ɤː/	Template:Wiktth	/dɤ̄ːn/	'to walk'	เ–อะ	/ɤ/	Template:Wiktth	/ŋɤ̄n/	'silver'
โ–	/oː/	Template:Wiktth	/kʰôːn/	'to fell'	โ–ะ	/o/	Template:Wiktth	/kʰôn/	'thick (soup)'
–อ	/ɔː/	Template:Wiktth	/klɔːŋ/	'drum'	เ–าะ	/ɔ/	Template:Wiktth	/klɔ̀ŋ/	'box'

There are also closing diphthongs and triphthongs in Thai, which Tingsabadh & Abramson (1993) analyze as underlyingly /Vj/ and /Vw/. For purposes of determining tone, those marked with an asterisk are sometimes classified as long:

	/w/ offglide		/j/ offglide
			Unrounded		Rounded
	short	long	short	long	short	long
Opening	/ia̯w/  เ–ียว*		/ɯa̯j/  เ–ือย*		/ua̯j/  –วย*
Close	/iw/  –ิว	–	–	–	/uj/  –ุย	–
Close-mid	/ew/ เ–็ว	/eːw/ เ–ว	–	/ɤːj/ เ–ย	–	/oːj/ โ–ย
Open-mid	–	/ɛːw/ แ–ว			/ɔj/ –็อย	/ɔːj/ –อย
Open	/aw/ เ–า*	/aːw/ –าว	/aj/ ไ–*, ใ–*, ไ–ย, -ัย	/aːj/ –าย

Tones

The five phonemic tones of Standard Thai pronounced with the syllable '/naː/':

There are five phonemic tones: mid, low, falling, high, and rising, sometimes referred to in older reference works as rectus, gravis, circumflexus, altus, and demissus, respectively. The table shows an example of both the phonemic tones and their phonetic realization, in the IPA.

Thai language tone chart

The full complement of tones exists only in so-called "live syllables", those that end in a long vowel or a sonorant (/m/, /n/, /ŋ/, /j/, /w/).

For "dead syllables", those that end in a plosive (/p/, /t/, /k/) or in a short vowel, only three tonal distinctions are possible: low, high, and falling. Because syllables analyzed as ending in a short vowel may have a final glottal stop (especially in slower speech), all "dead syllables" are phonetically checked, and have the reduced tonal inventory characteristic of checked syllables.

Unchecked syllables

Tone	Thai	Example	Phonemic	Phonetic	Gloss
mid	สามัญ	คา	/khāː/	[khaː˧]	stick
low	เอก	ข่า	/khàː/	[khaː˨˩] or [khaː˩]	galangal
falling	โท	ค่า	/khâː/	[khaː˥˩]	value
high	ตรี	ค้า	/kháː/	[khaː˦˥] or [khaː˥]	to trade
rising	จัตวา	ขา	/khǎː/	[khaː˩˩˦] or [khaː˩˦]	leg

Checked syllables

Tone	Thai	Example	Phonemic	Phonetic	Gloss
low (short vowel)	เอก	หมัก	/màk/	[mak̚˨˩]	marinate
low (long vowel)	เอก	หมาก	/màːk/	[maːk̚˨˩]	areca nut, areca palm, betel, fruit
high	ตรี	มัก	/mák/	[mak̚˦˥]	habitually, likely to
falling	โท	มาก	/mâːk/	[maːk̚˥˩]	a lot, abundance, many

In some English loanwords, closed syllables with long vowel ending in an obstruent sound, have high tone, and closed syllables with short vowel ending in an obstruent sound have falling tone.

Tone	Thai	Example	Phonemic	Phonetic	Gloss
high	ตรี	มาร์ก	/máːk/	[maːk̚˦˥]	Marc, Mark
high	ตรี	สตาร์ต	/sa.táːt/	[sa.taːt̚˦˥]	start
high	ตรี	บาส(เกตบอล)	/báːt(.kêt.bɔ̄n)/1	[baːt̚˦˥(.ket̚˥˩.bɔn˧)]	basketball
falling	โท	เมกอัป	/méːk.ʔâp/	[meːk̚˦˥.ʔap̚˥]	make-up

¹ May be /báːs.kêt.bɔ̄l/ in educated speech.

Grammar

Main article: Thai grammar

From the perspective of linguistic typology, Thai can be considered to be an analytic language. The word order is subject–verb–object, although the subject is often omitted. Thai pronouns are selected according to the gender and relative status of speaker and audience.

Adjectives and adverbs

There is no morphological distinction between adverbs and adjectives. Many words can be used in either function. They follow the word they modify, which may be a noun, verb, or another adjective or adverb.

• คนอ้วน (khon uan, [kʰon ʔûan ]) a fat person
• คนที่อ้วนเร็ว (khon thi uan reo, [khon tʰîː ʔûan rew]) a person who became fat quickly

Comparatives take the form "A X กว่า B" (kwa, [kwàː]), A is more X than B. The superlative is expressed as "A X ที่สุด" (thi sut, [tʰîːsùt]), A is most X.

• เขาอ้วนกว่าฉัน (khao uan kwa chan, [kʰǎw ʔûan kwàː tɕ͡ʰǎn]) S/he is fatter than me.
• เขาอ้วนที่สุด (khao uan thi sut, [kʰǎw ʔûan tʰîːsùt]) S/he is the fattest (of all).

Because adjectives can be used as complete predicates, many words used to indicate tense in verbs (see Verbs:Tense below) may be used to describe adjectives.

• ฉันหิว (chan hiu, [tɕ͡ʰǎn hǐw]) I am hungry.
• ฉันจะหิว (chan cha hiu, [tɕ͡ʰǎn tɕ͡àʔ hǐw]) I will be hungry.
• ฉันกำลังหิว (chan kamlang hiu, [tɕ͡ʰǎn kamlaŋ hǐw]) I am hungry right now.
• ฉันหิวแล้ว (chan hiu laeo, [tɕ͡ʰǎn hǐw lɛ́ːw]) I am already hungry.

• Remark ฉันหิวแล้ว mostly means "I am hungry right now" because normally, แล้ว ([lɛ́ːw]) is a past-tense marker, but แล้ว has many other uses as well. For example, in the sentence, แล้วเธอจะไปไหน ([lɛ́ːw tʰɤː tɕ͡àʔ paj nǎj]): So where are you going?, แล้ว ([lɛ́ːw]) is used as a discourse particle.

Verbs

Verbs do not inflect. They do not change with person, tense, voice, mood, or number; nor are there any participles.

• ฉันตีเขา (chan ti khao, [t͡ɕʰǎn tiː kʰǎw]), I hit him.
• เขาตีฉัน (khao ti chan, [kʰǎw tiː t͡ɕʰǎn]), He hit me.

The passive voice is indicated by the insertion of ถูก (thuk, [tʰùːk]) before the verb. For example:

• เขาถูกตี (khao thuk ti, [kʰǎw tʰùːk tiː]), He is hit. This describes an action that is out of the receiver's control and, thus, conveys suffering.

To convey the opposite sense, a sense of having an opportunity arrive, ได้ (dai, [dâj], can) is used. For example:

• เขาจะได้ไปเที่ยวเมืองลาว (khao cha dai pai thiao mueang lao, [kʰǎw t͡ɕaʔ dâj paj tʰîow mɯːaŋ laːw]), He gets to visit Laos.

Note, dai ([dâj] and [dâːj]), though both spelled ได้, convey two separate meanings. The short vowel dai ([dâj]) conveys an opportunity has arisen and is placed before the verb. The long vowel dai ([dâːj]) is placed after the verb and conveys the idea that one has been given permission or one has the ability to do something. Also see the past tense below.

• เขาตีได้ (khao ti dai, [kʰǎw tiː dâːj]), He is/was allowed to hit or He is/was able to hit

Negation is indicated by placing ไม่ (mai,[mâj] not) before the verb.

• เขาไม่ตี, (khao mai ti) He is not hitting. or He doesn't hit.

Tense is conveyed by tense markers before or after the verb.

Present can be indicated by กำลัง (kamlang, [kamlaŋ], currently) before the verb for ongoing action (like English -ing form), by อยู่ (yu, [jùː]) after the verb, or by both. For example:

• เขากำลังวิ่ง (khao kamlang wing, [kʰǎw kamlaŋ wîŋ]), or
• เขาวิ่งอยู่ (khao wing yu, [kʰǎw wîŋ jùː]), or
• เขากำลังวิ่งอยู่ (khao kamlang wing yu, [kʰǎw kamlaŋ wîŋ jùː]), He is running.

Future can be indicated by จะ (cha, [t͡ɕaʔ], "will") before the verb or by a time expression indicating the future. For example:

• เขาจะวิ่ง (khao cha wing, [kʰǎw t͡ɕaʔ wîŋ]), He will run or He is going to run.

Past can be indicated by ได้ (dai, [dâːj], "did") before the verb or by a time expression indicating the past. However, แล้ว (laeo,  :[lɛ́ːw], already) is often used to indicate the past tense by being placed behind the verb. Or, both ได้ and แล้ว are put together to form the past tense expression. For example:

• เขาได้กิน (khao dai kin, [kʰǎw dâːj kin]), He ate.
• เขากินแล้ว (khao kin laeo, [kʰǎw kin lɛ́ːw], He has eaten.
• เขาได้กินแล้ว (khao dai kin laeo, [kʰǎw dâːj kin lɛ́ːw]), He's already eaten.

Tense markers are not required.

• ฉันกินที่นั่น (chan kin thinan, [t͡ɕʰǎn kin tʰîːnân]), I eat there.
• ฉันกินที่นั่นเมื่อวาน (chan kin thinan mueawan), I ate there yesterday.
• ฉันกินที่นั่นพรุ่งนี้ (chan kin thinan phrungni), I'll eat there tomorrow.

Thai exhibits serial verb constructions, where verbs are strung together. Some word combinations are common and may be considered set phrases.

• เขาไปกินข้าว (khao pai kin khao, [kʰǎw paj kin kʰâːw]) He went out to eat, literally He go eat rice
• ฉันฟังไม่เข้าใจ (chan fang mai khao chai, [tɕ͡ʰǎn faŋ mâj kʰâw tɕ͡aj]) I don't understand what was said, literally I listen not understand
• เข้ามา (khao ma, [kʰâw maː]) Come in, literally enter come
• ออกไป! (ok pai, [ʔɔ̀ːk paj]) Leave! or Get out!, literally exit go

Nouns

Nouns are uninflected and have no gender; there are no articles.

Nouns are neither singular nor plural. Some specific nouns are reduplicated to form collectives: เด็ก (dek, child) is often repeated as เด็ก ๆ (dek dek) to refer to a group of children. The word พวก (phuak, [pʰûak]) may be used as a prefix of a noun or pronoun as a collective to pluralize or emphasise the following word. (พวกผม, phuak phom, [pʰûak pʰǒm], we, masculine; พวกเรา phuak rao, [pʰûak raw], emphasised we; พวกหมา phuak ma, (the) dogs). Plurals are expressed by adding classifiers, used as measure words (ลักษณนาม), in the form of noun-number-classifier (ครูห้าคน, "teacher five person" for "five teachers"). While in English, such classifiers are usually absent ("four chairs") or optional ("two bottles of beer" or "two beers"), a classifier is almost always used in Thai (hence "chair four item" and "beer two bottle").

Pronouns

Subject pronouns are often omitted, with nicknames used where English would use a pronoun. See informal and formal names for more details. Pronouns, when used, are ranked in honorific registers, and may also make a T–V distinction in relation to kinship and social status. Specialised pronouns are used for those with royal and noble titles, and for clergy. The following are appropriate for conversational use:

Word	RTGS	IPA	Meaning
ผม	phom	[pʰǒm]	I/me (masculine; formal)
ดิฉัน	dichan	[dìʔt͡ɕʰán])	I/me (feminine; formal)
ฉัน	chan	[t͡ɕʰǎn]	I/me (mainly used by women; informal) Commonly pronounced as [t͡ɕʰán]
เรา	rao	[raw]	we/us, I/me (casual), you (sometimes used but only when older person speaks to younger person)
คุณ	khun	[kʰun]	you (polite)
ท่าน	than	[tʰân]	you (highly honorific)
เธอ	thoe	[tʰɤː]	you (informal), she/her (informal)
พี่	phi	[pʰîː]	older brother, sister (also used for older acquaintances)
น้อง	nong	[nɔːŋ]	younger brother, sister (also used for younger acquaintances)
เขา	khao	[kʰǎw]	he/him, she/her
มัน	man	[man]	it, he/she (sometimes casual or offensive if used to refer to a person)

The reflexive pronoun is ตัวเอง (tua eng), which can mean any of: myself, yourself, ourselves, himself, herself, themselves. This can be mixed with another pronoun to create an intensive pronoun, such as ตัวผมเอง (tua phom eng, lit: I myself) or ตัวคุณเอง (tua khun eng, lit: you yourself). Thai also does not have a separate possessive pronoun. Instead, possession is indicated by the particle ของ (khong). For example, "my mother" is แม่ของผม (mae khong phom, lit: mother of I). This particle is often implicit, so the phrase is shortened to แม่ผม (mae phom). Plural pronouns can be easily constructed by adding the word พวก (puak) in front of a singular pronoun as in พวกเขา (puak khao) meaning they or พวกเธอ (puak thoe) meaning the plural sense of you. The only exception to this is เรา (rao), which can be used as singular (informal) or plural, but can also be used in the form of พวกเรา (puak rao), which is only plural.

Thai has many more pronouns than those listed above. Their usage is full of nuances. For example:

• "ผม เรา ฉัน ดิฉัน หนู กู ข้า กระผม ข้าพเจ้า กระหม่อม อาตมา กัน ข้าน้อย ข้าพระพุทธเจ้า อั๊ว เขา" all translate to "I", but each expresses a different gender, age, politeness, status, or relationship between speaker and listener.
• เรา (rao) can be first person (I), second person (you), or both (we), depending on the context.
• Children or younger female could use or being referred by word หนู (nu) when talking with older person. The word หนู could be both feminine first person (I) and feminine second person (you) and also neuter first and neuter second person for children.
  • หนู commonly means rat or mouse. It could refers to small creature in general
• The second person pronoun เธอ (thoe) (lit: you) is semi-feminine. It is used only when the speaker or the listener (or both) are female. Males usually don't address each other by this pronoun.
• Both คุณ (khun) and เธอ (thoe) are polite neuter second person pronouns. However, คุณเธอ (khun thoe) is a feminine derogative third person.
• Instead of a second person pronoun such as "คุณ" (you), it is much more common for unrelated strangers to call each other "พี่ น้อง ลุง ป้า น้า อา ตา ยาย" (brother/sister/aunt/uncle/granny).
• To express deference, the second person pronoun is sometimes replaced by a profession, similar to how, in English, presiding judges are always addressed as "your honor" rather than "you". In Thai, students always address their teachers by "ครู" or "คุณครู" or "อาจารย์" (each means "teacher") rather than คุณ (you). Teachers, monks, and doctors are almost always addressed this way.

Particles

The particles are often untranslatable words added to the end of a sentence to indicate respect, a request, encouragement or other moods (similar to the use of intonation in English), as well as varying the level of formality. They are not used in elegant (written) Thai. The most common particles indicating respect are ครับ (khrap, [kʰráp], with a high tone) when the speaker is male, and ค่ะ (kha, [kʰâ], with a falling tone) when the speaker is female; these can also be used to indicate an affirmative, though the ค่ะ (falling tone) is changed to a คะ (high tone).

Other common particles are:

Word	RTGS	IPA	Meaning
จ๊ะ	cha/ja	[t͡ɕáʔ]	indicating a request
จ้ะ, จ้า or จ๋า	cha/ja	[t͡ɕâː]	indicating emphasis
ละ or ล่ะ	la	[láʔ]	indicating emphasis
สิ	si	[sìʔ]	indicating emphasis or an imperative
นะ	na	[náʔ]	softening; indicating a request

Register

As noted above, Thai has several registers, each having certain usages, such as colloquial, formal, literary, and poetic. Thus, the word "eat" can be กิน (kin; common), แดก (daek; vulgar), ยัด (yat; vulgar), บริโภค (boriphok; formal), รับประทาน (rapprathan; formal), ฉัน (chan; religious), or เสวย (sawoei; royal), as illustrated below:

"to eat"	IPA	Usage	Note
กิน	/kīn/	common
แดก	/dɛ̀ːk/	vulgar
ยัด	/ját/	vulgar	Original meaning is 'to cram'
บริโภค	/bɔ̄ː.ri.pʰôːk/	formal, literary
รับประทาน	/ráp.pra.tʰāːn/	formal, polite	Often shortened to ทาน /tʰāːn/.
ฉัน	/t͡ɕʰǎn/	religious
เสวย	/sa.wɤ̌ːj/	royal

Thailand also uses the distinctive Thai six-hour clock in addition to the 24-hour clock.

Vocabulary

Main article: List of loanwords in Thai

Other than compound words and words of foreign origin, most words are monosyllabic.

Chinese-language influence was strong until the 13th century when the use of Chinese characters was abandoned, and replaced by Sanskrit and Pali scripts. However, the vocabulary of Thai retains many words borrowed from Middle Chinese.

Later most vocabulary was borrowed from Sanskrit and Pāli; Buddhist terminology is particularly indebted to these. Indic words have a more formal register, and may be compared to Latin and French borrowings in English. Old Khmer has also contributed its share, especially in regard to royal court terminology. Since the beginning of the 20th century, however, the English language has had the greatest influence, especially for scientific, technical, international, and other modern terms. Many Teochew Chinese words are also used, some replacing existing Thai words (for example, the names of basic numbers; see also Sino-Xenic).

Origin	Example	IPA	Gloss
Native Tai	ไฟ น้ำ เมือง รุ่งเรือง	/fāj/ /náːm/ /mɯ̄aŋ/ /rûŋ.rɯ̄aŋ/	fire water city prosperous
Indic sources: Pali or Sanskrit	อัคนี ชล นคร วิโรจน์	/ʔāk.kʰa.nīː/ /t͡ɕōn/ /náʔ.kʰɔ̄ːn/ /wíʔ.rôːt/	fire water city prosperous

Arabic-origin

Arabic words	Thai rendition	IPA	Remark
قُرْآن (Qurʾān)	อัลกุรอาน or โกหร่าน	/an.kù.rá.aːn/ or /kō.ràːn/	means Quran
رجم (rajm)	ระยำ	/rá.jam/	means bad, vile (pejorative)

Chinese-origin

From Middle Chinese or Teochew Chinese.

Chinese words	Thai rendition	IPA	English
交椅(teochew: gao1 in2)	เก้าอี้	/kâw.ʔîː/	chair
粿條 / 粿条(min nan: kóe-tiâu)	ก๋วยเตี๋ยว	/kǔaj.tǐaw/	rice noodle
姐(hokkien: chiá/ché teochew: zê2/zia2)	เจ๊	/t͡ɕéː/	older sister
二(hokkien: jī teochew: ri6)	ยี่	/jîː/	two
豆(middle chinese: dəuH)	ถั่ว	/tʰùa/	bean
盎(middle chinese: ʔɑŋX, ʔɑŋH)	อ่าง	/ʔàːŋ/	basin
膠(middle chinese: kˠau)	กาว	/kāːw/	glue
鯁(middle chinese: kˠæŋX)	ก้าง	/kâːŋ/	fishbone
坎(middle chinese: kʰʌmX)	ขุม	/kʰǔm/	pit
塗(middle chinese: duo/ɖˠa)	ทา	/tʰāː/	means to smear
退(middle chinese: tʰuʌiH)	ถอย	/tʰɔ̌j/	to step back

English-origin

English words	Thai rendition	IPA	Remark
bank	แบงก์	/bɛ́ːŋ/	means bank or banknote
bill	บิล	/biw/ or /bin/
cake	เค้ก	/kʰéːk/
captain	กัปตัน	/kàp.tān/
cartoon	การ์ตูน	/kāː.tūːn/
clinic	คลินิก	/kʰlīː.nìk/
computer	คอมพิวเตอร์	/kʰɔ̄m.pʰíw.tɤ̂ː/	colloquially shortened to คอม /kʰɔ̄m/
corruption	คอรัปชั่น	/kʰɔː.ráp.tɕʰân/
diesel	ดีเซล	/dīː.sēn/
dinosaur	ไดโนเสาร์	/dāi.nōː.sǎu/
duel	ดวล	/dūan/
email	อีเมล	/ʔīː.mēːw/
fashion	แฟชั่น	/fɛ̄ː.t͡ɕʰân/
golf	กอล์ฟ	/kɔ́ːp/
government	กัดฟันมัน	/kàt.fān.mān/	(obsolete)
graph	กราฟ	/kráːp/ or /káːp/
plastic	พลาสติก	/pʰláːt.sà.tìk/	(educated speech)
		/pʰát.tìk/
quota	โควตา	/kwōː.tâː/
shampoo	แชมพู	/t͡ɕʰɛ̄m.pʰūː/
suit	สูท	/sùːt/
suite	สวีท	/sà.wìːt/
taxi	แท็กซี่	/tʰɛ́k.sîː/
technology	เทคโนโลยี	/tʰék.nōː.lōː.jîː/
titanium	ไทเทเนียม	/tʰāj.tʰēː.nîam/
visa	วีซ่า	/wīː.sâː/
wreath	(พวง)หรีด	/rìːt/

French-origin

French words	Thai rendition	IPA	Remark
aval	อาวัล	/ʔāː.wān/
buffet	บุฟเฟต์	/búp.fêː/
café	คาเฟ่	/kāː.fɛ̄ː/
chauffeur	โชเฟอร์	/t͡ɕʰōː.f`ɤː/
consul	กงสุล	/kōŋ.sǔn/
coupon	คูปอง	/kʰūː.pɔ̄ŋ/
pain	(ขนม)ปัง	/pāŋ/
parquet	ปาร์เกต์	/pāː.kêː/
pétanque	เปตอง	/pēː.tɔ̄ŋ/

Khmer-origin

From Old Khmer.

Khmer words	Thai rendition	IPA	Remark
ក្រុង (grong)	กรุง	/krūŋ/	means city
ខ្ទើយ (ktəəy)	กะเทย	/kà.tɤ̄ːj/	means Kathoey
ច្រមុះ (chrâmuh)	จมูก	/t͡ɕà.mùːk/	means nose
ច្រើន (craən)	เจริญ	/t͡ɕà.rɤ̄ːn/	means prosperous
ឆ្លាត/ឆ្លាស (chlāt)	ฉลาด	/t͡ɕʰà.làːt/	means smart
ថ្នល់ (thnâl)	ถนน	/tʰà.nǒn/	means road
ភ្លើង (/pləəŋ/)	เพลิง	/pʰlɤ̄ːŋ/	means fire
ទន្លេ (tonle)	ทะเล	/tʰá.lēː/	means sea

Portuguese-origin

The Portuguese were the first Western-nation to arrive in what is modern-day Thailand in the 16th century during the Ayutthaya period. Its influence in trade, especially weaponry, allowed them to establish a community just outside the capital and practice their faith, as well as exposing and converting the locals to Christianity. Thus, Portuguese words involving trade and religion were introduced and used by the locals.

Portuguese words	Thai rendition	IPA	Remark
carta / cartaz	กระดาษ	/krà.dàːt/	means paper
garça	(นก)กระสา	/krà.sǎː/	means heron
leilão	เลหลัง	/lēː.lǎŋ/	means auction or low-priced
padre	บาท(หลวง)	/bàːt.lǔaŋ/	means (Christian) priest
real	เหรียญ	/rǐan/	means coin
sabão	สบู่	/sà.bùː/	means soap

History

Thai has undergone various historical sound changes. Some of the most significant changes, at least in terms of consonants and tones, occurred between Old Thai spoken when the language was first written and Thai of present, reflected in the orthography.

Old Thai

Old Thai had a three-way tone distinction on live syllables (those not ending in a stop), with no possible distinction on dead syllables (those ending in a stop, i.e. either /p/, /t/, /k/ or the glottal stop which automatically closes syllables otherwise ending in a short vowel).

There was a two-way voiced vs. voiceless distinction among all fricative and sonorant consonants, and up to a four-way distinction among stops and affricates. The maximal four-way occurred in labials (/p pʰ b ʔb/) and dentals (/t tʰ d ʔd/); the three-way distinction among velars (/k kʰ ɡ/) and palatals (/tɕ tɕʰ dʐ/), with the glottalized member of each set apparently missing.

The major change between old and modern Thai was due to voicing distinction losses and the concomitant tone split. This may have happened between about 1300 and 1600 CE, possibly occurring at different times in different parts of the Thai-speaking area. All voiced–voiceless pairs of consonants lost the voicing distinction:

• Plain voiced stops (/b d ɡ dʐ/) became voiceless aspirated stops (/pʰ tʰ kʰ tɕʰ/).
• Voiced fricatives became voiceless.
• Voiceless sonorants became voiced.

However, in the process of these mergers the former distinction of voice was transferred into a new set of tonal distinctions. In essence, every tone in Old Thai split into two new tones, with a lower-pitched tone corresponding to a syllable that formerly began with a voiced consonant, and a higher-pitched tone corresponding to a syllable that formerly began with a voiceless consonant (including glottalized stops). An additional complication is that formerly voiceless unaspirated stops/affricates (original /p t k tɕ ʔb ʔd/) also caused original tone 1 to lower, but had no such effect on original tones 2 or 3.

The above consonant mergers and tone splits account for the complex relationship between spelling and sound in modern Thai. Modern "low"-class consonants were voiced in Old Thai, and the terminology "low" reflects the lower tone variants that resulted. Modern "mid"-class consonants were voiceless unaspirated stops or affricates in Old Thai—precisely the class that triggered lowering in original tone 1 but not tones 2 or 3. Modern "high"-class consonants were the remaining voiceless consonants in Old Thai (voiceless fricatives, voiceless sonorants, voiceless aspirated stops). The three most common tone "marks" (the lack of any tone mark, as well as the two marks termed mai ek and mai tho) represent the three tones of Old Thai, and the complex relationship between tone mark and actual tone is due to the various tonal changes since then. Note also that since the tone split, the tones have changed in actual representation to the point that the former relationship between lower and higher tonal variants has been completely obscured. Furthermore, the six tones that resulted after the three tones of Old Thai were split have since merged into five in standard Thai, with the lower variant of former tone 2 merging with the higher variant of former tone 3, becoming the modern "falling" tone.

Early Old Thai also apparently had velar fricatives /x ɣ/ as distinct phonemes. These were represented by the now-obsolete letters ฃ kho khuat and ฅ kho khon, respectively. During the Old Thai period, these sounds merged into the corresponding stops /kʰ ɡ/, and as a result the use of these letters became unstable.

At some point in the history of Thai, a palatal nasal phoneme /ɲ/ also existed, inherited from Proto-Tai. A letter ญ yo ying also exists, which is used to represent a palatal nasal in words borrowed from Sanskrit and Pali, and is currently pronounced /j/ at the beginning of a syllable but /n/ at the end of a syllable. Most native Thai words that are reconstructed as beginning with /ɲ/ are also pronounced /j/ in modern Thai, but generally spelled with ย yo yak, which consistently represents /j/. This suggests that /ɲ/ > /j/ in native words occurred in the pre-literary period. It is unclear whether Sanskrit and Pali words beginning with /ɲ/ were borrowed directly with a /j/, or whether a /ɲ/ was re-introduced, followed by a second change /ɲ/ > /j/.

Proto-Tai also had a glottalized palatal sound, reconstructed as /ʔj/ in Li Fang-Kuei (1977). Corresponding Thai words are generally spelled หย, which implies an Old Thai pronunciation of /hj/ (or /j̊/), but a few such words are spelled อย, which implies a pronunciation of /ʔj/ and suggests that the glottalization may have persisted through to the early literary period.

Vowel developments

The vowel system of modern Thai contains nine pure vowels and three centering diphthongs, each of which can occur short or long. According to Li (1977), however, many Thai dialects have only one such short–long pair (/a aː/), and in general it is difficult or impossible to find minimal short–long pairs in Thai that involve vowels other than /a/ and where both members have frequent correspondences throughout the Tai languages. More specifically, he notes the following facts about Thai:

• In open syllables, only long vowels occur. (This assumes that all apparent cases of short open syllables are better described as ending in a glottal stop. This makes sense from the lack of tonal distinctions in such syllables, and the glottal stop is also reconstructible across the Tai languages.)
• In closed syllables, the long high vowels /iː ɯː uː/ are rare, and cases that do exist typically have diphthongs in other Tai languages.
• In closed syllables, both short and long mid /e eː o oː/ and low /ɛ ɛː ɔ ɔː/ do occur. However, generally, only words with short /e o/ and long /ɛː ɔː/ are reconstructible back to Proto-Tai.
• Both of the mid back unrounded vowels /ɤ ɤː/ are rare, and words with such sounds generally cannot be reconstructed back to Proto-Tai.

Furthermore, the vowel that corresponds to short Thai /a/ has a different and often higher quality in many of the Tai languages compared with the vowel corresponding to Thai /aː/.

This leads Li to posit the following:

1. Proto-Tai had a system of nine pure vowels with no length distinction, and possessing approximately the same qualities as in modern Thai: high /i ɯ u/, mid /e ɤ o/, low /ɛ a ɔ/.
2. All Proto-Tai vowels were lengthened in open syllables, and low vowels were also lengthened in closed syllables.
3. Modern Thai largely preserved the original lengths and qualities, but lowered /ɤ/ to /a/, which became short /a/ in closed syllables and created a phonemic length distinction /a aː/. Eventually, length in all other vowels became phonemic as well and a new /ɤ/ (both short and long) was introduced, through a combination of borrowing and sound change. Li believes that the development of long /iː ɯː uː/ from diphthongs, and the lowering of /ɤ/ to /a/ to create a length distinction /a aː/, had occurred by the time of Proto-Southwestern-Tai, but the other missing modern Thai vowels had not yet developed.

Note that not all researchers agree with Li. Pittayaporn (2009), for example, reconstructs a similar system for Proto-Southwestern-Tai, but believes that there was also a mid back unrounded vowel /ə/ (which he describes as /ɤ/), occurring only before final velar /k ŋ/. He also seems to believe that the Proto-Southwestern-Tai vowel length distinctions can be reconstructed back to similar distinctions in Proto-Tai.

Connection to ancient Yue language(s)

Further information: Baiyue § Language, and Chu_(state) § Linguistic_influences

Thai descends from proto-Tai-Kadai, which has been hypothesized to originate in the Lower Yangtze valleys. Ancient Chinese texts refer to non-Sinitic languages spoken cross this substantial region and their speakers as "Yue". Although those languages are extinct, traces of their existence could be found in unearthed inscriptional materials, ancient Chinese historical texts and non-Han substrata in various Southern Chinese dialects. Thai, as the most-spoken language in Tai-Kadai language family, has been used extensively in historical-comparative linguistics to identify the origins of language(s) spoken in the ancient region of South China. One of the very few direct records of non-Sinitic speech in pre-Qin and Han times having been preserved so far is the "Song of the Yue Boatman" (Yueren Ge 越人歌), which was transcribed phonetically in Chinese characters in 528 BC, and found in the 善说 Shanshuo chapter of the Shuoyuan 说苑 or 'Garden of Persuasions'. In the early 80’s the Zhuang linguist Wei Qingwen using reconstructed Old Chinese for the characters discovered that the resulting vocabulary showed strong resemblance to modern Zhuang. Later, Zhengzhang Shangfang (1991) followed Wei’s insight but used Thai script for comparison, since this orthography dates from the 13th century and preserves archaisms viz-à-viz the modern pronunciation. The following is a simplified interpretation of the "Song of the Yue Boatman" by Zhengzhang Shangfang quoted by David Holm (2013) with Thai script and Chinese glosses being omitted:

濫

兮

抃

草

濫

ɦgraams

ɦee

brons

tshuuʔ

ɦgraams

glamx

ɦee

blɤɤn

cɤɤ, cɤʔ

glamx

evening

ptl.

joyful

to meet

evening

Oh, the fine night, we meet in happiness tonight!

予

昌

枑

澤

予

昌

州

la

thjang < khljang

gaah

draag

la

thjang

tju < klju

raa

djaangh

kraʔ -

ʔdaak

raa

djaangh

cɛɛu

we, I

be apt to

shy, ashamed

we, I

be good at

to row

I am so shy, ah! I am good at rowing.

州

𩜱

州

焉

乎

秦

胥 胥

tju

khaamʔ

tju

jen

ɦaa

dzin

sa

cɛɛu

khaamx

cɛɛu

jɤɤnh

ɦaa

djɯɯnh

saʔ

to row

to cross

to row

slowly

ptl.

joyful

satisfy, please

Rowing slowly across the river, ah! I am so pleased!

縵

予

乎

昭

澶

秦

踰

moons

la

ɦaa

tjau < kljau

daans

dzin

lo

mɔɔm

raa

ɦaa

caux

daanh

djin

ruux

dirty, ragged

we, I

ptl.

prince

Your Excellency

acquainted

know

Dirty though I am, ah! I made acquaintance with your highness the Prince.

滲

惿

隨

河

湖

srɯms

djeʔ < gljeʔ

sɦloi

gaai

gaa

zumh

caï

rɯaih

graih

gaʔ

to hide

heart

forever, constantly

to yearn

ptl.

Hidden forever in my heart, ah! is my adoration and longing.

Map of the Chinese plain at the start of the Warring States Period in the 5th century BC, showing the locations of the states of Yue and Wu.

Besides this classical case, various papers in historical linguistics have employed Thai for comparative purposes in studying the linguistic landscape of the ancient region of Southern China. Proto-reconstructions of some scattered non-Sinitic words found in the two ancient Chinese fictional texts, Mu tianzi zhuan 穆天子傳 (4th c. B.C.) and Yuejue shu 越絕書 (1st c. A.D.), are used to compare to Thai/Siamese and its related languages in Tai-Kadai language family in an attempt to identify the origins of those words. The following examples are cited from Wolfgang Behr's work (2002):

• "吳謂善「伊」, 謂稻道「缓」, 號從中國, 名從主人。"

“The Wú say yī for ‘good’ and huăn for ‘way’, i.e. in their titles they follow the central kingdoms, but in their names they follow their own lords.”

伊 yī < MC ʔjij < OC *^bq(l)ij ← Siamese dii^A1, Longzhou dai¹, Bo'ai nii¹ Daiya li¹, Sipsongpanna di¹, Dehong li⁶ < proto-Tai *ʔdɛi^A1 | Sui ʔdaai¹, Kam laai¹, Maonan ʔdaai¹, Mak ʔdaai⁶ < proto-Kam-Sui/proto-Kam-Tai *ʔdaai¹ 'good'

缓 [huăn] < MC hwanX < OC *^awan ← Siamese hon^A1, Bo'ai hɔn¹, Dioi thon¹ < proto-Tai *xron^A1| Sui khwən¹-i, Kam khwən¹, Maonan khun¹-i, Mulam khwən¹-i < proto-Kam-Sui *khwən¹ 'road, way' | proto-Hlai *kuun¹ || proto-Austronesian *Zalan (Thurgood 1994:353)

• yuè jué shū 越絕書 (The Book of Yuè Records), 1st c. A.D.

絕 jué < MC dzjwet < OC *^bdzot ← Siamese cod^D1 'to record, mark' (Zhengzhang Shangfang 1999:8)

• "姑中山者越銅官之山也, 越人謂之銅, 「姑[沽]瀆」。"

“The Middle mountains of Gū are the mountains of the Yuè’s bronze office, the Yuè people call them ‘Bronze gū[gū]dú.”

「姑[沽]瀆」 gūdú < MC ku=duwk < OC *^aka=^alok

← Siamese kʰau^A1 'horn', Daiya xau⁵, Sipsongpanna xau¹, Dehong xau¹, Lü xău¹, Dioi kaou¹ 'mountain, hill' < proto-Tai *kʰau^A2; Siamese luuk^D2l 'classifier for mountains', Siamese kʰau^A1-luuk^D2l 'mountain' || cf. OC 谷 gǔ < kuwk << *^ak-lok/luwk < *^akə-lok/yowk < *^blok 'valley'

• "越人謂船爲「須盧」。"

"... The Yuè people call a boat xūlú. (‘beard’ & ‘cottage’)"

須 xū < MC sju < OC *^bs(n)o

? ← Siamese saʔ 'noun prefix'

盧 lú < MC lu < OC *^bra

← Siamese rɯa^A2, Longzhou lɯɯ², Bo'ai luu², Daiya hə², Dehong hə² 'boat' < proto-Tai *drɯ[a,o] | Sui lwa¹/ʔda¹, Kam lo¹/lwa¹, Be zoa < proto-Kam-Sui *s-lwa(n)^A1 'boat'

• "[劉]賈築吳市西城, 名曰「定錯」城。"

"[Líu] Jiă (the king of Jīng 荆) built the western wall, it was called dìngcuò ['settle(d)' & 'grindstone'] wall."

定 dìng < MC dengH < OC *^adeng-s

← Siamese diaaŋ^A1, Daiya tʂhəŋ², Sipsongpanna tseŋ² 'wall'

錯 cuò < MC tshak < OC *^atshak

? ← Siamese tok^D1s 'to set→sunset→west' (tawan-tok 'sun-set' = 'west'); Longzhou tuk⁷, Bo'ai tɔk⁷, Daiya tok⁷, Sipsongpanna tok⁷ < proto-Tai *tok^D1s ǀ Sui tok⁷, Mak tok⁷, Maonan tɔk < proto-Kam-Sui *tɔk^D1

See also

• Thai alphabet
• Thai honorifics
• Thai literature
• Thai numerals

Sources

• อภิลักษณ์ ธรรมทวีธิกุล และ กัลยารัตน์ ฐิติกานต์นารา. 2549.“การเน้นพยางค์กับทำนองเสียงภาษาไทย” (Stress and Intonation in Thai ) วารสารภาษาและภาษาศาสตร์ ปีที่ 24 ฉบับที่ 2 (มกราคม – มิถุนายน 2549) หน้า 59-76
• สัทวิทยา : การวิเคราะห์ระบบเสียงในภาษา. 2547. กรุงเทพฯ : สำนักพิมพ์มหาวิทยาลัยเกษตรศาสตร์
• Diller, Anthony van Nostrand. 2008. The Tai–Kadai Languages.
• Gandour, Jack, Tumtavitikul, Apiluck and Satthamnuwong, Nakarin. 1999. “Effects of Speaking Rate on the Thai Tones.” Phonetica 56, pp. 123–134.
• Li, Fang-Kuei. A handbook of comparative Tai. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii, 1977. Print.
• Rischel, Jørgen. 1998. 'Structural and Functional Aspects of Tone Split in Thai'. In Sound structure in language, 2009.
• Tumtavitikul, Apiluck, 1998. “The Metrical Structure of Thai in a Non-Linear Perspective”. Papers presentd to the Fourth Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society 1994, pp. 53–71. Udom Warotamasikkhadit and Thanyarat Panakul, eds. Temple, Arizona: Program for Southeast Asian Studies, Arizona State University.
• Apiluck Tumtavitikul. 1997. “The Reflection on the X’ category in Thai”. Mon–Khmer Studies XXVII, pp. 307–316.
• อภิลักษณ์ ธรรมทวีธิกุล. 2539. “ข้อคิดเกี่ยวกับหน่วยวากยสัมพันธ์ในภาษาไทย” วารสารมนุษยศาสตร์วิชาการ. 4.57-66.
• Tumtavitikul, Appi. 1995. “Tonal Movements in Thai”. The Proceedings of the XIIIth International Congress of Phonetic Sciences, Vol. I, pp. 188–121. Stockholm: Royal Institute of Technology and Stockholm University.
• Tumtavitikul, Apiluck. 1994. “Thai Contour Tones”. Current Issues in Sino-Tibetan Linguistics, pp. 869–875. Hajime Kitamura et al., eds, Ozaka: The Organization Committee of the 26th Sino-Tibetan Languages and Linguistics, National Museum of Ethnology.
• Tumtavitikul, Apiluck. 1993. “FO – Induced VOT Variants in Thai”. Journal of Languages and Linguistics, 12.1.34 – 56.
• Tumtavitikul, Apiluck. 1993. “Perhaps, the Tones are in the Consonants?” Mon–Khmer Studies XXIII, pp. 11–41.
• Higbie, James and Thinsan, Snea. Thai Reference Grammar: The Structure of Spoken Thai. Bangkok: Orchid Press, 2003. ISBN 974-8304-96-5.
• Nacaskul, Karnchana, Ph.D. (ศาสตราจารย์กิตติคุณ ดร.กาญจนา นาคสกุล) Thai Phonology, 4th printing. (ระบบเสียงภาษาไทย, พิมพ์ครั้งที่ 4) Bangkok: Chulalongkorn Press, 1998. ISBN 978-974-639-375-1.
• Nanthana Ronnakiat, Ph.D. (ดร.นันทนา รณเกียรติ) Phonetics in Principle and Practical. (สัทศาสตร์ภาคทฤษฎีและภาคปฏิบัติ) Bangkok: Thammasat University, 2005. ISBN 974-571-929-3.
• Segaller, Denis. Thai Without Tears: A Guide to Simple Thai Speaking. Bangkok: BMD Book Mags, 1999. ISBN 974-87115-2-8.
• Smyth, David (2002). Thai: An Essential Grammar, first edition. London: Routledge.
• Smyth, David (2014). Thai: An Essential Grammar, second edition. London: Routledge.
• Tingsabadh, M.R. Kalaya; Abramson, Arthur (1993), "Thai", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 23 (1): 24–28, doi:10.1017/S0025100300004746 {{citation}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Behr, Wolfgang (2002). "Stray loanword gleanings from two Ancient Chinese fictional texts". 16e Journées de linguistique d'Asie Orientale, Centre de Recherches Linguistiques sur l’Asie Orientale (E.H.E.S.S.), Paris: 1–6. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Edmondson, Jerold A. (2007). "The power of language over the past: Tai settlement and Tai linguistics in southern China and northern Vietnam" (PDF). Studies in Southeast Asian languages and linguistics, Jimmy G. Harris, Somsonge Burusphat and James E. Harris, ed. Bangkok, Thailand: Ek Phim Thai Co. Ltd.: 1–25. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Holm, David (2013). Mapping the Old Zhuang Character Script: A Vernacular Writing System from Southern China. BRILL. ISBN 978-9-004-22369-1. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Zhengzhang, Shangfang (1991). "Decipherment of Yue-Ren-Ge (Song of the Yue boatman)". Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orientale. 20 (2): 159–168. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Further reading

• Inglis, Douglas. 1999. Lexical conceptual structure of numeral classifiers in Thai-Part 1. Payap Research and Development Institute and The Summer Institute of Linguistics. Payap University.
• Inglis, Douglas. 2000. Grammatical conceptual structure of numeral classifiers in Thai-Part 2. Payap Research and Development Institute and The Summer Institute of Linguistics. Payap University.
• Inglis, Douglas. 2003. Conceptual structure of numeral classifiers in Thai. In Eugene E. Casad and Gary B. Palmer (eds.). Cognitive linguistics and non-Indo-European languages. CLR Series 18. nd Gary B. Palmer. Mouton deGruyter. 223-246.

External links

• IPA and SAMPA for Thai
• Structure of Thai Language (TH101) PDF version of university text book
• Consonant Ear Training Tape
• Tones of Tai Dialect

Glossaries and word lists

• Thai phrasebook from Wikivoyage
• Thai Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words (from Wiktionary's Swadesh-list appendix)

Dictionaries

• English–Thai Dictionary: English–Thai bilingual online dictionary
• The Royal Institute Dictionary, official standard Thai–Thai dictionary
• Longdo Thai Dictionary LongdoDict
• Thai-English dictionary
• Thai2english.com: LEXiTRON-based Thai–English dictionary
• Daoulagad Thai: mobile OCR Thai–English dictionary
• Thai dictionaries for Stardict/GoldenDict - Thai - English (French, German, Russian and others) dictionaries in Stardict and GoldenDict formats
• Volubilis Dictionary VOLUBILIS (Romanized Thai - Thai - English - French) : free databases (ods/xlsx) and dictionaries (PDF) - Thai transcription system.

Learners' resources

• ThaiLearner ★★★★★ Free Android software to learn Thai language
• thai-language.com English speakers' online resource for the Thai language
• Say Hello in the Thai Language
• FSI Thai language course (Formerly at thailanguagewiki.com)
• Spoken Thai (30 exercises with audio)
• Thai books+Audio, a lot of books in Thai with audio.

Thai Keyboard

• Thai Keyboard Virtual Thai Keyboard