Anglo-Iraqi War

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Anglo-Iraqi War Part of Mediterranean, Middle East and African theatre British troops looking at Baghdad, 11 June 1941. Date 2 May[1] – 31 May 1941.[nb 1] Location Iraq Result British victory Belligerents United Kingdom British India Palestine[3] Iraq Germany[4] Italy[5] Commanders Archibald Wavell[6] Edward Quinan[6] William Fraser[7] H. G. Smart[8] Rashid Ali Strength 1 infantry division[9] 2 brigade groups[nb 2] 100+ aircraft[nb 3] 4 divisions[10] 116 Iraqi aircraft[12] (50 – 60 serviceable)[7] 29 German aircraft[13] 12 Italian aircraft[5] Casualties and losses 1,200 casualties[citation needed] 28 aircraft[14] 8,500 casualties[citation needed] 19 German aircraft[5] 4 Italian aircraft[5] v • d • e Mediterranean, Middle East and African theatres of World War II North Africa – East Africa – Mediterranean Sea – Gibraltar – Malta – Dakar – Balkans – Gabon – Iraq – Syria-Lebanon – Iran – Italy – Dodecanese – Southern France

The Anglo-Iraqi War was a conflict between the United Kingdom and the nationalist government of Iraq during World War II. The conflict lasted from 2 May to 31 May 1941. The conflict is also referred to as the Rashid Ali Rebellion.^{[citation needed]} The campaign resulted in British re-occupation of Iraq and further fuelled nationalist resentment of the British-supported Iraqi monarchy.^{[citation needed]}

Contents 1 Background 2 Coup d'état 2.1 Iraqi forces 2.2 Allied response 2.3 Iraqi moves and escalation to war 3 Combat Operations 3.1 German involvement 3.2 British counterattack 3.3 Iraqi collapse 4 Aftermath 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links

[edit] Background

The Kingdom of Iraq (also referred to as Mesopotamia) was governed by the United Kingdom under a League of Nations mandate; the British Mandate of Mesopotamia, until 1932 when it became nominally independent.^[15] Before granting independence, the United Kingdom concluded the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty of 1930. This treaty had several conditions, which included permission to establish military bases for British use^[16] and provide all facilities for the unrestricted movement of British forces through the country upon request to the Iraqi government.^[17] The conditions of the treaty were imposed by the United Kingdom to ensure continued control of Iraq's oil resources. Many Iraqis resented these conditions and felt that their country and its monarchy were still under the effective control of the British Government.^[18]

However, following 1937 no British troops were left in Iraq and the Iraqi government had become solely responsible for the internal security of the country.^[19] In accordance with the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty, the Royal Air Force (RAF) had been allowed to retain two bases; RAF Shaibah, near Basra, and one at Habbaniya. These bases had a dual role: protecting Britain's oil interests and maintaining a link in the air route between Egypt and India.^[20] In addition RAF Habbaniya was also a training base^[7] and was protected by a small detachment of RAF ground forces and locally raised Iraqi troops.^[19]

With the outbreak of World War II in September 1939 the Iraqi Government broke off diplomatic relations with Germany.^[19] However, the United Kingdom wanted the Iraqi Government to take a further step and declare war upon Germany.^{[citation needed]} In March 1940, the nationalist and anti-British Rashid Ali replaced Nuri as-Said.^{[citation needed]} Ali made covert contacts with German representatives in the Middle East, though he was not yet an openly pro-Axis supporter.^{[citation needed]}

In June 1940, when Italy joined the war, on the side of Germany, the Iraqi government did not break off diplomatic relations, as they had done so with Germany.^[19] Thus the Italian Legation in Baghdad became the chief centre for Axis propaganda and for fomenting anti-British feeling. In this they were aided by the Mufti of Jerusalem, who had fled from Palestine shortly before the outbreak of war and later received asylum in Baghdad.^[21]

In January 1941, there was a political crisis within Iraq and the threat of civil war was looming. Rashid Ali resigned as Prime Minister of Iraq^[22], on 31 January,^{[citation needed]} and was replaced by Taha al-Hashimi.^[22] Public opinion started to change in Iraq as the Italians suffered a series of setbacks in the African and Mediterranean theatre.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Coup d'état

On 31 March, the Regent of Iraq, Amir Abdul Illah, learnt of a plot to arrest him and he fled Baghdad for RAF Habbaniya. From Habbaniya he was flown to Basra and given refuge on the gunboat HMS Cockchafer.^[22]

On 3 April, Rashid Ali, along with four top level Army and Air Force officers; known as the "Golden Square", seized power via a coup d'état and Ali proclaimed himself Chief of the National Defence Government.^[22] The Golden Square deposed Taha al-Hashimi.^[23] and, on 3 April, Ali once again became Prime Minister. Ali did not move to overthrow the monarchy. However, he did restrict British rights under the 1930 treaty.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Iraqi forces

The Royal Iraqi Army (RIrA) was composed of four infantry divisions^[10] with some 60,000 men. The 1st and 3rd Divisions^[24] were stationed near Baghdad.^[10] Also based within Baghdad was the Independent Mechanized Brigade comprised of a light tank company, an armoured car company, two battalions of "mechanized" infantry transported in trucks, a "mechanized" machine-gun company, and a "mechanized" artillery brigade. The Iraqi 2nd Division was stationed in Kirkuk and the 4th Division was in Al Diwaniyah on the main rail line from Baghdad to Basra.^[12]

Unlike the modern use of the term "mechanized," in 1941 "mechanized" for the RIrA meant transported by trucks.^{[nb 4]}

The Royal Iraqi Air Force (RIrAF) had a total of 116 aircraft in 7 squadrons and a training school.^[12] However, only between 50 and 60 Iraqi aircraft were in serviceable condition.^[7] Most Iraqi aircraft were located at the newly re-named "Rashid Airfield" in Baghdad. In addition to the 116 aircraft, the Iraqi Air Force had another 9 aircraft not allocated to specific squadrons and 19 aircraft available in reserve.^[12]

The Royal Iraqi Navy (RIrN) had four 100-ton Thornycroft gunboats, one pilot vessel, and one minesweeper. All were armed and all were based in the Shatt-al-Arab waterways.^[25]

[edit] Allied response

Following the coup, the British Chiefs of Staff, with the vocal support of the Commander-in-Chief, India Claude Auchinleck, were in favour of armed intervention. However the three Commander-in-chiefs, of the British armed forces in the Middle East and eastern Mediterranean area,^{[nb 5]} already heavily committed with fighting in Libya, in East Africa, and in Greece, suggested the only forces they would be able to use against Iraq was a single battalion of infantry, based within Palestine, and the aircraft already based within Iraq.^[26] The Government of India had a long standing commitment to prepare one infantry division in case it should be needed to protect the Anglo-Iranian oilfields and in July 1940 the leading brigade of this division, the 5th Indian Infantry Division,^[27] was ordered to be dispatched to Iraq. However in August the division was placed under the command of Middle East Command and was diverted to Sudan.^[28] Since then British India Command had been investigating the move of troops by air from India to RAF Shaibah; when the British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, asked what force could be quickly sent from India to Iraq. The response from India was that the majority of one brigade group, that was due to set sail for Malaya on 10 April, could be diverted to Basra and the rest of the group dispatched ten days later. In addition 390 British infantrymen could be flown from India into RAF Shaibah. It was also stated that when shipping became available this force could quickly be built up to a division in strength.^[7] On 10 April this offer was accepted by London and the move of these forces was codenamed Operation Sabine.^[27] On the same day General Archibald Wavell, Commander-in-Chief of Middle East Command, informed London that he could no longer spare the one battalion in Palestine and urged for firm diplomatic action, and possibly a demonstration of air strength, to be taken rather than military intervention.^[7]

Starting in early April preparations in case of hostilities were made at Habbaniya: aircraft were modified to allow them to carry bombs, while light bombers such as the Hawker Audax were modified to carry larger bombs.^[29] On 13 April the Royal Navy force of four ships in the Persian Gulf were reinforced by two cruisers and the aircraft carrier HMS Hermes. On 16 April the Iraqi Government was informed that the British were going to invoke the Anglo-Iraq treaty to move troops through the country to Palestine. Rashid Ali raised no objection and the next day the 1st Battalion King's Own Royal Regiment (Lancaster) was flown into RAF Shaibah; by the end of the month 300 of their number had been flown from RAF Shaibah to RAF Habbaniya to reinforce the base.^[10]

On 18 April the 20th Indian Infantry Brigade, the personnel of the Royal Artillery's 3rd Field Regiment;^[7] but without their guns,^[30] and the headquarters of the 10th Indian Infantry Division landed at Basra;^[7] covered by infantry of the King’s Own Royal Regiment (Lancaster).^[31] Major-General William Fraser, the commanding officer of the 10th Indian Infantry Division, then assumed control over all land forces based within Iraq.^[7] The following day seven aircraft^{[nb 6]} were flown into RAF Habbaniya to bolster the air force there.^[10] A further three ships landed at Basra, bringing ancillary troops on 29 April.^[32] The same day^[10] the British Ambassador, Sir Kinahan Cornwallis,^[22] advised that all British women and children should leave Baghdad; 230 civilians were escorted by road to Habbaniya and during the following days were gradually air lifted to Shaibah.^[10] A further 350 civilians took refuge in the British Embassy and 150 British civilians in the American Legation.^[33]

Following the landing of these troops, Rashid Ali requested that they be moved quickly through the country and that no more should arrive until the previous force had left.^[34] Sir Kinahan Cornwallis referred the issue to London who replied that they had no interest in moving the troops out of the country and wanted to establish them within Iraq. Cornwallis was also informed not to inform Rashid Ali who, as he had taken control of the country via a coup d'état, had no right to be informed about British troop movements.^[29] On 30 April the 10th Indian Infantry Division's second brigade, 21st Infantry Brigade, disembarked in Iraq without incident. When Ali was informed that ships containing British forces had arrived on 30 April he refused permission for troops to disembark from them and began organising for an armed demonstration at RAF Habbaniya.^[29]

[edit] Iraqi moves and escalation to war

At 03:00 on 30 April RAF Habbaniya was warned, by the British Embassy, that Iraqi forces had left their bases, at Baghdad, and were heading west.^[10] The Iraqi force was composed of between 6,000^[35] – 9,000^[36] troops with up to 30 artillery pieces.^[35] Within a few hours of RAF Habbaniya being warned, Iraqi forces occupied the plateau to the south of the base. Prior to dawn reconnaissance aircraft were launched and reported that at least two battalions, with artillery, had taken up position on the plateau. At 06:00 an Iraqi envoy presented a message to the Air Officer Commanding (AOC), Air Vice-Marshal (AVM) H. G. Smart, stating that the plateau had been occupied for a training exercise.^[37] The envoy also informed the base commander that all flying should cease immediately^[10] and demanded that no movements, either ground or air, take place from the base.^[37] The Air Officer Commanding replied that any interference with the normal training carried out at the base would be treated as an act of war.^[10] The British Ambassador, located at the embassy in Baghdad and in contact with the base via wireless, fully supported this action.^[10] The reconnaissance aircraft, already in the air, continued to relay information to the base; they reported that the Iraqi positions on the plateau were being steadily reinforced, they also reported that Iraqi troops had occupied the town of Falluja.^[10]

At 11:30 hours the Iraqi envoy again made contact with the base commander and accused the British of violating the Anglo-Iraqi treaty. Air Vice-Marshal Smart replied that this was a political matter and he would have to refer the accusation to the Ambassador.^[10] Meanwhile Iraqi forces had now occupied vital bridges over the Tigris and Euphrates rivers as well as reinforcing their garrison at Ramadi; thus effectively cutting off RAF Habbaniya except from the air.^[8] In response to the Iraqi moves the 10th Indian Infantry Division occupied Basra airport, the city's docks and the power station.^[33]

Air Vice-Marshal Smart controlling a base with a population of around 9,000 civilians^[29] that was indefensible with the force of roughly 2,500 men currently available,^[38] including air crew and Assyrian Levies, whose loyalty had yet to be proven, and with the possibility that the Iraqi rebels were waiting for dark before attacking; decided to accept the tactical risks and stick to Middle East Command's policy of avoiding aggravation in Iraq by, for the moment, not launching a pre-emptive strike.^[1]

Further exchanges of messages took place between the British and Iraqi forces but none were able to defuse the situation. In response the British requested reinforcements and the Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief,^[8] Sir Arthur Longmore,^[39] ordered 18^{[nb 7]} Vickers Wellington bombers to RAF Shaibah. The British Ambassador signalled the Foreign Office that he regarded the Iraqi actions as an act of war, which required an immediate air response. He also informed them that he intended to demand the withdrawal of the Iraqi forces and permission to launch air strikes to restore control, even if the Iraqi troops overlooking Habbaniya did withdraw it would only postpone aerial attacks.^[8] On 1 May the Ambassador received a response giving him full authority to take any steps needed to ensure the withdrawal of the Iraqi armed forces.^[8] Churchill also sent a personal reply, stating: "If you have to strike, strike hard. Use all necessary force."^[37] Were contact to break down between the Embassy and Habbaniya, the Air Officer Commanding was given permission to act on his own authority.^[8]

Still in contact with the Embassy and with the Ambassadors approval, Air Vice-Marshal Smart decided to launch air strikes against the plateau the following morning without issuing an ultimatum; as with foreknowledge the Iraqi force might start to shell the airbase and halt any attempt to launch aircraft.^[8]

[edit] Combat Operations

Air Vice-Marshal Smart's tactics, to defend the Habbaniya, was to mount continuous bombing and strafing attacks with as many aircraft as possible.^[40] At 05:00 on 2 May 33 aircraft from Habbaniya,^[8] out of the 56 operational aircraft based there,^[41] and eight Wellington bombers, from Shaibah, began their attack^[8] Within minutes the Iraqi's replied by shelling the base, damaging some planes on the ground. The Royal Iraqi Air Force (RIrAF) also joined in the fray over Habbaniya.^[8] RAF attacks were also made against Iraqi air fields near Baghdad, which resulted in 22 aircraft being destroyed on the ground;^[40] further attacks were made against the railway and Iraqi positions near Shaibah, with the loss of two planes.^[8] Throughout the day the pilots, from Habbaniya, flew 193 sorties^[8] and claimed direct hits on Iraqi transports, armoured cars and artillery pieces;^[42] however five aircraft had been destroyed and several others had been put out of service. On the base 13 people had lost their lives and a further 29 wounded, including nine civilians.^[8] By the end of the day the Iraqi force, outside of Habbaniya, had grew to roughly a brigade^[43] and there had been reports that elements of the Royal Iraqi Army (RIrA) was advancing on the town of Rutbah.^[31]

On 3 May, the bombing continued; troop and gun positions on the plateau were targeted as well the supply line to Baghdad. The RIrAF base at Rashid was also attacked^[43] and an Iraqi Savoia SM 79 bomber was intercepted and shot down heading for Habbaniya.^[42] The following day further air attacks were carried out on troop positions and the RIrAF. A bombing raid was conducted by eight Wellington bombers on Rashid, which was briefly engaged by Iraqi fighters but no losses were suffered. Bristol Blenheims, escorted by Hurricanes, also conducted strafing attacks against airfields at Baghdad, Rashid and Mosul.^[43]

On 5 May 1941, due to a car accident, Air Vice-Marshal Smart was evacuated to Basra and then onto India. Colonel Ouvry Lindfield Roberts, the Chief Staff Officer of the 10th Indian Division, then assumed de facto command of the land operations at RAF Habbaniya after the departure of Smart;^[44] he had been flown to Habbaniya a short time earlier.^[45][46] Further aerial attacks were conducted against the plateau during the day and following nightfall^[43] Colonel Roberts ordered a sortie by the King's Own Royal Regiment (Lancaster) against the Iraqi positions on the plateau. The attack was supported by the Assyrian levies, some RAF armoured cars and two World War I 4.5 inch howitzers that had been put in working order by some British gunners but had previously been decorating the entrance of the base's officers' mess.^[45][47]

After a hard fight, the Iraqi force withdrew from the plateau. Meanwhile Iraqi reinforcements were approaching. They met the retreating force on the Fallujah road some five miles (8 km) east of Habbaniya. Just at that moment, every remaining available aircraft from RAF Habbaniya arrived to attack the reinforcing column. The two Iraqi columns were paralysed and within two hours over 400 Iraqi prisoners were taken and more than 1,000 casualties inflicted. On the morning of 7 May, British reconnaissance found the plateau vacated.^[45]

Meanwhile, forced into action by London, in early May Wavell put together in Palestine a force to cross the desert and relieve Habbaniya. The force was commanded by Major-General John Clark and was called Habforce, comprising British 4th Cavalry Brigade, a battalion of The Essex Regiment, the Arab Legion Mechanized Regiment, a field artillery battery, and a troop of anti-tank guns. Habforce included a flying column called Kincol. The Kingcol flying column was named after its commander, Brigadier James Kingstone.

Operations in Iraq also passed in early May from under the control of Auckinlech's India Command to Wavell's Middle East Command,^[48] while on 7 May Lieutenant-General Edward Quinan had arrived from India to take overall command of the land forces in Iraq. He was clear that his immediate task was to secure Basra as a base and he could not contemplate any move northward from Basra for three months on account of the flooding of the Tigris and Euphrates^[49] On 16 May, William Slim was promoted to Major-General to succeed Fraser (who had gone sick) as commander of the Indian 10th Infantry Division.

In the week following the end of the Iraqi investment of the garrison at Habbaniya, Roberts formed what became known as the "Habbaniya Brigade." Roberts formed the brigade by grouping infantry reinforcements from Basra (2/4th battalion Gurkha rifles) and from Kingcol (1st battalion the Essex Regiment).^[50]

[edit] German involvement

Between 14 and 15 May, aircraft of the German Air Force (Luftwaffe) arrived in the skies of Iraq. The arrival of these aircraft was the direct result of fevered consultations between Baghdad and Berlin in the days following Air Vice-Marshal Smart's strikes on the forces occupying the high ground above Habbaniya. On 3 May, German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop persuaded German dictator Adolf Hitler that Dr. Fritz Grobbin be secretly returned to Iraq to head up a mission to channel support to the Rashid Ali regime. On 6 May, Luftwaffe Colonel Werner Junck received instructions that he was to take a small force to Iraq. His force was to operate out of Mosul and his aircraft were to have Iraqi markings. The British quickly learned of the German arrangements through the Italian diplomatic cipher.^[51]

The Royal Iraqi Air Force (RIrAF) was on paper better equipped than the local RAF strength. But by 10 May, bombing by aircraft from Habbaniya had disabled the RIrAF as a fighting force. However the Luftwaffe now intervened; at the direction of Luftwaffe Colonel General Hans Jeschonnek, "Flyer Command Iraq" (Fliegerführer Irak)^[52] arrived under the command of Werner Junck. Junck's unit flew 15 Heinkel 111s and 14 Messerschmitt 110s^{[13][nb 8]} into Mosul via Vichy French airbases in Syria, arriving from 10 to 12 May, then commenced regular aerial attacks on Habbaniya.^[13] Plans were drawn up to supply ground warfare equipment and also troops, but the German high command was hesitant and required the permission of Turkey for passage. In the end the Luftwaffe found conditions in Iraq intolerable, as spare parts were not available and even the quality of aircraft fuel was far below the Luftwaffe's requirements. With each passing day a reduced number of aircraft remained serviceable and, ultimately, all Luftwaffe personnel were evacuated on the last remaining Heinkel He 111. Only one German aircraft was lost in action, due to Iraqi friendly fire.^{[53][dubious – discuss]}

In addition to Fliegerführer Irak, the Germans were able to provide the Iraqis with material support through the Paris Protocols; these protocols made possible the delivery of French war stores. On 13 May, the first trainload from Syria arrived in Mosul via Turkey. The Iraqis took delivery of 15,500 rifles with six-million rounds of ammunition, 200 machine-guns with 900 belts of ammunition, and four 75 mm field guns together with 10,000 shells. Two additional deliveries were made on 26 and 28 May. The additional stores included eight 155 mm guns with 6,000 shells, 354 machine pistols, 30,000 grenades, and 32 trucks.^[54]

[edit] British counterattack

On 18 May, Kingcol arrived at Habbaniya from the British Mandate of Palestine,^[55] too late to intervene at Habbaniya but in time to participate in the thrust from the base towards Fallujah and thence Baghdad to force an early Iraqi capitulation.

On 18 May 1941, Colonel Roberts, commanding a force of the King's Own Royal Regiment, RAF Armoured Cars, RAF Assyrian Levies, and the reinforcements from Kingcol, using improvised cable-drawn ferries crossed the river and then overcame the other water obstacles created by the flooding, and moved on Fallujah. After nearly a whole day of fighting, Fallujah was taken by the evening of 19 May. Kingcol then pressed on to Baghdad.^[56] On 22 May, two Iraqi light tanks (possibly L3/33 or L3/35 purchased from Italy) were knocked out during an Iraqi counter-attack on the British forces at Fallujah.

By the time of the Fallujah battle, British aircraft were operating unopposed against the Iraqi army. The British managed this despite the presence of twin engine fighters and medium bombers from the Luftwaffe and by a squadron of CR.42 biplane fighters from the Italian Royal Air Force (Regia Aeronautica).^[5] The German and Italian aircraft were painted in Iraqi markings (recalling the aircraft of the Condor Legion during the Spanish Civil War).^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Iraqi collapse

The British forces pressed on to Baghdad, where the government of Rashid Ali collapsed. Rashid Ali and his supporters fled to Persia and then on to Germany. On 31 May 1941, an armistice was signed^[57] and the monarchy and a pro-British government was put back in place.

[edit] Aftermath

British forces remained in Iraq until 26 October 1947 and the country remained effectively under British control. The British considered the occupation of Iraq necessary to ensure that access to its strategic oil resources be maintained.

After the Anglo-Iraq war the British continued to build up forces in Iraq and elements of Iraqforce based in Iraq were used to attack Syria in the Syria-Lebanon campaign, which took place in June and July 1941 and also Iran in the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran, which took place in August to September 1941. Forward defences against a possible German invasion from the north through the Caucasus were created in 1942 and the strength of Paiforce (Persia and Iraq Command), Iraqforce's successor, peaked at the equivalent of over 10 divisions before the Russians halted the German threat at the Battle of Stalingrad. After 1942, Iraq and Iran were used to transit war material to the Soviet Union and the British military presence became mainly lines of communication troops.

While Rashid Ali and his supporters were in alliance with the Nazi regime in Germany, the war demonstrated that Iraq's independence was at best conditional on British approval of the government's actions.^{[citation needed]} Rashid Ali and the Mufti of Jerusalem fled to Persia, then to Turkey, then to Italy, and finally to Berlin, Germany, where Ali was welcomed by Hitler as head of the Iraqi government-in-exile. In propaganda broadcasts from Berlin, the Mufti continued to call on Arabs to rise up against the British and aid German and Italian forces. He also helped recruit Muslim volunteers in the Balkans for the Waffen SS.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] See also

• Mesopotamian campaign
• Mohammad Amin al-Husayni
• British-Iraqi relations
• German-Iraqi relations
• Iraq-Italy relations
• Mulla Effendi

[edit] Notes

Footnotes

Citations

[edit] References

• Jackson, Ashley (2006). The British Empire and the Second World War. Hambledon Continuum. ISBN 1-85285-417-0. 
• Kiwarkis, Gaby. "Assyrian R.A.F. Levies". http://assyrianlevies.com. 
• Lyman, Robert (2006). Iraq 1941: The Battles for Basra, Habbaniya, Fallujah and Baghdad. Campaign. Oxford, New York: Osprey Publishing. pp. 96. ISBN 10: 1-84176-991-6. 
• Mackenzie, Compton. Eastern Epic: Volume 1 September 1939-March 1943 Defence. London: Chatto & Windus. OCLC 59637091. 
• Martin, Colonel Thomas Alexander (1952). The Essex Regiment, 1929-1950. Essex Regiment Association. 
• Mead, Richard (2007). Churchill's Lions: A biographical guide to the key British generals of World War II. Stroud (UK): Spellmount. ISBN 978-1-86227-431-0. 
• Peretz, Don (2004). The Middle East Today. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-027594-576-3. 
• Playfair, Major-General I.S.O.; with Stitt R.N., Commander G.M.S.; Molony, Brigadier C.J.C. & Toomer, Air Vice-Marshal S.E. (2004) [1st. pub. HMSO 1954]. Butler, J.R.M. ed. The Mediterranean and Middle East, Volume I The Early Successes Against Italy (to May 1941). History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series. Naval & Military Press. ISBN 1-84574-065-3. 
• Playfair, Major-General I.S.O.; with Flynn R.N., Captain F.C.; Molony, Brigadier C.J.C. & Toomer, Air Vice-Marshal S.E. (2004) [1st. pub. HMSO 1956]. Butler, J.R.M. ed. The Mediterranean and Middle East, Volume II The Germans come to the help of their Ally (1941). History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series. Naval & Military Press. ISBN 1-84574-066-1. 
• Royal Air Force. "RAF Valley No 4 Flying Training School". http://www.raf.mod.uk/rafvalley/aboutus/4ftshist.cfm. 
• Royal Air Force Museum. "Royal Air Force Museum". http://www.rafmuseum.org.uk. 
• Young, Peter (1972). The Arab Legion. Men-at-Arms. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 0850450845. 

[edit] External links

• Porch, Douglas. "Strategic Insight: The Other "Gulf War" - The British Invasion of Iraq in 1941". http://www.ccc.nps.navy.mil/rsepResources/si/dec02/middleEast.asp. 
• Rainbow, John and Pollington, John. "RAF Habbaniya, the Plateau Airfield & Lake". http://www.habbaniya.org/Plateau.html. 
• Time Magazine, June 30, 1941. "May 12—U.S.S.R. recognizes pro-Nazi Government of Iraq.". http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,851228,00.html. Retrieved on July 5, 2009. 

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