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Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent

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The Decline of Buddhism in India, in the land of its birth occurred for a variety of reasons, and happened even as it continued to flourish beyond the frontiers of India. [1] Buddhism was established in the area of ancient Magadha and Kosala by Gautama Buddha in the 6th century BCE, in what is now modern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. [2] Buddhism, over the next 1500 years became the region's dominant belief system, spreading across the Indian sub-continent (see History of Buddhism).

After the death of Gautama Buddha, Buddhism saw rapid expansion in its first century, especially in northern and central India. [2] The Mauryan Emperor Ashoka (304-232 BCE) and later monarchs encouraged the expansion of Buddhism into Asia through religious ambassadors. Chinese scholars traveling through the region between the 5th and 8th centuries CE, such as Faxian, Xuanzang, I-ching, Hui-sheng, and Sung-Yun, began to speak of a decline of the Buddhist sangha, especially in the wake of the White Hun invasion. [2] A continuing decline occurred after the fall of the Pala dynasty in the 12th century CE, continuing with the later destruction of monasteries by Muslim conquerors. [2]

Buddhism was virtually extinct by the end of the 19th century. In recent times, Buddhism has seen a revival in India due to the influence of Anagarika Dharmapala,Kripasaran Mahasthavir[6],Dr. B. R. Ambedkar and Tenzin Gyatso.

Decline of Buddhism under various governments

The Sungas

Following the Mauryans, Pusyamitra Sunga is linked in legend with the persecution of Buddhists and a resurgence of a form of Hinduism that forced Buddhism outwards to Kashmir, Gandhara and Bactria. There is some doubt as to whether he did or did not persecute Buddhists actively.[3]

A Buddhist tradition holds him as having taken taking steps to check the spread of Buddhism as "the number one enemy of the sons of the Sakya's[4] and a most cruel persecutor of the religion".[3] The Divyavadana ascribes to him the razing of stupas and viharas built by Ashoka, the placing of a bounty of 100 dinaras upon the heads of Buddhist monks (Shramanas) and describes him as one who wanted to undo the work of Ashoka.[5] This account has however been described as "exaggerated".[5] Historian Romila Thapar writes that the Asokavadana legend is, in all probability, a "Buddhist version of Pusyamitra's attack of the Mauryas", and reflects the fact that, with the declining influence of Buddhism in the Imperial court, Buddhist monuments and institutions would receive less attention. [6]

Some historians have rejected the accuracy of the Buddhist texts that record Pushyamitra’s persecution of Buddhists. The first accounts appear two centuries after Pushyamitra's reign in Asokâvadâna and the Divyâvadâna. Koenraad Elst posits that historical facts confirm that Pushyamitra allowed and patronized the construction of monasteries and Buddhist universities in his domains, as well as the still-existent stupa of Sanchi. While Sir John Marshall states that it is possible that the original brick stupa built by Ashoka was destroyed by Pusyamitra and then restored by his successor Agnimitra.[7] Archaeological evidence is scarce and uncertain.[8]Following Ashoka’s sponsorship of Buddhism, it is possible that Buddhist institutions fell on harder times under the Sungas but no evidence of active persecution has been noted. Etienne Lamotte observes: “To judge from the documents, Pushyamitra must be acquitted through lack of proof.”[9]

The Sungas were patrons of Hinduism and their lack of royal patronage was also a setback to Buddhism, resulting in the splintering of Buddhism into many forces. Some of them were: the Saravastivadins, Mahasargikas, Sthaviravadha, and Yogacara. This resulted in a diversity of opinions and interpretations that led to a conflict between warring schools shortly after the fall of the Mauryans. [5] Later Sunga kings were seen as more amenable to Buddhism and as having contributed to the building of the stupa at Bharhut.[10]

Hinduism competed in political and spiritual realm with Buddhism [5][3] in the gangetic plains while Buddhism flourished in the realms of the Bactrian kings.[5]

Guptas

Buddhism saw a brief revival under the Guptas. By the 4th to 5th century Buddhism was already in decline in northern India, even as it was achieving multiple successes in Central Asia and along the Silk Road as far as China. It continued to prosper in Gandhara under the Shahi kingdom.

White Huns

Central Asian and North Western Indian Buddhism weakened in the 6th century following the White Hun invasion, who followed their own religions such as Tengri, Nestorian Christianity, and Manichean. Their King, Mihirakula (who ruled from 515 CE), suppressed Buddhism as well. He did this by destroying monasteries as far away as modern-day Allahabad, before his son reversed the policy.

Harsha

In the North and west the collapse of Harshavardana's kingdom gave rise to many smaller kingdoms. This led to the rise of the martial Rajputs clans across the gangetic plains. It also marked the end of Buddhist ruling clans, along with a sharp decline in royal patronage. This carried on until a revival under the Pala Empire in the Bengal region. Subsequently, the replacement of Buddhist royal lines with Hindu royals, as well as the rise of martial Rajput dynasties, further pressured Buddhism.

Buddhism in Southern India

In the south of India while there was no overt persecution of Buddhists at least two Pallava rulers Simhavarma and Trilochana are known to have destroyed Buddhist stupas and have had Hindu temples built over them. Furthermore a vigorous Hindu revival of Vaishnavite Hinduism in the region led to a sharp decline of Buddhism.[7]

Muhammad bin Qasim

In AD 711, Muhammad bin Qasim conquered the Sindh bringing Indian societies into contact with Islam. He succeeded partly because Dahir was an unpopular Hindu king that ruled over a Buddhist majority.[11][12] Chach of Alor and his kin were regarded as usurpers of the earlier Buddhist Rai Dynasty.[11] The forces of Muhammad bin Qasim defeated Raja Dahir in alliance with the lower caste Jats and other Buddhist governors. His campaign's success is ascribed to the support of Buddhists and the lower caste Jats, Meds and Bhutto tribes.[12]

While the Chach Nama records a couple of instances of conversion of stupas to mosques such as at Nerun, the destruction of temples[13] was forbidden under the adopted Hanafi school of thought, 3% of the government revenue was allocated to the Brahmins[11] and as a whole, the non-Muslim populations of conquered territories were treated as People of the Book and granted Hindu and Buddhist religions the freedom to practice their faith in return for payment of the poll tax (jizya).[11] They were then excused from military service or payment of the tax paid by Muslim subjects - Zakat.[14] The jizya enforced was a graded tax, being heaviest on the elite and lightest on the poor.[14]

While proslytization occurred, the social dynamics of Sind were no different from other Muslim regions such as Egypt, where conversion to Islam was slow and took centuries, and generally came from among the ranks of Buddhists.[14]

The Cachanama text composed by Mohammed Al bin Hamid bin Abu Bakr Kufi is extremely biased against the non-Muslims as it supports the plunder, oppression and destruction of the non-Muslims by the Islamist invaders.

Siwistan and Sisam (Sindh) Mohammed bin Qasem wrote to al-Hajjaj, the governor of Iraq:[15]

"The forts of Siwistan and Sism have been already taken. The nephew of Dahir, his warriors and principla officers have been despatched, and infidels converted to Islam or destroyed. Instead of idol temples, mosques and other places of worship have been built, pulpits have been erected, the Khutba is read, the call to prayers is raised so that devotions are performed at sacred hours."

Multan (Punjab) .."Mohammed Qasem arose and with his counsellors, guards and attendants, went to the temple. He saw there an idol made of gold. and its two eye were bright red rubies. "..Muhammed Qasem ordered the idol to be taken up. Two hundred and thirty "mans" of gold were brought to the treasury together with the gems and pearls and treasures which were obtained from the plunder of Multan. "

Mahmud of Ghazni

By the 10th century Mahmud of Ghazni defeated the Hindu-Shahis, effectively removing Hindu influence and ending Buddhist self-governance across Central Asia, as well as the Punjab region. He demolished both stupas and temples during his numerous campaigns across North-Western India, but left those within his domains and Afghanistan alone, even as al-Biruni recorded Buddha as the prophet "Burxan".[16]

Mahmud of Ghazni is said to have been an iconoclast.[17] Hindu and Buddhist statues, shrines and temples were looted and destroyed, and many Buddhists had to take refuge in Tibet.[18]

Palas

In the East under the Palas in Bengal, Mahayana Buddhism flourished and spread to Bhutan and Sikkim. The Palas created many temples and a distinctive school of Buddhist art. Mahayana Buddhism flourished under the Palas between the 8th and the 12th century, before it collapsed at the hands of the attacking Sena dynasty.

Muhammad of Ghor

Muhammad attacked the North-Western regions of the Indian subcontinent many times. Gujarat later fell to Muhammad of Ghor's armies in 1197. Muhammad of Ghor's armies destroyed many Buddhist structures, including the great Buddhist university of Nalanda.[19]

In 1200 Muhammad Khilji, one of Qutb-ud-Din's generals destroyed monasteries fortified by the Sena armies, such as the one at Vikramshila. Many monuments of ancient Indian civilization were destroyed by the invading armies, including Buddhist sanctuaries near Benares. Buddhist monks who escaped the massacre fled to Nepal, Tibet and South India. [20]

The Mongols

In 1215, Genghis Khan conquered Afghanistan and devastated the Muslim world. In 1227, after his death, his conquest was divided. Chagatai then established the Chagatai Khanate, where his son Arghun made Buddhism the state religion. At the same time, he came down harshly on Islam and demolished mosques to build many stupas. He was succeeded by his brother, and then his son Ghazan who converted to Islam and in 1295 changed the state religion. After his reign, and the splitting of the Chagatai Khanate, little mention of Buddhism or the stupas built by the Mongols can be found in Afghanistan and Central Asia.[21]

Timur (Tamarlane)

Timur was a 14th-century warlord of Turco-Mongol descent [22][23][24][25], conqueror of much of Western and central Asia, and founder of the Timurid Empire.

Timur destroyed Buddhist establishments and raided areas in which Buddhism had flourished. [26][27]

Mughals

Mughal rule also contributed to the decline of Buddhism. They are reported to have destroyed many Hindu temples and Buddhist shrines alike or converted many sacred Hindu places into Muslim shrines and mosques.[28] Mughal rulers like Aurangzeb destroyed Buddhist temples and monasteries and replaced them with Islamic mosques. [29]

Ideological and financial causes

The period between the 400 BCE and 1000 CE saw gains by Hinduism at the expense of Buddhism. Some Hindu rulers resorted to military means in an effort to suppress Buddhism. However it is seen that the evolution of Hindu ideology influenced by Buddhisms was more important factor for the growth of Hinduism.[30]

Hinduism became a more "intelligible and satisfying road to faith for many ordinary worshippers" because it now included not only an appeal to a personal god, but had also seen the development of an emotional facet with the composition of devotional hymns.[30]

Xuanzang's Report

Xuanzang reports in his travels across India during the 7th century that Buddhism was popular in Andhra, Dhanyakataka, and Dravida which today roughly correspond to the modern day Indian states of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.[31] Xuanzang compliments the patronage of Harshavardana during this same period while noting in his travels that in various regions Buddhism was giving way to Jainism and a Hindu order. During the reign of the Chalukya dynasty, Xuanzang reported that numerous Buddhist stupas in regions previously ruled by Buddhist-sympathetic Andhras and Pallavas were "ruined" and "deserted".These regions came under the control of the Vaishnavite Eastern Chalukyas, who were not favorable to Buddhism and did not support the religion[32].Xuanzang's report also mentions that, in the 7th Century, Shashanka of the Kingdom of Gouda (Bengal), was expanding his influence in the region in the aftermath of the fall of the Gupta Empire. He is blamed by Xuanzhang and other Buddhist sources for the murder of Rajyavardhana, a Buddhist king of Thanesar. Xuanzang writes that Shashanka destroyed the Bodhi tree of enlightenment at Bodh Gaya and replaced Buddha statues with Shiva Lingams. However, it has been claimed that Xuanzhang had a Buddhist bias in favor of the buddhist rulers such as Harshavardhana and that his account may therefore be slanted.[33].

Philosophical divergence with Adi Shankara

See also: Buddhism and Hinduism

In 9th century CE, the Buddhist philosophers started to lose ground with the Hindu Saint Adi Shankara. The Shankaracharya debated with Buddhist monks and raised issues with Buddhist philosophy. The resurgence of Hinduism with the ideas of Shankaracharya led to a reduction of royal patronage of the Buddhist monks. As political patronage failed, it came under increasing pressure by Hinduism and the revival movements of Adi Shankara. Shakyamuni Buddha eventually came to be venerated as a manifestation of the Hindu god Vishnu.

Literary evidences point towards an absorption of Buddhist elements by Hindu culture over a period of centuries.[34] Anti-Buddhist propaganda was also reaching its peak during the 8th century when Shankara modeled his monastic order after the Buddhist Sangha.[34] An upsurge of Brahmanical Hinduism had taken place in NorthIndia by the early eleventh century as illustrated by the influential Sanskrit drama Prabodhacandrodaya in the Chandela court; a devotion to Vishnu and an allegory to the defeat of Buddhism and Jainism.[34] The population of North India had become predominantly Shaiva, Vaishnava or Shakta.[34] By the 12th century a lay population of Buddhist hardly existed outside the monastic institutions and when it did penetrate the Indian peasant population it was hardly discernible as a distinct community.[35] Buddhist monasteries were well-funded and life within was relatively easy. To avoid unwanted members, many monasteries became selective about whom they admitted, in some cases based on social class.[citation needed]

Islam

The Arabic invaders described Indian Pagans as But-parast, and idol-breakers as but-shikan. The word "but" is derived from Buddhism, but the Arabs used it for "Indian paganism" in general.[36] When the Arabs arrived in Sind there were only glimpses of Buddhism nor any evidence of a provincial government in control of the Buddhists.[37] During the seventh to thirteenth centuries when Islam arrived it replaced Buddhism as the great cosmopolitan trading religion in many places accompanied by a consolidation of the communal peasant religions of Hinduism.[37] The Tibetan scholar of the seventeenth century Tarnatha writes that during the time of the Sena king Stag-gzigs (Turks) had begun to appear on horses and that monasteries had been fortified with troops stationed in them; however, they were overrun and monks at Uddandapura were massacred, the monastery razed and replaced by a new fort and further north-east Vikramshila was destroyed as well.[38]. Hardly an contemporary evidence however exists on the destruction of Buddhist monasteries.[37] Brief Muslim accounts and the one eye witness account of Dharmasmavim in wake of the conquest during the 1230s talks about abandoned viharas being used as camps by the Turukshahs.[37] Later historical traditions such as Taranathas are mixed with legendary materials and summarized as "the Turukshah conquered the whole of Magadha and destroyed many monasteries and did much damage at Nalanda, such that many monks fled abroad" thereby bringing about a sudden demise of Buddhism with their destruction of the Viharas.[37] Buddhism lingered longer in Iran than South Asia and was officially professed under fifty years of Mongol conquest.[37] With the conversion of Ghazan to Islam in 1295, the backlash resulted in the destruction of many Buddhist places of worship and the further migration of monks into Kashmir.[37]

Sufis and the Bhakti movement

When Islam arrived in India, it sought conversion from, not assimilation to or integration with, the already present religions. Under Sufi influence, the pressures of caste, and with no political support structure left in place to resist social mores, many converted to Islam in the Bengal region.

After the Mongol invasions of Islamic lands across Central Asia, many Sufis also found themselves fleeing towards India and around the environs of Bengal. In Bengal, their influence, caste attitudes towards Buddhists, previous familiarity with converting Buddhists, a lack of Buddhist political power, Hinduism's resurgence through movements such as the Advaita and the bhakti movement, all contributed to a significant realignment of beliefs that relegated Buddhism in India to the peripheries.

Survival of Buddhism in India

At the beginning of the modern era, Buddhism was very nearly extinct in mainstream Indian society. Some tribal peoples living in the territory of modern India did continue to practice Buddhism.

In Bengal, the Bauls still practice a syncretic form of Hinduism that was strongly influenced by Buddhism. There is also evidence of small communities of Indian Theravada Buddhists existing continuously in Bengal in the area of Chittagong hill tracts among the indegious Chakma people up to the present. [39] Though they are under increasing pressure from mostly Mulsim Bengali settlers.

Buddhist institutions flourished in eastern India right until the Islamic invasion. Buddhism still survives among the Barua, a community of Bengali/Magadh descent that migrated to Chittagong region. Indian Buddhism also survives among Newars of Nepal.

In Orissa, Mahima Dharma, a derivative of Buddhism, survived until 18th century.

The Hindu Kayasthas, a community of scribes in North India, had been a supporter of Buddhism since the early period. They continued to support Buddhism until about 12th-13th century in some regions.

Buddhism survived in Gilgit and Baltistan until 13-14th century, perhaps slightly longer in the nearby Swat Valley. In Ladakh region, adjacent to Kashmir valley, Tibetan Buddhism survives to this day. The historic prevalence and history of Tibetan Buddhism in the above mentioned Northern regions of Jammu and Kashmir is reported in the Rajatarangini of Kalhana written sometime during 1147–1149 CE.

In Tamilnadu and Kerala, Buddhism survived until 15-16th century. At Nagapattinam, in Tamil Nadu, Buddhist idols were cast and inscribed until this time, and the ruins of the Chudamani Vihara stood until they were destroyed by the Jesuits in 1867. [40] In the South in some pockets, it may have survived even longer.

Revival

Further information: Buddhism in India and Dalit Buddhist movement

On pilgramage to Bodh Gaya in 1891, when the Sri Lankan Buddhist leader Anagarika Dharmapala was shocked to find the temple in the hands of a Saivite priest, the Buddha image transformed into a Hindu icon and Buddhists barred from worship.[41] The Buddhist revival then began in India, when he founded the Maha Bodhi Society.[42][41] The organization's initial efforts were for the purpose of resuscitation Buddhism in India and of restoring the ancient Buddhist shrines at Bodh Gaya, Sarnath and Kushinara.[43] The Buddhist renaissance inaugurated by Anagarika Dharmapala through his Mahabodhi Movement is also described as "conservative" for it held the Muslim Rule in India responsible for the decay of Buddhism in India in the then current mood of Hindu-Buddhist brotherhood.[44] The organization's initial efforts were to restore various Buddhist shrines that had been neglected under Hindu administration, and to open to the public various Buddhist sites and temples that had been destroyed in various periods of Muslim invasion.

Later in the 1950's Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar pioneered the Dalit Buddhist movement in India. Dr. Ambedekar saw conversion to Islam and to Christianity as a factor contributing to the "denationalisation" of India.[45] The revival movement of Buddhism in India underwent a major change when after publishing a series of books and articles arguing that Buddhism was the only way for the untouchables to gain equality, Ambedkar publicly converted on October 14, 1956 in Nagpur and then in turn led a mass-conversion ceremony for over 380,000 dalits. Many other such mass-conversion ceremonies organized since and has become a politically charged issue.[46] Since Ambedkar's conversion, numerous similar many more people from different castes have converted to Buddhism. Many Dalits employ the term "Ambedkar(ite) Buddhism" to designate the Buddhist movement, which started with Ambedkar's conversion. [47]

in 1959 Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama transitioned from Tibet to India and set up the government of Tibet in Exile in Dharamsala, India, [48] which is often referred to as "Little Lhasa." Tibetan exiles numbering several thousand have since settled in the town. Most of these exiles live in Upper Dharamsala, or McLeod Ganj, where they established monasteries, temples and schools. The town is sometimes known as "Little Lhasa", after the Tibetan capital city, and has become one of the centres of Buddhism in the world.

Notes

  1. ^ Promsak, pg.14
  2. ^ a b c d Merriam-Webster, pg. 155-157
  3. ^ a b c Sarvastivada pg 38-39
  4. ^ Gautama Buddha was held to be from the tribe of the Sakya's (Alt terms: Saka/Shakya) and his title Sakyamuni means "sage of the Sakas".
  5. ^ a b c d e Ashok, pg 91-93
  6. ^ Thapar, Romila. Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas, Oxford University Press, 1960, p. 200
  7. ^ Marshall, Sir John. "A Guide to Sanchi", Eastern Book House, 1990, ISBN-10: 8185204322, p. 38
  8. ^ Article on Deokothar Stupas possibly being targeted by Pushyamitra
  9. ^ [1] Ashoka and Pushyamitra, iconoclasts? by Koenraad Elst
  10. ^ Akira Hirakawa, Paul Groner, A History of Indian Buddhism: From Sakyamuni to Early Mahayan, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1996, ISBN 8120809556, p. 223
  11. ^ a b c d Nicholas F. Gier, FROM MONGOLS TO MUGHALS: RELIGIOUS VIOLENCE IN INDIA 9TH-18TH CENTURIES, Presented at the Pacific Northwest Regional Meeting American Academy of Religion, Gonzaga University, May, 2006[2], Last accessed December 11 2006
  12. ^ a b The Chach-Nama. English translation by Mirza Kalichbeg Fredunbeg. Delhi Reprint, 1979 Online Version last accessed 3 October 2006
  13. ^ Schimmel, Annemarie Schimmel, Religionen - Islam in the Indian Subcontinent, Brill Academic Publishers, January 1, 1980, ISBN 90-04-06117-7, pg. 4
  14. ^ a b c Appleby, R Scott & Martin E Marty, Fundamentalisms Comprehended, University of Chicago Press, May 1, 2004, ISBN 0-226-50888-9 pg 290-292
  15. ^ Hindu Temples: What Happened to Them by Sita Ram Goel
  16. ^ The Historical Interaction between the Buddhist and Islamic Cultures before the Mongol Empire, Part III: The Spread of Islam among and by the Turkic Peoples (840 - 1206 CE)
  17. ^ Notes on the Religious, Moral, and Political State of India Before the Mohammedan Invasion:... By Faxian, Sykes (William Henry) pg.??
  18. ^ How to Prepare for the Sat II: World History By Marilynn Hitchens, Heidi Roupp, pg. ??
  19. ^ Historia Religionum: Handbook for the History of Religions By C. J. Bleeker, G. Widengren page 381
  20. ^ Islam at War: A History By Mark W. Walton, George F. Nafziger, Laurent W. Mbanda (page 226)
  21. ^ The Ilkhanate
  22. ^ B.F. Manz, "Tīmūr Lang", in Encyclopaedia of Islam, Online Edition, 2006
  23. ^ The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, "Timur", 6th ed., Columbia University Press: "... Timur (timoor') or Tamerlane (tăm'urlān), c.1336–1405, Mongol conqueror, b. Kesh, near Samarkand. ...", (LINK)
  24. ^ "Timur", in Encyclopaedia Britannica: "... [Timur] was a member of the Turkic Barlas clan of Mongols..."
  25. ^ "Baber", in Encyclopaedia Britannica: "... Baber first tried to recover Samarkand, the former capital of the empire founded by his Mongol ancestor Timur Lenk ..."
  26. ^ Sir Aurel Stein: Archaeological Explorer By Jeannette Mirsky
  27. ^ Ethnicity & Family Therapy edited by Nydia Garcia-Preto, Joe Giordano, Monica McGoldrick
  28. ^ War at the Top of the World: The Struggle for Afghanistan, Kashmir, and Tibet By Eric S. Margolis page 165
  29. ^ India By Sarina Singh
  30. ^ a b Online BBC News Article: Religion & Ethics - Hinduism, last accessed 2 January 2007
  31. ^ [3]
  32. ^ F. R. Hemingway, Godavari district gazetteer, 2000, Asian Educational Services, ISBN 8120614615, pg 20
  33. ^ Banglapedia
  34. ^ a b c d Wink 347-349
  35. ^ Wink, 334-347
  36. ^ Elliot & Dowson: History of India, vol.1, p.119, 120. Koenraad Elst: Who is a Hindu. 2001
  37. ^ a b c d e f g Wink 348-350
  38. ^ Wink 147-148
  39. ^ [4]
  40. ^ [5]
  41. ^ a b Sean O'Reilly, James O'Reilly, Pilgrimage: Adventures of the Spirit, Travelers' Tales, 2000,ISBN 1885211562 pg 81-82
  42. ^ Ahir, D.C. (1991). Buddhism in Modern India. Satguru. ISBN 81-7030-254-4.
  43. ^ Mahabodhi Society
  44. ^ A Close View of Encounter between British Burma and British Bengal
  45. ^ Dr. Ambedkar and untouchability: Leader of the Untouchables, Architect of the Indian Constitution By Christopher Jaffrelot (page 122)
  46. ^ Pritchett, Frances (2006-08-02). "Columbia University" (PHP). Retrieved 2006-08-02. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  47. ^ Maren Bellwinkel-Schempp (2004). "Roots of Ambedkar Buddhism in Kanpur" (PDF).
  48. ^ The Dalai Lama: A Policy of Kindness By Sidney Piburn (page 12)

References

  • "The Decline of Buddhism in India". Washington State University. Retrieved 2006-12-23.
  • Dhammika, S. (1993). The Edicts of King Ashoka. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society. ISBN 955-24-0104-6. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Promsak Jermsawatdi, "Thai Art with Indian influence", 2003, Abhinav Publications, ISBN 8170170907
  • Doniger, Wendy (2000). Merriam-Webster Encyclopedia of World Religions. Encyclopedia Britanica. p. 1378. ISBN 0877790442. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Charles (EDT) Willemen, Bart Dessein, Collett Cox, "Sarvastivada Buddhist Scholastism", 1998, Brill Academic Publishers
  • Ashok Kumar Anand, "Buddhism in India", 1996, Gyan Books, ISBN 8121205069
  • André Wink, "Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World", 2004, BRILL, ISBN 90041023

See also

External links

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