Asian Americans

Asian American

Regions with significant populations
Alaska, Hawaii, West Coast, Northeast, Chicago
Languages
American English, Chinese, Tagalog, Vietnamese, Korean, Japanese, Hindi, Persian, Urdu, Gujarati, others
Religion
Buddhism, Chinese folk religion, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Shamanism, Sikhism, Atheism, others
Related ethnic groups
Asians, Asian Australians, Asian Canadians, Asian Latin Americans, Asian South Africans, British Asians, others

An Asian American is generally defined as a person of Asian ancestry who was born in or is an immigrant to the United States. The term Asian American was used informally by activists in the 1960s who sought an alternative to the term Oriental, arguing that the term was derogatory, and colonialist. Formal usage was introduced by academics in the early 1970s, notably by historian Yuji Ichioka, who is credited with popularizing the term. Today, Asian American is the accepted term for most formal purposes, such as government and academic research, although the term is often shortened to Asian in common usage.

As with other racial and ethnic groups, formal and common usage have changed markedly through the short history of this term. The most significant change occurred when the Hart-Celler Act of 1965 eliminated highly restrictive "national origins" quotas. The new country-specific quotas enabled significant immigration from every country in Asia, which led to dramatic and ongoing changes in the Asian American population. As a result of these population changes, the formal and common understandings of what defines Asian American have expanded to include progressively more of the people with ancestry from various parts of Asia.

Terminology

Template:United Nations Asia map The most commonly-used definition of Asian American is the Census Bureau definition of Asian, largely because the Census definitions determine many government classifications, notably for equal opportunity programs and measurements. East Asia, Southeastern Asia, and most of Southern Asia are included in the Census definition of Asia. Ethnic groups with very small populations in the U.S. (e.g., Afghans, Uzbeks, and Siberians) are not counted separately, and currently are not included in the Asian category, while people with origins from the Middle East are included in the white Census group. The use of a separate "Asian" category in the Census is a recent addition, beginning in 1990. Since then, the Census definitions have varied over time. Most notably with the 2000 census separated Asian/Pacific Islander and moved Pacific Islander ethnicities into a separate racial group.

Earlier Census forms from 1980 and before listed particular Asian ancestries as separate groups along with White and Black or Negro. But the 1980 census marked the first general analyses of Asians as a group, combining several individual ancestry groups into "Asian or Pacific Islander." By the 1990 census, Asian or Pacific Islander (API) was included as an explicit category, although respondents had to select one particular ancestry. People of Middle Eastern ancestry are categorized in the white census category rather than Asian.

Finally, the definition of Asian American also has variations that derive from the use of the word American in different contexts. Immigration status, citizenship, acculturation, and language ability are some variables that are used to define American for various purposes and may vary in formal and everyday usage. For example, restricting American to include only U.S. citizens conflicts with discussions of Asian American businesses, which generally refer both to citizens and non-citizens. In other cases, American refers to people either born, raised, or currently living in the United States. The census is a notable--if implicit--example of this definition of American, since the census counts all people regardless of citizenship or immigration status.

Demographics

Template:Asian American total population by year The 2000 U.S. census recorded 11.9 million people who reported themselves as having either full or partial Asian heritage, 4.2% of the U.S. population. The largest ethnic subgroups were Chinese (3.4 million), Filipinos (2.9M), Asian Indians (1.9M), Vietnamese (1.2M), Koreans (1.2M), and Japanese (1.1M). Other sizable groups are Cambodians (206,000), Pakistanis (204,000), Laotians (198,000), Hmong (186,000), and Thais (150,000). The Asian American population is heavily urbanized, with nearly three-quarters of Asian Americans living in metropolitan areas with population greater than 2.5 million. Asian Americans are concentrated in the largest U.S. cities, with 40% of all Asian Americans living in the metropolitan areas around Los Angeles, San Francisco, and New York City. Half of all Asian Americans (5.4M) live in Hawaii or the West Coast, mostly in California (4.2M). Census data shows that Asian American populations are developing in major metropolitan areas off of the West Coast, with visible communities in areas in and around Washington, D.C./Baltimore and Houston, to name the largest examples.

Template:Asian American numbers in Metropolitan areas Asian Americans are visible and growing, but "underrepresented" (against the national aggregate) in several of the largest areas, including Chicago, Philadelphia, and Boston, although sizable concentrations (double the national percentage) can be found in urban neighborhoods of these cities such as Albany Park in Chicago and Olney in Philadelphia. Additionally, similar Asian populations are found in suburbs of these cities such as Naperville near Chicago; Millbourne, King of Prussia, and Cherry Hill near Philadelphia; Lowell and Lexington near Boston.

Until recently, Chinese were the only Asian American group who had a noticeable presence in large cities when it came to neighborhoods. In fact, besides having traditional Chinatowns, areas around cities such as San Francisco and Los Angeles have extensive suburban enclaves that are dominated by Chinese. The schools in these neighborhoods are attended by many Chinese Americans and Mandarin is usually offered as a second language. Following recent immigration waves, however, "Koreatowns" and "Little Saigons" have appeared in several cities. Large Japantowns once existed up and down the West Coast of the United States, but the ones that remain are mere vestiges of once vibrant pre-internment communities.

See also: List of U.S. cities with Asian American majority populations

Demographic trends

Asian Americans tend to have larger families and earn slightly less per capita than white populations. However, they have higher median income than whites as well as higher percentage of home ownership and college graduation rate. The proportion of Asian Americans at many selective educational institutions far exceeds the national population rate.

Such trends are less common among Asians emigrating to the United States from southeast Asian countries such as Laos and Cambodia, among others. Many of these immigrants can be considered refugees from Communist and totalitarian states and often do not have the educational or socioeconomic advantages of other Asian Americans. Many immigrants are often forced to work in minimum wage or below-minimum wage jobs, including menial sweatshop or restaurant labor, because they fear that mainstream employers will not hire them. If they are an illegal immigrant, employers will report them to the government.

Education

See also: Education outcomes in the United States by race and other classifications

Asian Americans have the highest educational attainment of any racial group. About 49% of Asian Americans have at least a bachelor's degree. Asian people often have the highest math averages in tests such as SAT, GRE etc. Since the 1990s, although verbal scores generally lag, combined SAT scores have also been higher than for white Americans. Asians constitute around 20-30% of those attending Ivy League colleges. Asian Americans are the largest ethnic group on some University of California campuses. Asian Americans make up only 4% of the American population, but they are more likely to attend college, go to graduate school, and earn higher grades than any other ethnic group in the United States. Although Asians parents have the most education and household income, Asian SAT scores are typically as high as whites even with more education and income. However, compared to whites, Asian Americans are less represented as teachers or professors than they are as students, and Asians are less common at less competitive campuses away from large metropolitan areas.

There was, and to some extent still are concerns that the goal of "diversity" has had a negative effect on Asians who are usually over-represented with charges of quotas and discrimination starting in the 1980s. Asian American test scores are also bi-modal, with disproportionate numbers of Asians not only at high scores, but also low scores. The Asian community has a large number of poorly educated immigrants with low incomes and lack of English skills. Asian education tradition is based on traditional respect for authority, memorization and hard work, but these values can be a variance to reform goals where critical thinking, problem solving, and questions that don't have one correct answer can be challenging to traditional cultures.

Income

Further information: Income in the United States

Median household and personal income along racial lines.

Asian Americans have household and personal income levels that exceed those of any other racial demographic, yet the Asian poverty rate is higher than for whites. In 2005 the median personal income for Asian Americans was estimated to be $36,152, compared to $33,030 for Whites, $27,101 for African Americans and $23,613 for those identifying as Hispanic or Latino. Asian Americans had the highest household income levels of any racial demographic with a median household income of $61,094, compared to $48,554 among White households. Additionally 28% of Asian American households had incomes exceeding $100,000, while only 18% of the overall population boasted such household incomes. The higher household income for Asian Americans is, however, somewhat offset by a larger household size, leading to the median income per household member being slightly lower for Asian American than for White American households. As the differences between the personal income levels among Asian Americans and those of other races are smaller than the racial discrepancies in household income levels, it becomes apparent that Asian Americans have a higher percentage 2+ income earner households. Overall, the higher personal income levels are attributed mostly to higher educational attainment.

Personal and Household Income Distribution, by Race/Ethnicity

Race/Ethnic Group	Type of income	poverty	<$25k	$25k- $50k	$50k- $75k	$75k- $100k	>$100k
White	Persons	N/A	35.6%	35.2%	14.5%	6.9%	7.2%
	Households	8.6%	24.9%	26.3%	18.9%	11.6%	18.3%
Asian Americans	Persons	N/A	33.5%	29.8%	18.1%	8.0%	10.6%
	Households	10.1%	20.9%	19.3%	19.2%	13.1%	27.5%
Hispanic or Latino	Persons	N/A	49.4%	36.5%	9.0%	2.6%	2.6%
	Households	18.3%	37.7%	29.7%	17.2%	6.6%	8.8%
African Americans	Persons	N/A	41.3%	37.0%	15.7%	3.5%	2.6%
	Households	22.3%	43.1%	26.8%	15.1%	7.3%	7.8%

SOURCE: US Census Bureau, 2006

Asian American history

Further information: Category:Chinese American history, Category:Japanese American history, Category:Filipino American history, and Category:Indian American history

Early history

In 1763, Filipinos established the small settlement of Saint Malo in the bayous of current-day Louisiana, after fleeing mistreatment aboard Spanish ships. Since there were no Filipino women with them at the time, the Manilamen, as they were known, married Cajun women and Indians.

In Hawaii, Chinese sailors came to Hawaii in 1778, the same year that Captain James Cook stumbled upon the island. Many settled and intermarried with Hawaiian women. Some Island-born Chinese could be well into the 7th generation. A smaller proportion of Chinese, Korean and Japanese laborers were brought in during the 19th century to work on sugar plantations. Later, Filipinos were also brought in as laborers.

A large number of Chinese and Japanese began immigrating to the U.S. in the mid 19th century. Many of these immigrants worked as laborers on the transcontinental railroad. A surge in Asian immigration in the late 19th century caused some to fear the growing number of Asians. This fear was referred to as the "yellow peril." Laws that were adopted in the United States included Asian Exclusion Act, Chinese Exclusion Act, etc.

Effects of war

Asian participants in the American Civil War were not given citizenship, voting rights, or access to public schools because they were legally declared "neither black nor white."

During World War II, the United States government declared Japanese Americans a risk to national security and undertook the Japanese American Internment, authorized by President Franklin Roosevelt with United States Executive Order 9066. This controversial action forced the relocation of approximately 112,000 to 120,000 Japanese and Japanese Americans, taking them from the west coast of the United States to hastily constructed War Relocation Centers in remote portions of the nation's interior. 62% of those forced to relocate were United States citizens. Starting in 1990, the government paid some reparations to the surviving internees.

Despite the internment, many Japanese American men served in World War II in the American forces. The 442nd Regimental Combat Team/100th Infantry Battalion, composed of Japanese Americans, is the most highly decorated unit in U.S. military history. The 442nd/100th fought valiantly in the European Theater even as many of their families remained in the detention camps stateside. The 100th was one of the first units to liberate the Nazi extermination camp at Dachau.

Immigration trends

General Eric Shinseki of the United States Army

Immigration trends of recent decades have dramatically altered the statistical composition and popular understanding of who is an Asian American. This transformation of Asian America, and of America itself, is the result of legislation such as the McCarran-Walter Act of 1952 and the Immigration and Nationality Services Act of 1965. The McCarran-Walter Act repealed the "free white persons" restriction of the Naturalization Act of 1790, but it retained the quota system that effectively banned nearly all immigration from Asia (for example, its annual quota of Chinese was only fifty). Asian immigration increased significantly after the 1965 Immigration Act altered the quota system. The preference for relatives, initially designed to reduce the number of Asian immigrants, eventually acted to accelerate their numbers.

Historically, before 1965, Asian Americans were largely perceived as members of the two most numerous East Asian ethnic groups, specifically Chinese and Japanese, as well as Filipinos, who became colonial subjects of the US in 1898 due to the Spanish-American War (also see Philippine-American War). This perception continued despite the early presence of Korean and Indian immigrants in the early 1900s.

After the enactment of the 1965 Immigration Act, Asian American demographics changed rapidly. This act replaced exclusionary immigration rules of the Chinese Exclusion Act and its successors, such as the 1924 Immigration Act, which effectively excluded "undesirable" immigrants, including Asians. The 1965 rules set across-the-board immigration quotas for each country, opening the borders to immigration from Asia for the first time in nearly half a century.

Immigration of Asian Americans were also affected by U.S. war involvement from the 1940s to the 1970s. In the wake of World War II, immigration preferences favored family reunification. This may have helped attract highly skilled workers to meet American workforce deficiencies. Another instance related to World War II was the Luce-Celler Act of 1946, which helped immigrants from India and the Philippines. The end of the Korean War and Vietnam War and the so-called "Secret Wars" in Southeast Asia brought a new wave of Asian American immigration, as people from Korea, Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia arrived. Some of the new immigrants were war brides, who were soon joined by their families. Others, like the Southeast Asians, were either highly skilled and educated, or part of subsequent waves of refugees seeking asylum. Some factors contributing to the growth of sub-groups such as South Asians and mainland Chinese were higher family sizes, higher use of family-reunification visas, and higher numbers of technically skilled workers entering on H-1 and H-1b visas.

Japanese Americans and South Asians are emblematic of the dramatic changes since the immigration reforms of the mid-20th century. Japanese Americans are among the most widely recognized of Asian American sub-groups. In 1970, there were nearly 600,000 Japanese Americans, making it the largest sub-group. Today, Japanese Americans are the sixth-largest group, with relatively low rates of births and immigration. In 2000, there were between 800,000 and 1.2 million Japanese Americans (depending on whether multi-ethnic responses are included). The Japanese Americans have the highest rates of native-born, citizenship, and assimilation into American values and customs.

In 1990, there were slightly fewer South Asians in the U.S. than Japanese Americans. By 2000, Indian Americans nearly doubled in population to become the third largest group, with increasing visibility in high-tech communities such as Silicon Valley and Redmond, Washington. High rates of immigration from across Asia will make Asian Americans increasingly representative of the continent itself. Indian Americans have some of the highest rates of academic achievement among American ethnic and religious groups, with most immigrants speaking English. South Asians are increasingly accepted by most Asian organizations as another significant Asian group.

Asian Americans today

See also: List of notable Asian Americans

In government

Bobby Jindal, Louisiana Congressman

Asian Americans have followed the traditional paths from local political offices to higher positions. The first known Asian American participation in American politics was in the 1800s through coalition building. With a majority Asian-Pacific American population for most of its history, Hawaii has a long history of Asian political participation at all levels of government, and its Congressional delegation has been held by Asian Americans for most of its history. However, the first Asian American elected to the House of Representatives was Dalip Singh Saund, from Imperial County, California. Saund served as chair of the local Democratic party and Justice of the Peace before winning the House election in 1956. This pattern has been successful for mainland U.S. politicians such as Norman Mineta and Mike Honda who began their political careers in local offices, then developed organizations that eventually supported their election to Congress. More recently, Elaine Chao was selected as a White House Fellow, and then served in a series of appointed posts prior to becoming the Secretary of Labor. Similarly, Bobby Jindal served in statewide (Louisiana) and federal appointed offices before running for governor (2003), and winning election to Congress in 2004.

In business

When Asians were largely excluded from labor markets in the 19th century, they started their own businesses. Some started Chinese laundries, which are now rare. Others started Chinese restaurants, which still can be found across the USA. Since the late 20th century, Asians have become more involved in the American economy.

In 2002, Asian American businesses amount to an over 1.1 million. Asian owned business employ more than 2.2 million persons and earn more than $326 billion in business revenues. Asian firms also account for 5% of nonfarm businesses, 2.0 percent of employment and 1.4 percent of receipts in the United States. Asian firms are highest in terms of revenues, employment, and receipts in the United States compared to their Hispanic and African American counterparts.

Compared to their population base, Asian Americans today are well represented in the professional sector and tend to earn higher wages, especially in technology and business. However, much has been written about the glass ceiling in regards to Asians, for they have been far less represented in higher levels of management compared with other ethnic groups.

Some Asian Americans have made major contributions to the American economy. An Wang founded Wang Laboratories in June 1951. Jen-Hsun Huang co-founded the NVIDIA corporation in 1993. Jerry Yang co-founded Yahoo! Inc. in 1994. Andrea Jung serves as Chairman and CEO of Avon Products. Vinod Khosla was a founding CEO of Sun Microsystems and is a successful general partner of the venture capital firm Kleiner, Perkins, Caufield & Byers. Sabeer Bhatia co-founded Hotmail, which was acquired by Microsoft.

In sports

See also: Category:Asian American sportspeople

File:Kwan michelle.jpg

Michelle Kwan competes her second long program at the 2002 Grand Prix Final in Kitchener, Ontario

Wataru Misaka became the first Asian American player in the NBA when he played for the New York Knicks in the 1947–48 season.

Asian Americans first made an impact in Olympic sports in the late 1940s and in the 1950s. Korean American Sammy Lee became the first Asian American to earn an Olympic Gold Medal, winning in platform diving in both 1948 and 1952.

Gymnast Mohini Bhardwaj became the first Indian-American to win an Olympic medal, when she won a team silver medal in the 2004 Olympics.

Since Tiffany Chin won the women's US Figure Skating Championship in 1985, Asian Americans have been prominent in that sport. Kristi Yamaguchi won three national championships, two world titles, and the 1992 Olympic Gold medal. Michelle Kwan has won nine national championships and five world titles, as well as two Olympic medals (silver in 1998, bronze in 2002).

In football, Asian Americans' contributions are also gaining notice. Norm Chow is offensive coordinator for an NFL team, after 23 years coaching college teams, including four successful years as offensive coordinator at USC. Hines Ward is an NFL wide receiver who was the MVP of Super Bowl XL.

Michael Chang was a top-ranked tennis player for most of his career. He won the French Open in 1989.

In arts and entertainment

Asian Americans have been involved in the entertainment industry since the first half of the 19th century, when Chang and Eng Bunker (the original "Siamese Twins") became naturalized citizens. Nevertheless, significant progress by Asian Americans in the fields of television, cinema, and comedy has been slow. Early Asian American actors Anna May Wong and Bruce Lee encountered a movie-making culture that wanted to typecast them as caricatures. As a result, the San Francisco born Lee achieved world-wide fame only after first abandoning the West and finding success in Hong Kong. George Takei (of Star Trek fame) and Pat Morita (Happy Days) fared somewhat better domestically, playing secondary roles on the small screen during the 1960s and 1970s. Cambodian American Haing Ngor won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor in 1985. While Asian American men currently win few leading roles in movies or television, Asian American women have much better opportunities in the entertainment industry today. Famous Asian American actresses include Brenda Song, Lucy Liu, Grace Park, Ming-Na, Julia Ling and Kelly Hu. Margaret Cho won the American Comedy Award for Best Female Comedian in 1994.

Notable works of architecture were designed by Asian Americans, such as the Louvre Pyramid (by IM Pei, the World Trade Center (Twin Towers) (by Minoru Yamasaki, and the Vietnam Veterans Memorial (Maya Lin) . In commercial architecture, Gyo Obata is a founding partner of HOK.

Across genres of music, Asian Americans have gained respect and celebrity. Cellist Yo-Yo Ma and conductor Zubin Mehta are significant figures in classical music. In popular music, Amerie, a well-known Korean American R&B singer, has won numerous awards. Rock musician James Iha is known for his guitar work with The Smashing Pumpkins. Mike Shinoda and Joseph Hahn are members of the popular rap rock band Linkin Park. Jin Au-Yeung is credited as being a pioneer with the Asian American, East Coast hip-hop scene while Emcee T is credited as the West Coast Chinese King of the Bay. Asian American jazz is a musical movement in the United States begun in the 20th century by Asian American jazz musicians.

A large number of Filipino Americans are working in the entertainment industry, including Apl.de.ap of Black Eyed Peas, Jasmine Trias and Camile Velasco of American Idol, Tia Carrere, Jocelyn Enriquez, Vanessa Anne Hudgens, Nicole Scherzinger of the Pussycat Dolls, Chad Hugo, Cassie, Michael Copon, Vanessa Minnillo, the actor Rob Schneider, and Mark Dacascos of the Crying Freeman.

Asians continue to be underrepresented in both film and television. Flower Drum Song was a novel written in the 1950s based on the actual Forbidden City nightclub in San Francisco. It was produced as a Broadway musical featured on the cover of Time magazine and a 1961 film. Largely remembered for the hit song "I Enjoy Being A Girl", it would not be produced with an all-Asian cast featuring Lea Solonga until David Henry Hwang rewrote the revival version in 2001. Disney's Mulan, an animated film set in China still cast many non-Asians in prominent roles. Hospital TV dramas have very few Asian American characters, although Asian Americans are very well-represented in U.S. medicine. ER has not had any East Asians in the cast for years, although a current-day Chicago hospital would almost certainly have some on staff. The very stereotype of casting Asian men as comic relief has been remarked as contributing to the popularity of William Hung as the most recognizable Asian American perfomer for his performance on an American Idol audition.

The Shanghai Renaissance, named after the Harlem Renaissance of the 1920s, has witnessed the emergence of the greatest Asian American cultural revival in American history. ImaginAsian Entertainment recently started the first national 24/7 Asian American television network. MTV Chi, MTV Desi, and MTV K have also been launched to cater to their respective Asian American subgroups.

In science and technology

File:TD Lee-med.jpg

Tsung-Dao Lee, Nobel laureate in physics

Asian Americans have made notable contributions to science and technology. Chien-Shiung Wu was known to many scientists as the "First Lady of Physics". Chinese Americans Tsung-Dao Lee and Chen Ning Yang received the 1957 Nobel Prize in Physics for their work in particle physics. Indian American Har Gobind Khorana shared the 1968 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work in genetics and protein synthesis. Indian American physicist Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar shared the 1983 Nobel Prize in Physics and had the Chandra X-ray Observatory named after him. In 1984, Taiwanese American Dr. David D. Ho first reported the "healthy carrier state" of HIV infection, which identified HIV-positive individuals who showed no physical signs of AIDS. American born Steven Chu shared the 1997 Nobel Prize in Physics for his research in cooling and trapping atoms using laser light. Daniel Tsui shared the 1998 Nobel Prize in Physics in 1998 for helping discover the fractional Quantum Hall effect.

Asian American cultural issues

Asians as a "model minority"

Main article: Model minority

Some refer to Asian Americans as a model minority because the Asian American culture contains a high work ethic, respect for elders and high valuation of family. Statistics such as household income and low incarceration rate are also discussed as positive aspects of Asian Americans.

This concept appears to valorize Asian Americans, but it can also be considered an overly narrow and overly one-dimensional portrayal of Asian Americans, leaving out other human qualities such as vocal leadership, negative emotions, and desire for creative expression.

The model minority concept can also affect Asians' public education. Asians are often stereotyped as over-achieving students, but many of them are not. However, the "smart" stereotype persists. This stereotype can adversely affect Asian American students if school officials expect them to over-achieve.

Asian pride

Main article: Asian pride

Asian pride is a slogan affirming one's Asian race in the United States. The phrase is used mainly by East and Southeast Asian American youth to describe their sense of connection to other Asians. People from the Asian continent but not considered racially Asian (such as Russians and Arabs) do not use the term Asian pride. People with South Asian heritage, such as Indian, and Pakistani, generally do not use the term.

See also

• British Asian
• Asian Canadian
• Asian Argentines
• Asian Australians
• Racism
• Racial Nationalism
• Nationalism
• Got Rice?
• Asian Invasion
• American-born Chinese
• Jade Ribbon Campaign
• Chinese for Affirmative Action — Chinese civil rights organization
• Stereotypes of Asians

External links

• 2007 Statistical Abstract of the United States--Population tables
• South Asian Awareness Network Conference
• Yellowworld
• Angry Asian Man
• Asian American Arts and Culture News
• APIA Blog Network
• Asian-Nation: The Landscape of Asian America by C.N. Le, Ph.D.
• UCLA Asian American Studies Center
• Asian Pacific Americans for Progress
• Asian American Village
• Goldsea Asian American Daily
• Model Minority
• API Today
• The Fighting 44s

Further reading

Books

• Helen Zia Asian American Dreams: The Emergence of an American People New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 2000. ISBN 0-374-52736-9.
• Pyong Gap Min Asian Americans: Contemporary Trends and Issues Thousand Oaks, Ca.: Pine Science Press, 2005. ISBN 1-4129-0556-7
• Frank H. Wu Yellow: Race in American Beyond Black and White New York: Basic Books, 2002. ISBN 0-465-00639-6
• Ronald Takaki Strangers from a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans New York: Little, Brown, 1998. ISBN 0-316-83130-1

Journal

• Journal of Asian American Studies