Iraqi Army

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Iraqi army
Military manpower
Military Age	18[1]
Availability	males age 18-49: 5,870,640[1] females age 18-49: 5,642,073[1]
Fit for military service	males 18-49: 4,930,074[1] females 18-49: 4,771,105[1]
Reaching military age annually	males 18-49: 198,518[1] females 18-49: 289,879[1]
Military Expenditures
Dollar Figure (USD$)	2.46 billion [2]
Percent of GDP	5%

The Iraqi Army is the land force of Iraq, active in various forms since being formed by the British during their mandate over the country after World War I.

Today, it is a component of the Iraqi security forces tasked with assuming responsibility for all Iraqi land-based military operations following the 2003 Invasion of Iraq. Because of the ongoing Iraqi insurgency, the Iraqi Army is designed to be an objective counter-insurgency force for a period of time until the insurgency is diminished to a level that the police can handle.^[3] Thereafter, the Iraqi Army will undergo a modernization plan which includes purchasing more heavy equipment.

The Army is currently being developed by the Multi-National Security Transition Command - Iraq (MNSTC-I) commanded by US Army Lieutenant General Frank G. Helmick. The Chief of Staff of the Iraqi Army is General Babaker Shawkat B. Zebari.

[edit] History

Iraq was under Ottoman rule from 1533 to 1918. The first Iraqi military forces established by the British were the Iraq Levies, several battalions of troops tasked to guard the Royal Air Force bases from which the British controlled Iraq. The threat of war with Turkey, who claimed the Ottoman vilayet of Mosul as part of their country, led the British to formed the Iraqi Army proper on the 6th of January 1921 the Musal Al-Kadhum Brigade consisting on ex-Iraqi-Ottoman Officers their Barracks were located in Al Kazemiyah, and an air force six years later.^[4]

In August 1921 the British established the Hashemite king, Faisal, who had been forced out of Syria by the French, as their client ruler. Likewise, British authorities selected Sunni Arab elites from the region for appointments to government and ministry offices.

[edit] Royal Iraqi Army

The Kingdom of Iraq was granted official independence in 1932 in accordance with an agreement signed by the United Kingdom in 1930, whereby the United Kingdom would end its official mandate on the condition that the Iraqi government would allow British advisers to take part in government affairs, allow British military bases to remain, and a requirement that Iraq assist the United Kingdom in wartime.^[5]

Upon achieving independence in 1932, political tensions arose over the continued British presence in Iraq, with Iraq's government and politicians split between those considered pro-British politicans such as Nuri as-Said who did not oppose a continued British presence and anti-British politicians, such as Rashid Ali al-Gaylani, who demanded that remaining British influence in the country be removed.^[6] From 1936 to 1941, five coups by the Royal Iraqi Army (RIrA) occurred during each year led by the chief officers of the Army against the government to pressure the government to concede to Army demands.^[6]

The 1941 Iraqi coup d'état overthrew Nuri as-Said and placed Rashid Ali al-Gaylani as Prime Minister. Ali did not overthrow the monarchy, but installed a more compliant Regent, and attempted to restrict the rights of the British under the treaty from 1930.

[edit] Anglo-Iraqi War

Notable early RIrA operations included the May 1941 Anglo-Iraqi War, during which the Iraqi Army had four infantry divisions^[7] with some 60,000 men.^[8] At full strength, each division had three brigades. The Iraqi 1st and 3rd Divisions were stationed in Baghdad. Also based within Baghdad was the Independent Mechanized Brigade comprised of a light tank company, an armoured car company, two battalions of "mechanized" infantry transported in trucks, a "mechanized" machine-gun company, and a "mechanized" artillery brigade. The Iraqi 2nd Division was stationed in Kirkuk, and the 4th Division was in Al Diwaniyah, on the main rail line from Baghdad to Basra.

Unlike the modern use of the term "mechanized," in 1941 "mechanized" for the RIrA meant transported by trucks. Today "mechanized infantry" is typically transported by armoured personnel carriers or by infantry fighting vehicles and it is "motorized infantry" that is transported in trucks.

On April 30 the RIrA established itself on the high ground to the south of the Habbaniya air force base. An Iraqi envoy was sent to demand that no movements, either ground or air, were to take place from the base. The British refused the demand and then themselves demanded that the units of the RIrA leave the area at once. After a further ultimatum given in the early hours of May 2 expired, at 0500 hours the British began bombing the Iraqi troops threatening the base.

Hostilities lasted from 2 May to 30 May 1941. Rashid Ali al-Gaylani fled and, after his departure, the British would continue to occupy Iraq for many years afterward.^{[citation needed]}

After the Anglo-Iraqi War ended, Nuri as-Said returned as Prime Minister and dominated the politics of Iraq until the overthrow of the monarchy and his assassination in 1958. Nuri as-Said pursued a largely pro-western policy during this period.^[9]

[edit] 1948 Arab-Israeli War

In the 1948 Arab-Israeli War the Iraqis deployed an expeditionary force which peaked at 15-18,000 men.^[10] In 1948, Iraq had an army of 21,000 men in 12 brigades and the Royal Iraqi Air Force had 100 planes, mostly British. Initially the Iraqis committed around 3,000^[11] men to the war effort including four infantry brigades, one armoured battalion and support personnel. These forces were to operate under Jordanian guidance^[12] During the first truce the Iraqis increased their force to about 10,000.^[13] Ultimately, the Iraqi expeditionary force numbered around 15,000 to 18,000 men.^[14]

The first Iraqi forces to be deployed reached Jordan in April 1948 under the command of General Nur ad-Din Mahmud. On 15 May, Iraqi engineers built a pontoon bridge across the Jordan River and attacked the Israeli settlement of Gesher with little success. Following this defeat Iraqi forces moved into the Nablus-Jenin-Tulkarm strategic triangle, where they suffered heavy casualties in the Israeli attack on Jenin which began on 3 June, but they managed to hold on to their positions. Active Iraqi involvement in the war effectively ended at this point.^[15]

[edit] Republic Declared

Hashemite monarchy lasted until 1958, when it was overthrown through a coup d'état by the Iraqi Army, known as the 14 July Revolution. King Faisal II along with members of the royal family were executed. The coup brought Abd al-Karim Qasim to power. He withdrew from the Baghdad Pact and established friendly relations with the Soviet Union.

When Qāsim distanced himself from Abd an-Nāsir, he faced growing opposition from pro-Egypt officers in the Iraqi army. `Arif, who wanted closer cooperation with Egypt, was stripped of his responsibilities and thrown in prison.

When the garrison in Mosul rebelled against Qāsim's policies, he allowed the Kurdish leader Barzānī to return from exile in the Soviet Union to help suppress the pro-Nāsir rebels.

In 1961 a buildup of the Army close to Kuwait, in conjunction with Iraqi claims over the small neighbouring state, led to a crisis with British land forces deployed to Kuwait for a period. In 1961, Kuwait gained independence from Britain and Iraq claimed sovereignty over Kuwait. As in the 1930s, Qasim based Iraq's claim on the assertion that Kuwait had been a district of the Ottoman province of Basra, unjustly severed by the British from the main body of Iraqi state when it had been created in the 1920s.^[16] Britain reacted strongly to Iraq's claim and sent troops to Kuwait to deter Iraq. Qāsim was forced to back down and in October 1963, Iraq recognized the sovereignty of Kuwait.

Qāsim was assassinated in February 1963, when the Ba'ath Party took power under the leadership of General Ahmed Hasan al-Bakr (prime minister) and Colonel Abdul Salam Arif (president). Nine months later `Abd as-Salam Muhammad `Arif led a successful coup against the Ba'ath government. On 13 April 1966, President Abdul Salam Arif died in a helicopter crash and was succeeded by his brother, General Abdul Rahman Arif. Following the Six Day War of 1967, the Ba'ath Party felt strong enough to retake power (17 July 1968). Ahmad Hasan al-Bakr became president and chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC).

[edit] Six Day War

During the Six Day War, 100 Iraqi tanks and an infantry division were readied near the Jordanian border. The Iraqis were supposed to be the main Arab strength on the Jordanian front, but the strong Iraqis columns never reached their destination in time. Repeated Israeli airstrikes held them up so that by the time they did reach the Jordan River the entire West Bank was in Israeli hands. During the course of the Jordanian Campaign ten Iraqis were killed and 30 Iraqis were wounded, especially as the main battle was in Jerusalem. Fighting also raged in other areas of the West Bank, where Iraqi commandos and Jordanian soldiers defended their positions. ^[17]

In 1967-1968 Iraqi communists launched an insurgency in southern Iraq.^[18]

Barzānī and the Kurds who had begun a rebellion in 1961 were still causing problems in 1969. The secretary-general of the Ba`th party, Saddam Hussein, was given responsibility to find a solution. It was clear that it was impossible to defeat the Kurds by military means and in 1970 a political agreement was reached between the rebels and the Iraqi government.

Following the Arab defeat in 1967, Jordan became a hotbed of Palestinian resistance. During this time PLO elements attempted to create a Palestinian state within Jordan caused the Jordanians to launch their full military force against the PLO. As they were doing this Syria invaded Jordan and Iraq stationed a brigade in Rihab, Jordan. Otherwise the only Iraqi activity was that they fired upon some Jordanian aircraft.

In July 1979, President Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr resigned, and his chosen successor, Saddam Hussein, assumed the offices of both President and Chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council. He was the de facto ruler of Iraq for some years before he formally came to power. The Baath Party was now a country wide organisation, reaching down to the smallest village and most modest neighbourhood in an unprecedented way. In addition, the Popular army and the youth organisation brought ever larger numbers into the paramilitary formations established by the regime.

[edit] Iran-Iraq war

Later, Saddam Hussein, looking to build fighting power against Iran soon after the outbreak of the Iran–Iraq War doubled the size of the Iraqi army from 1981, when it numbered 200,000 soldiers in 12 divisions and 3 independent brigades, to 1985, when it had 500,000 men in 23 divisions and nine brigades. The war came at a great cost in lives and economic damage - a half a million Iraqi and Iranian soldiers as well as civilians are believed to have died in the war with many more injured and wounded - but brought neither reparations nor change in borders. The conflict is often compared to World War I,^[19] in that the tactics used closely mirrored those of the 1914-1918 war, including large scale trench warfare, manned machine-gun posts, bayonet charges, use of barbed wire across trenches and on no-mans land, human wave attacks and Iraq's extensive use of chemical weapons (such as mustard gas) against Iranian troops and civilians as well as Iraqi Kurds.

[edit] Invasion of Kuwait and Gulf War

By the eve of the Invasion of Kuwait which led to the 1991 Gulf War, the Army had 1,000,000 men, 42 infantry and seven armoured divisions, and 20 special forces brigades, grouped in seven corps, plus six Iraqi Republican Guard divisions.^[20] Although it was said at the time in Western media that Iraqi troops numbered approximately 545,000 (even 600,000) today most experts think that both the qualitative and quantitative descriptions of the Iraqi army at the time were exaggerated, as they included both temporary and auxiliary support elements. Many of the Iraqi troops were also young, under-resourced and poorly trained conscripts.

Demolished Iraqi vehicles line the Highway of Death on 18 April 1991.

The widespread support for Iraq during the Iran-Iraq war meant Iraq had military equipment from almost every major dealer of the world's weapons market. This resulted in a lack of standardization in this large heterogeneous force, which additionally suffered from poor training and poor motivation. The majority of Iraqi armoured forces still used old Chinese Type 59s and Type 69s, Soviet-made T-55s from the 1950s and 1960s, and some T-72s from the 1970s in 1991. These machines were not equipped with up-to-date equipment, such as thermal sights or laser rangefinders, and their effectiveness in modern combat was very limited. The Iraqis failed to find an effective countermeasure to the thermal sights and the sabot rounds used by the M1 Abrams, Challenger 1 and the other Coalition tanks. This equipment enabled Coalition tanks to effectively engage and destroy Iraqi tanks from more than three times the distance that Iraqi tanks could engage. The Iraqi tank crews used old, cheap steel penetrators against the advanced Chobham Armour of these US and British tanks, with disastrous results. The Iraqi forces also failed to utilize the advantage that could be gained from using urban warfare — fighting within Kuwait City — which could have inflicted significant casualties on the attacking forces. Urban combat reduces the range at which fighting occurs and can negate some of the technological advantage that well equipped forces enjoy. Iraqis also tried to use Soviet military doctrine, but the implementation failed due to the lack of skill of their commanders and the preventive air strikes of the USAF on communication centers and bunkers.

The exact number of Iraqi combat casualties is unknown, but known to be heavy. Immediate estimates said up to 100,000 Iraqis were killed. Some now estimate that Iraq sustained between 20,000 and 35,000 fatalities. However other figures still maintain fatalities as high as 200,000.^[21] A report commissioned by the U.S. Air Force, estimated 10,000-12,000 Iraqi combat deaths in the air campaign and as many as 10,000 casualties in the ground war.^[22] This analysis is based on Iraqi prisoner of war reports. It is known that between 20,000 and 200,000 Iraqi soldiers were killed. Saddam Hussein's government gave high civilian casualty figures in order to draw support from the Islamic countries.^{[citation needed]} The Iraqi government claimed that 2,300 civilians died during the air campaign. According to the Project on Defense Alternatives study,^[23] 3,664 Iraqi civilians and between 20,000 and 26,000 military personnel were killed in the conflict. 75,000 Iraqi soldiers were wounded in the fighting.

[edit] Between the Gulf Wars

The International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) estimated the Army's composition immediately after the 1991 War as 6 'armoured'/'mechanised' divisions, 23 infantry divisions, 8 Republican Guard divisions and four Republican Guard internal security divisions.^[24] Jane's Defence Weekly for 18 July 1992 stated that 10,000 troops from 5 divisions were fighting against Shia Moslems in the southern marshlands.

The IISS gave the Iraqi Army's force structure as of 1 July 1997 as seven Corps headquarters, six armoured or mechanised divisions, 12 infantry divisions, 6 RGF divisions, four Special Republican Guard Brigades, 10 commando, and two Special Forces Brigades.^[25] It was estimated to number 350,000 personnel, including 100,000 recently recalled reservists.

[edit] Second Gulf War

In the days leading up to the 2003 invasion of Iraq and the following Iraq War, the Army consisted of 375,000 troops, organized into 5 corps. In all, there were 11 infantry divisions, 3 mechanized divisions, and 3 armored divisions. The Republican Guard consisted of between 50,000 and 60,000 troops (although some sources indicate a strength of up to 80,000).

In January 2003, before the beginning of the Second Gulf War, the force was primarily located in eastern Iraq. The 5 corps were organised as follows:

• 1st Corps, near Kirkuk consisted of the 5th Mechanized Division, 2nd Infantry Division, 8th Infantry Division and the 38th Infantry Division.
• 2nd Corps, near Diyala, had the 3rd Armored Division, 15th Infantry Division, and 34th Infantry Division.
• 3rd Corps, near An Nasiriyah, had the 6th Armored Division, the 51st Mechanized Division, and the 11th Infantry Division.
• 4th Corps, near Al Amarah, included the 10th Armored Division, 14th Infantry Division and 18th Infantry Division.
• 5th Corps, near Mosul, had the 1st Mechanized Division, and the 4th, 7th, and 16th Infantry Divisions. In addition, there was an armored infantry division or battlegroup in western Iraq.

US Army General Tommy Franks reportedly estimated soon after the invasion that there had been 30,000 Iraqi casualties as of April 9, 2003.^[26] That number comes from the transcript of an October 2003 interview of Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld by Bob Woodward. They were discussing a number reported by the Washington Post. But neither could remember the number clearly, nor whether it was just for deaths, or both deaths and wounded.

The Iraqi Army was disbanded by U.S. Administrator of Iraq Paul Bremer on May 23, 2003 ^[27] after its decisive defeat during the Second Gulf War.

[edit] New Iraqi Army

One of the many organizations created to take on the duties of the former Iraqi army, the New Iraqi Army was originally intended to comprise of 3 divisions numbering 40,000 soldiers in 3 years time.

The Coalition Military Assistance Training Team (headed by Maj. Gen. Paul Eaton) was the organization set up by the United States military with the responsibility of training and development of the new army. In June 2004, it was dissolved, and passed on its responsibilities to the MNSTC-I (initially headed by Lt. Gen. David Petraeus) due to its focus on developing the military for traditional defense from a hypothetical invasion by its neighbors rather than providing security for the Iraqi people from the emerging threat posed by the Iraqi insurgency.^[28]

[edit] The Plan

Iraqi T-72s in 2006.

According to the U.S. Department of Defense, the Iraqi Army will in the end state be an approximately 300,000-person force based around an Army with 10 infantry divisions and 6 mechanized infantry division consisting of 36 brigades and 113 battalions(91 infantry, 12 special forces, 5 mechanized infantry, 60 armored battalions, 1 security). Nine Motorized Transportation Regiments, 5 logistics battalions, 2 support battalions, 5 Regional Support Units (RSUs), and 91 Garrison Support Units (GSUs) are intended to provide logistics and support for each division, with Taji National Depot providing depot-level maintenance and resupply. Each battalion, brigade, and division headquarters will be supported by a Headquarters and Service Company (HSC) providing logistical and maintenance support to its parent organization. The Army will also include 17 SIBs and a Special Operations Forces Brigade consisting of two special operational battalions.^[3] MNSTC-I commander Martin Dempsey stated June 2006 that the IA "will be built by the end of this calendar year".^[29]

[edit] Current Status

The US DOD reported that as of February 19, 2007 there were a total of 103 operational army combat battalions with an additional 9 still in development^[30]. It also reported that the army had one mechanized battalion in the reserve^[30].

The New Iraqi Army excludes recruits that are former regime security and intelligence organizations members, personnel of the Special Republican Guard, top-level Ba'ath Party members, and Ba'ath Party security and militia organizations. ^[31]

[edit] Timeline

[edit] 2003

• May 23 – U.S. Administrator of Iraq Paul Bremer dissolves all of Saddam Hussein's armed forces except the Iraqi Police because it was not feasible to reconstitute it. He wrote the following defense for his actions:

"...In the weeks after General Abizaid’s recommendation, the coalition’s national security adviser, Walter Slocombe, discussed options with top officials in the Pentagon, including Deputy Secretary of Defense Paul Wolfowitz. They recognized that to recall the former army was a practical impossibility because postwar looting had destroyed all the bases. Moreover, the largely Shiite draftees of the army were not going to respond to a recall plea from their former commanders, who were primarily Sunnis. It was also agreed that recalling the army would be a political disaster because to the vast majority of Iraqis it was a symbol of the old Baathist-led Sunni ascendancy..."^[35]

Bremer would later continue to defend his highly criticized decision stating that it was necessary to convince the Kurdish population of Iraq not to secede^[36].

• August 2 – The first battalion of New Iraqi Army recruits start a 9-week training course at a training base in Kir Kush^[37].

• October 4 – The first battalion of 700 New Iraqi Army recruits graduates from basic training. Governing Council President Dr. Ayad Allawi, Bremer, and other notable dignitaries are on hand to witness the graduation ceremony^[37].

[edit] 2004

• April 5 – Several Iraqi Battalions refuse to fight following the US siege of Fallujah.^{[citation needed]}

• August 14 – The NATO Training Mission-Iraq (NTM-I) is established at the invitation of the Prime Minister Iyad Allawi's Iraqi government in order to provide training, technical assistance, and assistance with equipping the Iraqi Security Forces (ISF)^[38]. Their focus will be on training mid to senior level personnel.

• September 20 – The Fallujah Brigade disbands after being sent in to secure the city.

[edit] 2005

• September 19 – The Independent reports that approximately one billion US dollars have been stolen by top ranking officials from the Ministry of Defense including Hazim al-Shaalan and Ziyad Cattan^[39] . The depletion of almost the entire Ministry of Defense budget due to corruption cripples the effectiveness of the Iraqi Army.

• September 27 – A Joint Staff College is established in Ar Rustamiyah, Iraq^[40]. Prime Minister Ibrahim Jaafari is on hand to participate in the opening ceremonies. The center offers Junior Staff and Senior Staff Officer Courses designed for first lieutenants to majors. 24 specially selected Iraqi instructors have been preparing for 15 weeks under an intensive Train-The-Trainers program in order to immediately take on instructoral responsibilities once the facility opens. These instructors are now training students in the Joint Staff College with assistance from NATO advisers.

[edit] 2006

• May 3 – The Iraqi Army command and control center opened May 3, 2006 during a ceremony at the Iraqi Ground Forces Command (IFGC) headquarters at Camp Victory^[41]. The IFGC is the operational headquarters of all 10 Iraqi Army divisions. The head quarter's mission is to exercise command and control of assigned Iraqi Army forces and, upon assuming Operational Control, to plan and direct operations to defeat the Iraqi insurgency. The IFGC is commanded by Lt. Gen. Abdul-Qadar.

• June 26 – The 9th Iraqi Army Division is certified and assumes responsibility of the battle space of north Baghdad province. Earlier certified divisions are the 6th IA division and the 8th IA division. Also, the 3rd battalion, 1st brigade, 3rd IA division became the third Iraqi battalion to assume responsibility for battle space in western Ninawa province.^[42] Three Iraqi divisions, 18 brigades and 69 battalions were in control of battlespace (including two police commando battalions)^[43]

• July 3 – The 5th Iraqi Army Division is certified and assumes responsibility for the battle space of Diyala province. Also, the IA took control of the maintenance contract for the Numaniyah Regional Support Unit (RSU). The An Numaniyah RSU site was the first of five RSUs to transfer responsibility the Iraqi Army.^[44]

• August 8 – The 4th Iraqi Army Division is certified and assumes responsibility for most of Salah ad Din and Tamim provinces, including the major cities Samarra and Tikrit.^[45]

• September 7 – The operational responsibility of the 8th Iraqi Army division is transferred to an all-Iraqi chain of command. The transfer shows that the Iraqi command and control-structure is ready to assume responsibility for counter-insurgency operations in vast areas of Iraq. The 8th IA division is the first to transfer to the Iraqi Ground Forces Command, and the transfer is hailed by US forces as an important milestone. ^[46]

• November 1 – The Iraqi 5th Motor Transport Regiment is transferred to the Iraqi chain of command. The 5th MTR is the fifth of 9 MTRs be transferred to the Iraqi Army divisions. During 2007, great effort will be invested in making the Iraqi Army able to sustain themselves logistically. (MTRs transferred in order of event: 8th, 4th, 6th, 5th and 1st (2 Nov).) ^[47]

• December 1 – The Iraqi Army 3rd division is certified and operational responsibility is transferred to the Iraqi ground forces command becoming the seventh Iraqi Army division to assume control from coalition forces, and the third division to now fall under the command and control of the Iraqi Ground Forces Command.^[48]

• December 21 – The Iraqi Army 2nd division is certified and assumes operational responsibility for counter-insurgency operations in the city of Mosul. ^[49]

[edit] 2007

• February 15 – Operational control of the Iraqi Army 1st division is transferred to the Iraqi ground forces command. The 1st IA division is headquartered in Habbaniyah, Al Anbar and operates from Baghdad to Ramadi.^[50]

• February 23 – The Iraqi Army 10th division, based in Basrah, is certified and operational responsibility is transferred to the Iraqi ground forces command. The transition is hailed as an important milestone and allows Coalition forces to move to a more supporting role.^[51]

• November 1 – The 7th IA division, based in Ramadi, is transferred to the Iraqi ground forces command, and thus all of the original ten IA divisions have transferred to Iraqi chain-of-command.^[52]

• November 14 – The Iraqi Army 14th division held its opening ceremony in Basrah.^[53]

[edit] 2008

Please help improve this article by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page. (June 2008)

• March 25 – The Iraqi Army launches its first solely planned and executed high-profile division-level operation, Operation Charge of the Knights in Basra. The IA receives Coalition support only in air support, logistics and via embedded advisors. Also, a British infantry brigade stationed in Basra were ready in a tactical overwatch role but did not need to intervene.

• April-June – Two brigades of the Iraqi Army 11th Division, supported by US forces, move into the southern third of Sadr City in an attempt to stop rocket and mortar attacks on US bases and the Green Zone. Following a month of heavy fighting, the Mahdi Army agrees to let Iraqi forces into the remaining portion of the city. On May 20, troops from the Iraqi Army 3rd Brigade of the 1st QRF division and a brigade from the 9th Division move into the northern districts of Sadr City and begin clearing operations.

• May – Iraqi army forces launch Operation Lion's Roar (later renamed to Operation Mother of Two Springs) in Mosul and surrounding areas of Nineva province. Iraq became one of the top current purchasers of U.S. military equipment with their army trading its AK-47 assault rifles for the more accurate U.S. M-16 and M-4 rifles, among other equipment^[54].

• June – The Iraqi Army moves troops to the southern Maysan province. Following a 4 day amnesty for insurgents to turn over weapons, the Iraqi Army moved into the provincial capital Amarah.

• September – Iraq seeks 36 F-16’s for its air force, the most sophisticated weapons system Iraq has attempted to purchase so far. The Pentagon recently notified Congress that it had approved the sale of 24 American attack helicopters to Iraq, valued at as much as $2.4 billion. Including the helicopters, Iraq has announced plans this year to purchase at least $10 billion in U.S. tanks and armored vehicles, transport planes and other battlefield equipment and services. Over the summer, the Defense Department announced that the Iraqi government wanted to order more than 400 armored vehicles and other equipment worth up to $3 billion, and six C-130J transport planes, worth up to $1.5 billion. ^[55] This year alone, Iraq accounts for more than $12.5 billion of the $34 billion US weapon sales to foreign countries (not including the potential F-16 fighter planes)^[56].

[edit] Structure

As of May 2009, the 270,000 soldiers of the Iraqi Army is organized as follows:

• Four regional commands. The Baghdad Operational Command falls under the direct command of the prime minister in the National Operations Center, while the other three commands fall under the command of the Iraqi Ground Forces Command.
• 16 divisions (1st-17th, the designation 13 not being used) ^[57] The 13 divisions are split into Each Iraqi army division has four line brigades, an engineering regiment, and a support regiment. In 2009, a field artillery regiment will be added to each division, with an artillery battalion added to each brigade.^[58]
• 105 combat battalions.

[edit] Deployment

• National Operations Center – Baghdad
  • Baghdad Operational Command – Baghdad^[59]
    

    

    The 6th Iraqi Army Division's military police company received four Polish vehicles in March as part of an initiative by the Iraqi Defense Ministry to provide updated equipment to soldiers. The Dzik-3s are a huge upgrade from the light utility vehicles the MPs have used since the start of the war
    • Karkh Area Command (KAC) - Western Baghdad. Responsible for the Kadhimiyah, Karkh, Mansour, Bayaa, and Doura Security Districts.
    • Rusafa Area Command (RAC) - Eastern Baghdad. Responsible for the Adhamiyah, Rusafa, Sadr City, New Baghdad, and Karadah Security Districts.
    • 6th Motorized Division: – Western Baghdad
      • 1 (Cobras) Motorized Bde
      • 3 (Muthanna) Motorized Bde ^[60] - Commanded by Staff Brigadier General Nassir al-Hiti.
      • 4 (Baghdad Eagles) Commando (AAslt) Bde
      • 5 (Defenders of Baghdad) Infantry (AAslt) Bde
    • 9th Armored Division – Taji
      • 1 (Desert Lions) Mech Bde
      • 2 Armored Bde - Attached to 2nd Division, Mosul
      • 3 Armored Bde - Attached to 14th Division, Basra
      • 4 Cavalry Bde - Attached to 2nd Division, Mosul
    • 11th Infantry Division (Probably planned to become an Armored Division) – East Baghdad
      • 1 (Tigers) Infantry Bde - Adhamiyah (NE Baghdad)
      • 2 Infantry Bde - Western Baghdad
      • 3 Infantry Bde - Sadr City
      • 4 Infantry Bde - Eastern Baghdad
    • 15th Division – South of Baghdad (forming)Ramadi
      

      

      The 2nd Brigade, 1st Iraqi Division took delivery of 10 armored HMMWVs in March 2006
• Iraqi Ground Force Command (IGFC)^[61]
  • Northern Operational Command - Samarra
    • Ninewa Operational Command^[62] - Mosul
      • 2nd Infantry Division – Mosul
        • 1 (Citadel) Motorized Bde
        • 2 (Scorpions) Infantry (AAslt) Bde
        • 3 Infantry Bde
        • 4 Infantry Bde
        • 2nd Motor Transport Regiment
      • 3rd Motorized Division – Al-Kasik
        • 1 Motorized Bde
        • 2 (Desert Lion) Motorized Bde
        • 3 Motorized Bde
        • 4 Bde (forming)
        • 3rd Motor Transport Regiment
      • 16th Division – Ibril or Dohuk (transfer from KRG/Forming)
      • 17th Division – Ibril or Dohuk (transfer from KRG/Forming)
    • Diyala Operational Command - Sulamaniyah, Diyala, Kirkuk, Salahadin^[63]
      • 4th Division (Probably being upgraded to Mech) – Tikrit
        • 1 Motorized (AAslt) Bde
        • 2 (Eagles) Motorized Bde
        • 3 Infantry Bde
        • 4 Bde (Samara brigade) (forming)
        • 4th Motor Transport Regiment
      • 5th Infantry Division (Iron) – Diyala
        • 1 Infantry (AAslt) Bde
        • 2 (Desert Lions) Infantry (AAslt) Bde
        • 3 Motorized Bde
        • 4 Motorized Bde
        • 5th Motor Transport Regiment
      • 12th Light Infantry Division (Probably planned to become Mech) – Tikrit
        • Splitting off from 4 Div in mid-2008
        • 1 Light Infantry Brigade (former 1 Strategic Infrastructure Bde)
        • 2 Light Infantry Brigade (former 2 Strategic Infrastructure Bde)
        • 9 Light Infantry Brigade (former 9 Strategic Infrastructure Bde)
        • 4 Bde

An Iraqi Army Ashok Leyland Truck of Indian Origin

• • Southern Operational Command - Nasiriyah
    • Basrah IGFC Sector - Basra, al-Muthanna, Maysan, Dhi Qar^[64]
      • Basrah Operational Command – Basrah
      • 10th Division – An Nasiriyah
        • 1 Motorized Bde
        • 2 Infantry Bde
        • 3 Motorized Bde
        • 4 Motorized Bde
        • 10th Motor Transport Regiment
      • 14th Division (Probably planned to become Mechanised) – Basrah^[65]

Members of Iraqi Army 3rd Brigade, 14th Division march during their graduation ceremony Feb. 13 2008. 5 weeks after graduation, the brigade took part in Operation Knight's Assault.

• • • • • 1 Motorized Bde
        • 2 Motorized Bde
        • 3 Motorized Bde
        • 4 Bde (forming mid 2008)
        • 14th Motor Transport Regiment
    • Mid-Euphrates IGFC Sector - Karbala
      • 8th Infantry Division – Al Kut
        • 1 Motorized Bde
        • 2 Motorized Bde
        • 4 Motorized Bde
  • Western Operational Command
    • Ramadi IGFC Sector – Al-Anbar
      • Anbar Operational Command – Ramadi
      • 1st (Iraqi Intervention Force) Infantry Division – Fallujah
        • 1 Infantry Bde - Ramadi
        • 2 Infantry Bde - Lake Thar Thar
        • 3 Motorized Bde - Temporarily assigned to 5th Division in Diyala
        • 4 Bde - forming
      • 7th Infantry Division – West Al Anbar Province
        • 1 Infantry Bde
        • 2 Infantry Bde
        • 3 Infantry Bde
        • 4 Light Armored Cavalry Bde (forming, delayed??)

• ISOF Div –
  • Under training in the US.

[edit] Training

Iraqi soldiers perform a live-fire exercise using Egyptian Maadi rifles

Training of Iraqi forces was initially done by private contractors, transitioned to coalition forces, and is now done by three Iraqi training battalions. Training has been impeded by domestic instability, infiltration by insurgents, and high desertion rates.^{[citation needed]}

Since June 2004, the partnership between Coalition forces and Iraqi forces has increased due to the growing number of battalions in the Iraqi army, which then stood around 115. Out of this number, it was deemed that 80 of them were able to carry out operations in the field with Coalition support limited to logistics and strategic planning, whilst another 20-30 battlions still needed major Coalition support to carry out their operations.

As of October 5, 2005 the New Iraqi Army had 90 battalions trained well enough to be "deployed independently", i.e. without the help of others such as the United States.^[66]

There are three levels of troop capability in the New Iraqi Army: one, two, and three. Level three refers to troops that have just completed basic training, level two refers to troops that are able to work with soldiers, and level one refers to troops that can work by themselves.

Members of NATO's training mission in Iraq (NTM-I) opened a Joint Staff College in ar-Rustamiya in Baghdad on September 27, 2005 with 300 trainers. Training at NATO bases in Norway, Italy, Jordan, Germany, and Egypt have also taken place and 16 NATO countries have allocated forces to the training effort.^[67].

MNF-Iraq are also conducting ongoing training programs for both enlisted men and officers including training as medics, engineers, quartermasters, military police, and so forth. Outside of the various courses and programs being held in-country, both American staff colleges and military academies have begun taking Iraqi applicants, with Iraqi cadets being enrolled at both the United States Military Academy and the US Air Force Academy.^[68]

[edit] Recruits and enlisted men

Iraqi Army recruits undergo a standard eight week ^[2] basic training course that includes basic soldiering skills, weapons marksmanship and individual tactics. Former soldiers are eligible for an abbreviated three week "Direct Recruit Replacement Training" course designed to replace regular basic training to be followed by more training once they have been assigned to a unit.

Soldiers later go on to enroll in more specific advanced courses targeted for their respective fields. This could involve going to the Military Intelligence School, the Signal School, the Bomb Disposal School, the Combat Arms Branch School, the Engineer School, and the Military Police School.

[edit] Officers

The Iraqi Armed Service and Supply Institute located in Taji plays a significant role in training aspiring Iraqi non-commissioned officers and commissioned officers. The training is based on a Sandhurst model due to its shorter graduation time compared to West Point.

CMATT's main recruiting stations are located in Baghdad, Basra and Mosul. The most desired recruits are individuals who have prior military service or are skilled in specific professions such as first aid, heavy equipment operation, food service and truck driving. A recruitment target of approximately one thousand men is desired to eventually form a 757-man battalion. Soldier fallout usually occurs due to voluntary withdrawal or failure to meet training standards.

Due to the current demand for these battalions to become active as soon as possible, the first four battalions' officers, non-commissioned officers, and enlisted men are being trained simultaneously (in separate groups). Notable differences in training between CAATT and former training under Saddam's regime include schooling in human rights, the laws of land warfare, and tolerance in a multi-ethnic team.

Based on the philosophy used by the U.S. military to boost its own size in response to World War II — that an army can be built faster by focusing on the training on its leadership rather than enlisted men — CMATT has pursued a similar strategy of focusing recruitment and training on commissioned and non-commissioned officers for the remaining 23 Iraqi battalions. Upon successful completion of officer training, these groups of officers will form the battalion's leadership cadre, which will then be responsible for overseeing its own recruitment, training, and readiness of its enlisted men. It is hoped that having the Iraqi leadership train its own will overcome problems faced by CAATT's training process; namely recruitment, desertion, and unit loyalty.

[edit] Military Transition Teams

All Iraqi Army battalions have embedded U.S. Military transition teams, according to the National Strategy for Victory in Iraq. The MiTTs advise their Iraqi battalions in the areas of intelligence, communications, fire support, logistics and infantry tactics. Larger scale operations are often done jointly with American battalions. This operational training aims to make the battalion self-sustainable tactically, operationally and logistically so that the battalion will be prepared to take over responsibility for battle space.

The DOD (as of March '07) reported that 6000 advisors arranged in 480+ teams were embedded with Iraqi units^[30]; however, in April, the Congressional Research Service reported that only around 4000 U.S. forces were embedded with Iraqi units at a rate of 10 per battalion^[2].

Command of all but one of the Iraqi Army's 16 divisions has been turned over to the Iraqi government; they are now under the command of Lt. General Ali Ghaidan Majid rather than being led by the American military.^[69]

[edit] Equipment

New Iraqi Army T-72

A Ukrainian-built BTR-94 sits atop a flatbed truck awaiting transportation to Iraq, circa August 2004. Several hundred light armor vehicles were donated to the Iraqi government by Jordan.

T-55 of 1st Iraqi Mechanized Brigade conducting a route security patrol near Taji, Iraq.

Virtually all of the equipment used by the former Iraqi Army was either destroyed by the U.S. and British during Operation Iraqi Freedom or was looted during the chaotic aftermath shortly after the fall of the Hussein regime. Four T-55 tanks however have been recovered from an old army base in al-Muqdadiyah and are now in service with the 1st Mechanized Division.

On February 2, 2004 the U.S government announced that Nour USA was awarded a $327,485,798 contract to procure equipment for both the Iraqi Army and the Iraqi National Guard; however, this contract was canceled in March 2004 when an internal Army investigation (initiated due to complaints from losing bidders) revealed that Army procurement officers in Iraq were violating procedures with sloppy contract language and incomplete paperwork.

On May 25, 2004 the U.S. Army Tank-automotive and Armaments Command (TACOM) stated that they would award a contract worth $259,321,656 to ANHAM Joint Venture in exchange for procuring the necessary equipment (and providing its required training) for a minimum of 15 and a maximum of 35 battalions. The minimum bid would begin to be delivered immediately and further orders could be placed until the maximum of 35 battalion sets or September 2006 after the first order was fully delivered.

In May 2005, Hungary agreed to donate 77 T-72's to the Iraqi Army, with the refurbishment contract going to Defense Solutions to bring the tanks up to operational status for an estimated 4.5 million dollars US^[70]. After a delay in the payment of funds from the Iraqi government^[71], Iraq's 9th Army Mechanized Division received the tanks at its headquarters in Taji over a three day period starting on November 8, 2005^[70].

On July 29, 2005, the United Arab Emirates gained approval to purchase 180 M113A1 APCs in good-condition from Switzerland, with the intent to transfer them to Iraq as a gift. Domestic political opposition successfully froze the sale, fearing that the export would violate the country's longstanding tradition of neutrality as well as perhaps make Switzerland a target for terrorism^[72].

173 M113s, 44 Panhards, and 300 Spartans donated by Jordan, Pakistan and UAE. 600 Dzik-3 (Ain Jaria) APCs were ordered in Poland (option 1200) for delivery by Jan 2007. 573 Akrep APCs for delivery by Jan 2007. 756 Cougar H APCs (option 1050) for delivery by November 2008.

713 M1114s and 400 M1151s purchased for IA with delivery complete by end July 2006.

Serbia has signed a US$230m deal with Iraq to sell weapons and military equipment, the defence ministry said in March 2008. It did not specify the weapons but Serbian military experts believe they include Serbian-made CZ-99 hand guns, Zastava M21 5.56 mm assault rifles,Zastava M84 machine guns, anti-tank weapons (M79 "Osa", Bumbar, and M90 "Strsljen"), ammunition and explosives and about 20 Lasta 95 basic trainer aircraft. Iraq's defence Minister Abdul-Qadir al-Obaidi visited Belgrade in September and November to discuss boosting military ties with Serbia.^[73][74]

In August 2008, the United States has proposed military sales to Iraq, which will include the latest upgraded M1A1 Abrams battle tanks, attack helicopters, Stryker armored vehicles, modern radios, all to be valued at an estimated 2.16 billion dollars.^[75]

In December 2008 the United States approved a 6 billion dollars arms deal with Iraq that included 140 M1A1 Abrams tanks and 400 Stryker combat vehicles for elite Iraqi army units. ^[76]

In January 2009 U.S. defense companies and Pentagon officials announced that the Iraqi Army is planning to buy up to 2,000 retrofitted Soviet-era T-72M tanks. Redesignated as T-91s, the tanks would form the heavy core of a reconstituted force meant to be able to defend its country after most U.S. forces leave in 2011. The tanks would be bought from Eastern European countries such as the Czech Republic, Poland, Ukraine and Slovakia, and then stripped to their frames and rebuilt under a contract managed by Defense Solutions of Exton, Pa with advanced gun systems, modern armor, and fire control systems to levels almost similar to the M1A1 Abrams. This proposal has since been discredited by Pentagon sources. ^[77]

In February 2009 the US military announced it had struck deals with Iraq that will see Baghdad spend 5 billion dollars on American-made weapons, equipment and training.^[78]

[edit] Uniforms and personal weapons

The average Iraqi soldier is equipped with an assortment of uniforms ranging from Desert Battle Uniform, 6 color "Chocolate Chip" DBDU and woodland pattern BDU to knock off US MARPAT or Jordanian KA7. Nearly all have a PASGT ballistic helmet, generation I OTVballistic vest, and a collection of AK-47 rifles and M16 rifles.

[edit] New Equipment

Vehicle[21]	Origin	Type	Versions	Ordered
ILAV Badger	United States	Mine Resistant Armored Vehicle		2 on order to replace damaged inventory.
Medium Tactical Vehicle Replacement	United States	Heavy Transport		41 on order. (replacements)
M1A1 Abrams	United States	Main Battle Tank	Modified and Upgraded to M1A1M	280 on order. 140 to be delivered in 2010 to 2011. Estimated 700 in total to be ordered. 22 currently leased for training.
Armored High Mobility Multi-Purpose Wheeled Vehicles (HMMWV)	United States	HMMWV/Multipurpose		64 on order.
M1152	United States	HMMWV/Troop Transport		92 on order.
M577A2	United States	Command Post Carrier		12 on order.
M548A1	United States	Tracked Logistics Vehicle		16 on order.
M113A2	United States	Armored Ambulance		8 on order.
M1070	United States	Heavy Equipment Transporter		35 on order.
M978A2 Heavy Expanded Mobility Tactical Truck (HEMTT)	United States	Tanker		40 on order.
M985A2 HEMTT	United States	Cargo Truck		36 on order.
M984A2 HEMTT	United States	Wrecker Truck		4 on order.
M1085A1	United States	5-ton Cargo Truck		140
MMWV	United States	Ambulance		8 on order.
Contact Maintenance Truck	United States	Maintenance Truck		8 on order.

[edit] Challenges and criticisms

This article may need to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information, and remove this template when finished. Please see the talk page for more information. (July 2009)

This section requires expansion.

The New Iraq Army currently faces multiple challenges it must overcome to establish itself as the premier symbol of authority in Iraq. These include:

[edit] Iraqi insurgency

Based on Bush administration expectations that coalition forces would be welcomed as liberators after the overthrow of the Hussein regime, prewar planners had only been expecting minimal if any resistance from the Iraqi people.

For a multitude of reasons, this ideal scenario has not materialized and now the New Iraqi Army faces an insurgency which has caused more coalition casualties than during the war itself. An increase in size as well as an increased sophistication in the nature of the attacks has seriously weakened the efforts of the New Iraqi Army to maintain internal security.

[edit] Equipment

The Iraqi Army continues to face significant challenges securing an adequate weapons supply because its equipment plans have never matched the threats it has faced.

[edit] Poor weapon registration

A 2006 report by the Special Inspector General for Iraq Reconstruction (SIGIR) notes that out of the 370,000 weapons turned over to the US since the fall of Saddam's regime, only 12,000 serial numbers have been recorded^[79]. The lack of proper accounting for these weapons makes small arms proliferation to anti governmental forces such as insurgents or sectarian militias much easier.

[edit] Infiltration

The Iraqi Army is widely known to have been infiltrated by a multitude of groups ranging from local militias to foreign insurgents. This has led to highly publicized deaths and compromised operations (perhaps the most prominent being the 2004 attack on a US military base near Mosul in December 2004. More than 20 people, including 13 American servicemen, were killed when a suicide bomber wearing an Iraqi military uniform detonated his vest inside a dining tent.^[80]). Infiltration by elements not primarily loyal to the Iraqi Army presents an ongoing danger to the lives and operations of the entire army.

[edit] Inadequate intelligence gathering capabilities

The Iraqi Army currently has no formalized apparatus for the collection of military intelligence (similar to the DIA). Currently it must rely on intelligence provided by the United States for the majority of its operations. Developing a professional intelligence corps to augment the effectiveness of the Iraqi Army remains an ongoing challenge.

[edit] Lack of adequate logistical support

The Iraqi Army presently must rely on US logistical support to conduct the majority of its operations^[81]. It currently lacks critical support services such as transportation, medevac capabilities, medical logistics, and intelligence. Until the Iraqi Army can develop these capabilities, it will continue to depend on US forces for support.

[edit] Insufficient advisory effort

As of October 2006, there are approximately 4000 US combat advisor's embedded with Iraqi units out of 130,000 US soldiers stationed in that country. Defense analyst Andrew Krepinevich argues that the roughly twelve advisors per Iraqi battalion (approximately 500 troops) is less than half the sufficient amount needed to efficiently implement the combat advisory effort ^[82]. Krepinevich argues that officers try to avoid taking on advisory tasks because the potential for promotion is much lower due to the US Army's culture of promoting officers that have served with a domestic unit over ones that have served with foreign forces. ^[83]

[edit] No military judicial punishment system

The Iraqi Army currently lacks a military judicial punishment system thus giving those in command little leverage over subordinates who would choose to disobey orders.

[edit] Ineffective leadership at the Ministry of Defense

The current Minister of Defense, Abd al-Qadr Muhammed Jassim al-Obaidi, has limited experience and faces a number of hurdles impeding his effective governance. Some of the major problems include inheriting a staff that is notorious for favorism, corruption, and deeply divided along sectarian and ethnic lines. He rivals with the Minister of the Interior, Jawad al-Bolani, National Security Advisor Muwafaq al-Rubai, and Minister of Staff for National Security Affairs, Shirwan al-Waili. He has been criticized for not being able to stand up to the Badr Organization and Mehdi Army members which dominate his own party. In addition, as a Sunni he faces inherent challenges working within a Shiite-dominated government.

[edit] Iranian influence

An estimated 150 Iranian intelligence officers, plus members of Iran's Revolutionary Guard Command, are believed to be active inside Iraq at any given time^[84]. For more than a year, US troops have detained and recorded fingerprints, photographs, and DNA samples from dozens of suspected Iranian agents in a catch and release program designed to intimidate the Iranian leadership^[84]. Iranian influence is felt most heavily within the Iraqi Government, the ISF, and Shiite militias.

[edit] Governmental

Iranian influence is felt heavily within the SCIRI and its armed wing the Badr Organization. An unnamed US intelligence analyst has commented that Iran funds many different groups to ensure substantial influence regardless of which faction is likely to dominate the political or military power base ^[85].

[edit] Insurgency

Interrogation of members from the Qazali terror network revealed that the group had received substantial Iran-based training in explosives technology; arms and munitions; and some cases of advice. All this is alleged by the U.S. military to have taken place through the Quds force of the Iranian Revolutionary Guards Corps^[86]. It is also known that Iran supports Muqtada al-Sadr's Mahdi Army.

[edit] No national banking system

Poor levels of internal security have stifled attempts to build any national banking or credit systems. In lieu of such organizations, Iraqi units operate at any given time with an estimated 10-20% absenteeism rate due to soldiers temporarily leaving their units to deliver income back to their families ^[87]. This can be especially grueling if the unit is on deployment outside of their home province as the absenteeism time is naturally increased.

[edit] Lack of military medical services

All military hospitals under the Saddam regime were looted and abandoned during the 2003 invasion of Iraq; as such, the Iraqi Army currently fields no military hospitals^[88]. There is only one military prosthetics facility in the country and virtually no mental health or burn treatment services. Wounded Iraqi soldiers are expected to receive treatment either at civilian hospitals or if possible, at Coalition medical facilities^[88]. Corruption practices spurred partly by over-taxation at these civilian hospitals significantly drive up costs to the soldier. Due to overwhelming red tape within the Iraqi military compensation system, it is commonplace for the soldier to end up bearing the financial brunt of medical expenses^[88].

[edit] See also

• Iraqi Army Ranks Insignia
• Iraqi Air Force
• Iraqi Navy
• Iraqi Security Forces
• Military transition team
• Iraqi National Counter-Terrorism Force (INCTF)
• SIPRI Arms Transfers Database, Iraq 1973–1990

[edit] References

[edit] Sources

• Lyman, Robert (2006). Iraq 1941: The Battles for Basra, Habbaniya, Fallujah and Baghdad. Campaign. Oxford, New York: Osprey Publishing. pp. 96. ISBN 10: 1-84176-991-6. 

[edit] Further reading

• Two Years in Iraq and Honored as a General - Award ceremony led by Staff Brigadier General Nassir al-Hiti.
• www.365iniraq.com Articles and pictures from an Iraqi Army transition team
• Building Iraqi security forces : hearing before the Subcommittee on National Security, Emerging Threats and International Relations of the Committee on Government Reform, House of Representatives, March 14, 2005
• Rebuilding Iraq: Resource, Security, Governance, Essential Services, and Oversight Issues: United States General Accounting Office Report to Congressional Committees, June, 2004
• Cordesman, Anthony H. : Prepared Statement before the Subcommittee on National Security, Emerging Threats, and International Relations of the Committee on Government Reform, March 14, 2005
• Cordesman, Anthony H., Iraqi Security Forces, Praeger/CSIS, 2006 ISBN 0-275-98908-9
• Cordesman, Anthony H., Iraqi Force Development: A Current Status Report July 2005-February 2006, February 15, 2006
• Iraqi Troops Killed 2 U.S. Soldiers
• Kenneth M. Pollack, Arabs at War: Military Effectiveness 1948-91, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln and London, 2002, and Pollack's book reviewed in International Security, Vol. 28, No.2.
• America's old Humvees add new luster to Iraqi fleet - Christian Science Monitor, March 17, 2008