Languages spoken in the South Pacific country Vanuatu
The Republic of Vanuatu has the world's highest linguistic density per capita.[ 1] Despite being a country with a population of less than 300,000,[ 2] Vanuatu is home to 138 indigenous Oceanic languages.
The country's three official languages are of foreign origin: English , French , and Bislama , an English-based creole language .
Additional languages are also spoken as a result of recent migrations (e.g. Samoan , Hakka Chinese , Mandarin Chinese ).
The linguistic situation in Vanuatu
Indigenous languages
There are over one hundred local languages spread over the archipelago (listed below ), all of them belonging to the Austronesian family of languages.
Vanuatu is the country with the highest density of languages per capita in the world: it currently shows an average of about 1,760 speakers for each indigenous language, and went through a historical low of 565;[ 1] only Papua New Guinea comes close. Some of these languages are very endangered , with only a handful of speakers, and indeed several have become extinct in recent times. Generally however, despite the low numbers for most of the indigenous languages, they are not considered especially vulnerable to extinction.[ 3]
Bislama
A Bislama speaker, recorded in Vanuatu .
Bislama , a creole language derived from English, similar to Tok Pisin of Papua New Guinea and other nearby creoles, is the first language of many urban ni-Vanuatu , that is, the residents of Port Vila and Luganville ; it is the most common second language elsewhere in the Vanuatu islands.
In recent years, the use of Bislama as a first language has considerably encroached on indigenous languages, whose use in the population has receded from 73.1 to 63.2 percent between 1999 and 2009.[ 4]
Out of the three official languages, Bislama is the most spoken in Vanuatu, followed by English, and lastly French.
English and French
From the times when Vanuatu was a British-French condominium , there is still an unofficial separation line between regions where English or French are taught at school. According to Ethnologue , English is the first language of 6,000 people (2% of the population) and it is spoken as a second language by 120,000 people (40%).[ 5] French is the first language of 1,800 people (1%) and is spoken as a second language by 87,000 people (29%).[ 5]
The majority of the country's population (63.2% in 2009)[ 4] speak an indigenous language as their first language, with Bislama as a second language. As for English and French, they belong to a third circle, in spite of their official status.
List of Vanuatu’s indigenous languages
A speaker of Mwotlap , recorded in Vanuatu .
Vanuatu is home to more than a hundred indigenous languages: a recent count lists 138.[ 6] Among them, three became extinct in recent decades. Many are named after the island they are spoken on, though some of the larger islands have several different languages. Espiritu Santo and Malakula are linguistically the most diverse, with about two dozen languages each.
Some language names refer to networks of dialects rather than unified languages. Uripiv, for example, is a dialect continuum spoken across several islands in Malampa Province . In such cases, the decision as to how many languages should be counted is notoriously difficult, and sometimes the object of controversy. The number of 112 listed below may differ from other counts proposed in the literature, depending partly on these difficulties.[ 7]
All indigenous languages of Vanuatu are Oceanic . Three are Polynesian languages of the Futunic group: Emae , Mele-Fila and Futuna-Aniwa . The remaining languages belong to these three groups of the Southern Oceanic branch of Oceanic:
Ethnologue
Below is the Ethnologue 's list of most of the indigenous languages of Vanuatu, which are still spoken or were until recently.[ 8] It provides links to an OLAC list of media resources on the language.[ 9]
Tip: Click on the column title to change the sort order.
Language
OLAC
Other names
Speakers
% of total population
Region
Family
Notes
Akei
tsr
Tasiriki
650
0.2404
Espiritu Santo
NCV
Amblong
alm
300
0.1109
Espiritu Santo
NCV
Anejom̃
aty
Aneityum
900
0.3328
Aneityum
SV
Aore
aor
Extinct
0.0000
Espiritu Santo , Aore
NCV
Apma
app
7,800
2.8846
Pentecost
NCV
Araki
akr
8
0.0030
Araki
NCV
Moribund
Aulua
aul
750
0.2774
Malekula
NCV
Avava
tmb
Katbol
700
0.2589
Malekula
NCV
Axamb
ahb
Ahamb
750
0.2774
Malekula
NCV
Baetora
btr
1,330
0.4919
Maewo
NCV
Baki
bki
Burumba, Paki
350
0.1294
Epi
NCV
Bierebo
bnk
Bonkovia-yevali
800
0.2959
Epi
NCV
Bieria
brj
Bieri, Vovo, Wowo
70
0.0259
Epi
NCV
Endangered
Burmbar
vrt
Banan Bay, Vartavo
900
0.3328
Malekula
NCV
Butmas-Tur
bnr
Ati
520
0.1923
Espiritu Santo
NCV
Central Maewo
mwo
1,400
0.5177
Maewo
NCV
Daakie
ptv
Port-Vato
1,300
0.4808
Ambrym
NCV
Daakaka
bpa
Baiap, South Ambrym
1,200
0.4438
Ambrym
NCV
Dixon Reef
dix
50
0.0185
Malekula
NCV
Shifting
Dorig
wwo
Wetamut
300
0.1109
Banks Islands (Gaua )
NCV
Emae
mmw
400
0.1479
Shepherd Islands (Emae )
Polynesian
Eton
etn
500
0.1849
Efate
NCV
Fortsenal
frt
Kiai
450
0.1664
Espiritu Santo
NCV
Futuna-Aniwa
fut
West Futuna
1,500
0.5547
Futuna , Aniwa
Polynesian
Hano
lml
Raga
6,500
2.4038
Pentecost
NCV
Hiw
hiw
Hiu
280
0.1035
Torres Islands (Hiw )
NCV
Ifo
iff
Extinct
0.0000
Erromango
SV
Kwamera
tnk
3,500
1.2944
Tanna
SV
Koro
krf
250
0.0925
Banks Islands (Gaua )
NCV
Lamenu
lmu
Lamen, Varmali
850
0.3143
Epi , Lamen
NCV
Lakon
lkn
Lakona; Vurē
800
0.2959
Banks Islands (Gaua )
NCV
Lamap
psw
Port Sandwich
1,200
0.4438
Malekula
NCV
Larevat
lrv
Laravat
680
0.2515
Malekula
NCV
Lehali
tql
200
0.0740
Banks Islands (Ureparapara )
NCV
Lelepa
lpa
Havannah Harbour
400
0.1479
Lelepa , Efate
NCV
Lemerig
lrz
Sasar
2
0.0007
Banks Islands (Vanua Lava )
NCV
Moribund
Lenakel
tnl
11,500
4.2529
Tanna
SV
Letemboi
nms
Small Nambas
800
0.2959
Malekula
NCV
Lewo
lww
Varsu
2,200
0.8136
Epi
NCV
Lonwolwol
crc
West Ambrym
1,200
0.4438
Ambrym
NCV
Lorediakarkar
lnn
850
0.3143
Espiritu Santo
NCV
Lo-Toga
lht
Loh, Toga
580
0.2145
Torres Islands (Lo , Toga , Tegua )
NCV
Löyöp
urr
Lehalurup
240
0.0888
Banks Islands (Ureparapara )
NCV
Mae
mme
Dirak
1,000
0.3698
Malekula
NCV
Maii
mmm
180
0.0666
Epi
NCV
Malfaxal
mlx
Na’ahai
600
0.2219
Malekula
NCV
Malua Bay
mll
Middle Nambas
500
0.1849
Malekula
NCV
Maragus
mrs
15
0.0055
Malekula
NCV
Maskelynes
klv
1,100
0.4068
Malekula , Maskelynes Islands
NCV
Mav̈ea
mkv
Mavea, Mafea
34
0.0126
Mav̈ea
NCV
Mele-Fila
mxe
Ifira-Mele
3,500
1.2944
Efate , Mele , Ifira
Polynesian
Merei
lmb
400
0.1479
Espiritu Santo
NCV
Morouas
mrp
150
0.0555
Espiritu Santo
NCV
Mota
mtt
750
0.2774
Banks Islands (Mota )
NCV
Mpotovoro
mvt
430
0.1590
Malekula
NCV
Mwerlap
mrm
Merlav
1,100
0.4068
Banks Islands (Merelava )
NCV
Mwesen
msn
Mosina
10
0.0037
Banks Islands (Vanua Lava )
NCV
Mwotlap
mlv
Motlav
2,100
0.7766
Banks Islands (Motalava )
NCV
Nahavaq
sns
South West Bay
700
0.2589
Malekula
NCV
Nakanamanga
llp
9,500
3.5133
Efate , Shepherd Islands (Nguna , Tongoa )
NCV
Namakura
nmk
Makura
3,750
1.3868
Efate , Shepherd Islands (Tongoa , Tongariki )
NCV
Naman
lzl
Litzlitz
15
0.0055
Malekula
NCV
Narango
nrg
160
0.0592
Espiritu Santo
NCV
Nasarian
nvh
5
0.0018
Malekula
NCV
Navut
nsw
520
0.1923
Espiritu Santo
NCV
Nese
160
0.0592
Malekula
NCV
Neverver
lgk
Lingarak
1,250
0.4623
Malekula
NCV
Ninde
mwi
Labo
1,100
0.4068
Malekula
NCV
Nisvai
–
Vetbon
140
0.0518
Malekula
NCV
Unesco
Nokuku
nkk
160
0.0592
Espiritu Santo
NCV
North Tanna
tnn
5,000
1.8491
Tanna
SV
North Ambrym
mmg
5,250
1.9416
Ambrym
NCV
Northeast Ambae
omb
Lolovoli; Aoba
5,000
1.8491
Ambae
NCV
Nume
tgs
Tarasag
700
0.2589
Banks Islands (Gaua )
NCV
Olrat
olr
Extinct
0.0000
Banks Islands (Gaua )
NCV
Paama
paa
Paamese
6,000
2.2189
Paama
NCV
Piamatsina
ptr
150
0.0555
Espiritu Santo
NCV
Polonombauk
plb
220
0.0814
Espiritu Santo
NCV
Repanbitip
rpn
90
0.0333
Malekula
NCV
Rerep
pgk
Pangkumu, Tisman
380
0.1405
Malekula
NCV
Roria
rga
Mores
75
0.0277
Espiritu Santo
NCV
Saa
sax
Sa
2,500
0.9245
Pentecost
NCV
Sakao
sku
Hog Harbour, N'kep
4,000
1.4793
Espiritu Santo , Sakao
NCV
Shark Bay
ssv
450
0.1664
Espiritu Santo , Litaro
NCV
Sie
erg
Se, Erromanga
1,900
0.7027
Erromango
SV
Ske
ske
Seke
300
0.1109
Pentecost
NCV
South Efate
erk
Erakor, Nafsan
6,000
2.2189
Efate
NCV
Southeast Ambrym
tvk
3,700
1.3683
Ambrym
NCV
Southwest Tanna
nwi
5,000
1.8491
Tanna
SV
Sowa
sww
Extinct
0.0000
Pentecost
NCV
Sungwadia
mrb
Marino; North Maewo
500
0.1849
Maewo
NCV
Tamambo
mla
Malo; Tamabo
4,000
1.4793
Malo
NCV
Tambotalo
tls
50
0.0185
Espiritu Santo
NCV
Tangoa
tgp
800
0.2959
Tangoa
NCV
Tasmate
tmt
150
0.0555
Espiritu Santo
NCV
Tiale
mnl
400
0.1479
Espiritu Santo
NCV
Tolomako
tlm
900
0.3328
Espiritu Santo
NCV
Tutuba
tmi
500
0.1849
Espiritu Santo , Tutuba
NCV
Unua
onu
Onua
520
0.1923
Malekula
NCV
Ura
uur
6
0.0022
Erromango
SV
Uripiv-Wala-Rano-Atchin
upv
Uripiv
9,000
3.3284
Malekula
NCV
Valpei
vlp
300
0.1109
Espiritu Santo
NCV
Vao
vao
1,900
0.7027
Vao , Malekula
NCV
V’ënen Taut
nmb
Big Nambas
3,350
1.2389
Malekula
NCV
Vera’a
vra
Vatrata
500
0.1849
Banks Islands (Vanua Lava )
NCV
Vinmavis
vnm
Neve’ei
500
0.1849
Malekula
NCV
Volow
mlv
Valuwa
Extinct
0.0000
Banks Islands (Mota Lava )
NCV
Vunapu
vnp
380
0.1405
Espiritu Santo
NCV
Vurës
msn
Vureas, Mosina
2,000
0.7396
Banks Islands (Vanua Lava )
NCV
Wailapa
wlr
100
0.0370
Espiritu Santo
NCV
West Ambae
nnd
Duidui
8,700
3.2174
Ambae
NCV
Whitesands
tnp
7,500
2.7736
Tanna
SV
Wusi
wsi
300
0.1109
Espiritu Santo
NCV
François et al. (2015)
The following list of 138 Vanuatu languages is from François et al. (2015 :18-21).
No.
Language
Other names
Speakers
ISO 639-3
Region
1
Hiw
Hiu
280
hiw
Torres Islands (Hiw )
2
Lo-Toga
Loh , Toga
580
lht
Torres Islands (Lo , Toga , Tegua )
3
Lehali
200
tql
Banks Islands (Ureparapara )
4
Löyöp
Lehalurup
240
urr
Banks Islands (Ureparapara )
5
Mwotlap
Motlav
2100
mlv
Banks Islands (Motalava )
6
Volow
Valuwa
1
mlv
Banks Islands (Motalava )
7
Mota
750
mtt
Banks Islands (Mota )
8
Lemerig
Sasar
2
lrz
Banks Islands (Vanua Lava )
9
Vera'a
Vatrata
500
vra
Banks Islands (Vanua Lava )
10
Vurës
Vureas , Mosina
2000
msn
Banks Islands (Vanua Lava )
11
Mwesen
Mosina
10
msn
Banks Islands (Vanua Lava )
12
Nume
Tarasag
700
tgs
Banks Islands (Gaua )
13
Dorig
Wetamut
300
wwo
Banks Islands (Gaua )
14
Koro
250
krf
Banks Islands (Gaua )
15
Olrat
3
olr
Banks Islands (Gaua )
16
Lakon
Lakona , Vurē
800
lkn
Banks Islands (Gaua )
17
Mwerlap
Merlav
1100
mrm
Banks Islands (Merelava )
18
Sungwadia
Marino , North Maewo
500
mrb
Maewo
19
Sungwadaga
Central Maewo
1400
mwo
Maewo
20
Baetora
South Maewo , Sungaloge
1330
btr
Maewo
21
East Ambae
Lolovoli , Aoba
5000
omb
Ambae
22
West Ambae
Duidui
8700
nnd
Ambae
23
Raga
Hano
6500
lml
Pentecost
24
Apma
7800
app
Pentecost
25
Ske
Seke
300
ske
Pentecost
26
Sa
Saa
3900
sax
Pentecost
27
Tolomako
Bigbay
900
tlm
Espiritu Santo
28
Piamatsina
250
ptr
Espiritu Santo
29
Vunapu
380
vnp
Espiritu Santo
30
Valpei
300
vlp
Espiritu Santo
31
Nokuku
250
nkk
Espiritu Santo
32
Meri
Tasmate , Oa
300
tmt
Espiritu Santo
33
Wusi
Kula
350
wsi
Espiritu Santo
34
Bura
300
Espiritu Santo
35
Merei
Tiale , Lametin
400
lmb , mnl
Espiritu Santo
36
Mores
Ko
200
mrp
Espiritu Santo
37
Ande
Morouas
500
Espiritu Santo
38
Toksiki
Soisoru , Roria
200
rga
Espiritu Santo
39
Kiai
Fortsenal
450
frt
Espiritu Santo
40
Moiso
100
Espiritu Santo
41
Kene
300
Espiritu Santo
42
Daruru
100
Espiritu Santo
43
Akei
Tasiriki
4000
tsr
Espiritu Santo
44
Retlatur
100
Espiritu Santo
45
Wailapa
Ale
500
wlr
Espiritu Santo
46
Farsaf
Narango , Nambel
400
nrg
Espiritu Santo
47
Varavara
Amblong , Aje
300
alm
Espiritu Santo
48
Narmoris
220
plb
Espiritu Santo
49
Biliru
Tambotalo
3
tls
Espiritu Santo
50
Atin
120
Espiritu Santo
51
Ati
Polonombauk , Meris
85
Espiritu Santo
52
Farnanto
100
Espiritu Santo
53
Se
Fanafo
20
Espiritu Santo
54
Sinia
Navut
520
nsw
Espiritu Santo
55
Butmas-Tur
Ati , Farafi
520
bnr
Espiritu Santo
56
Ngen
Shark Bay
450
ssv
Espiritu Santo , Litaro
57
Tholp
Nethalp
0
Espiritu Santo
58
Sakao
Hog Harbour , Nkep
4000
sku
Espiritu Santo
59
Mavea
Mav̋ea , Mafea
34
mkv
Espiritu Santo , Mavea
60
Tutuba
500
tmi
Espiritu Santo , Tutuba
61
Aore
0
aor
Espiritu Santo , Aore
62
Tamambo
Malo , Tamabo
4000
mla
Espiritu Santo , Malo
63
Tangoa
Movono
370
tgp
Espiritu Santo , Tangoa
64
Araki
8
akr
Espiritu Santo , Araki
65
Axamb
Ahamb
750
ahb
Malakula
66
Lendamboi
Small Nambas , Letemboi
800
nms
Malakula
67
Nasvang
275
Malakula
68
Sörsörian
3
Malakula
69
Avok
500
Malakula , Avok
70
Uliveo
Maskelynes
1100
klv
Malakula , Maskelynes
71
Port Sandwich
Lamap
1200
psw
Malakula
72
Nisvai
Vetbon
200
Malakula
73
Burmbar
Banam Bay , Vartavo
900
vrt
Malakula
74
Mbwenelang
<10
Malakula
75
Aulua
750
aul
Malakula
76
Niolean
Repanbitip
90
rpn
Malakula
77
Rerep
Pangkumu , Tisman
380
pgk
Malakula
78
Unua
Onua
520
onu
Malakula
79
Vivti
<5
Malakula
80
Nitita
<5
Malakula
81
Avava
Katbol , Navava , Bangsa’
700
tmb
Malakula
82
Neverver
Lingarak , Nevwervwer
1250
lgk
Malakula
83
Litzlitz
Naman
15
lzl
Malakula
84
Uripiv
Uripiv-Wala-Rano-Atchin , Northeast Malakula
9000
upv
Malakula , Atchin , Uripiv
85
Rutan
?
Malakula
86
Botovro
Mpotovoro
430
mvt
Malakula
87
Vao
1900
vao
Malakula , Vao
88
Alovas
?
Malakula
89
Vovo
475
Malakula
90
Nese
Matanvat
160
Malakula
91
Najit
<5
Malakula
92
Malua Bay
Middle Nambas
500
mll
Malakula
93
Njav
10
Malakula
94
Tirax
Mae , Dirak
1000
mme
Malakula
95
V'ënen Taut
Big Nambas
3350
nmb
Malakula
96
Tape
Maragus
15
mrs
Malakula
97
Larëvat
Laravat , Larevat
680
lrv
Malakula
98
Neve'ei
Vinmavis
500
vnm
Malakula
99
Nivat
<10
Malakula
100
Nasarian
5
nvh
Malakula
101
Aveteian
Dixon Reef
50
dix
Malakula
102
Ninde
Labo
1100
mwi
Malakula
103
Nahavaq
South West Bay , Siesip
700
sns
Malakula
104
Nāti
25
Malakula
105
Naha'ai
Malvaxal , Malfaxal
600
mlx
Malakula
106
Navwien
5
Malakula
107
North Ambrym
5250
mmg
Ambrym
108
Orkon
Fanbak
30
Ambrym
109
Southeast Ambrym
3700
tvk
Ambrym
110
Daakie
Port Vato
1300
ptv
Ambrym
111
Daakaka
South Ambrym , Baiap
1200
bpa
Ambrym
112
Dalkalaen
1000
Ambrym
113
Raljago
West Ambrym , Lonwolwol
<10
crc
Ambrym
114
Paama
Paamese
6000
paa
Paama
115
Lamen
Lamenu , Varmali
850
lmu
Epi , Lamen
116
Lewo
Varsu
2200
lww
Epi
117
Bierebo
Bonkovia-Yevali
900
bnk
Epi
118
Baki
Burumba , Paki
350
bki
Epi
119
Mkir
Maii
180
mmm
Epi
120
Bieria
Bieri , Vovo, Wowo
25
brj
Epi
121
Namakura
Makura , Namakir
3750
nmk
Efate , Shepherd Islands (Tongoa , Tongariki )
122
Emae
Makatea
400
mmw
Shepherd Islands (Emae )
123
Nakanamanga
9500
llp
Efate , Shepherd Islands (Nguna , Tongoa )
124
Lelepa
Havannah Harbour
400
lpa
Efate , Lelepa
125
Eton
500
etn
Efate
126
South Efate
Erakor
6000
erk
Efate
127
Mele-Fila
Ifira-Mele
3500
mxe
Efate , Mele , Ifira
128
Sie
Se , Sie , Erromanga
1900
erg
Erromango
129
Ura
6
uur
Erromango
130
Utaha
0
iff
Erromango
131
North Tanna
5000
tnn
Tanna
132
Lenakel
Netvaar
11500
tnl
Tanna
133
Southwest Tanna
Nawal
5000
nwi
Tanna
134
Whitesands
Narak
7500
tnp
Tanna
135
Kwamera
Nafe , Nɨfe
3500
tnk
Tanna
137
Anejom̃
Aneityum
900
aty
Aneityum
138
Futuna-Aniwa
West Futuna
1500
fut
Futuna , Aniwa
Notes
^ a b See François et al. (2015 :8-9); and also Crowley (2000 :50); François (2012 :86).
^ The estimate is 298,333 for July 2020 (source: “Vanuatu” , CIA World Factbook ).
^ Nettle, Daniel and Suzanne Romaine (2016). Vanishing Voices: The Extinction of the World's Languages . Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-19-515246-3 .
^ a b François (2012 :104).
^ a b Vanuatu in Eberhard, David M.; Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D., eds. (2022). Ethnologue: Languages of the World (25th ed.). Dallas, Texas: SIL International.
^ See François et al. (2015 ).
^ Thus while Tryon (1976) lists 113 separate languages, Lynch & Crowley (2001), using different criteria, propose a lower figure of 88 languages, many of which are dialect continua. See the discussion in François et al. (2015 :4-7).
^ This table lists 112 languages. See François et al. (2015 :18-21) for a list of 138 items.
^ The bibliographical references that underlie this table can be found with each individual language entry.
References
Crowley, Terry (2000), "The language situation in Vanuatu" (PDF) , Current Issues in Language Planning , 1 (1): 47–132, doi :10.1080/14664200008668005 , S2CID 144268250 , archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-09-27, retrieved 2007-08-13
François, Alexandre (2012), "The dynamics of linguistic diversity: Egalitarian multilingualism and power imbalance among northern Vanuatu languages" (PDF) , International Journal of the Sociology of Language , 2012 (214): 85–110, doi :10.1515/ijsl-2012-0022 , S2CID 145208588 .
François, Alexandre ; Franjieh, Michael; Lacrampe, Sébastien; Schnell, Stefan (2015), "The exceptional linguistic density of Vanuatu" (PDF) , in François, Alexandre; Lacrampe, Sébastien; Franjieh, Michael; Schnell, Stefan (eds.), The Languages of Vanuatu: Unity and Diversity , Studies in the Languages of Island Melanesia, Canberra: Asia Pacific Linguistics Open Access, pp. 1–21, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.730.9327 , ISBN 9781922185235 .
Lynch, John; Crowley, Terry (2001). Languages of Vanuatu: a new survey and bibliography (PDF) . Pacific linguistics 517. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. doi :10.15144/pl-517 . hdl :1885/146135 . ISBN 0-85883-469-3 .
Further reading
Tryon, D.T. New Hebrides languages: An internal classification . C-50, vi + 550 pages. Pacific Linguistics , The Australian National University, 1976. doi :10.15144/PL-C50
Tryon, D.T. "The Languages of the New Hebrides: Internal and External Relationships". In Wurm, S.A. and Carrington, L. editors, Second International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics: Proceedings . C-61:877-902. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1978. doi :10.15144/PL-C61.877
Tryon, D.T. and Gly, R. Gazetteer of New Hebrides place names/Nomenclature des noms geographiques des Nouvelles-Hebrides. D-15, xxxvi + 188 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1979. doi :10.15144/PL-D15
External links
Sovereign states Associated states of New Zealand Dependencies and other territories
* indicates proposed status ? indicates classification dispute † indicates extinct status