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'''[[Association football]] and politics''' describes the connection between football and politics, on the level of club identities, clashes, and footballers choosing a career in politics.
'''[[Association football]] and politics''' describes the connection between football and politics, on the level of club identities, clashes, and footballers choosing a career in politics.


In regards to the politics of space and football in Europe, football has historically played a part in maintaining the differences that give each European country its sense of identity, while simultaneously strengthening the bonds that bind them together as one body.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://daily.jstor.org/soccer-and-european-identity/|title=Soccer and European Identity|last=Mohammed|first=Farah|date=2018-06-15|website=JSTOR Daily|language=en-US|access-date=2019-11-22}}</ref> According to Macon Benoit, European football underwent a massive transformation during the World War II era (1933–45). The game's sharp rise in popularity came at a time of high political intensity, leading to football being politicized in various ways. Benoit breaks this politicization down, arguing that during this period, European football began to embody four main characteristics, becoming: 1) an agent of international relations, in the sense that the foreign policies of European nations supposedly became articulated in matches; 2) a source of political propaganda, in the sense that football was used to build national pride and establish the legitimacy of political movements; 3) a tool for social pacification, in the sense that football gave people a place to focus their energy that was not inherently political; and 4) an avenue for protest, in the sense that mass gatherings at matches gave spectators a forum for the expression of identity and political sentiment.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Benoit|first=Macon|date=2008-10-01|title=The politicisation of football: the European game and the approach to the Second World War|journal=Soccer & Society|volume=9|issue=4|pages=532–550|doi=10.1080/14660970802257606|s2cid=144529219|issn=1466-0970}}</ref> European football stadiums have also assumed various roles throughout history, acting as places of refuge, as well as sites of political uprisings and terrorist attacks. As European politics and relations have changed over time, football has remained a highly politicized game. This holds true in other parts of the world as well; football is a means of political expression globally.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Power|first=Martin J.|last2=Widdop|first2=Paul|last3=Parnell|first3=Dan|last4=Carr|first4=James|last5=Millar|first5=Stephen R.|date=2020-03-03|title=Football and politics: the politics of football|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/23750472.2020.1723437|journal=Managing Sport and Leisure|volume=25|issue=1-2|pages=1–5|doi=10.1080/23750472.2020.1723437|issn=2375-0472|doi-access=free}}</ref>
In regards to the politics of space and football in Europe, football has historically played a part in maintaining the differences that give each European country its sense of identity, while simultaneously strengthening the bonds that bind them together as one body.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://daily.jstor.org/soccer-and-european-identity/|title=Soccer and European Identity|last=Mohammed|first=Farah|date=2018-06-15|website=JSTOR Daily|language=en-US|access-date=2019-11-22}}</ref> According to Macon Benoit, European football underwent a massive transformation during the World War II era (1933–45). The game's sharp rise in popularity came at a time of high political intensity, leading to football being politicized in various ways. Benoit breaks this politicization down, arguing that during this period, European football began to embody four main characteristics, becoming: 1) an agent of international relations, in the sense that the foreign policies of European nations supposedly became articulated in matches; 2) a source of political propaganda, in the sense that football was used to build national pride and establish the legitimacy of political movements; 3) a tool for social pacification, in the sense that football gave people a place to focus their energy that was not inherently political; and 4) an avenue for protest, in the sense that mass gatherings at matches gave spectators a forum for the expression of identity and political sentiment.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Benoit|first=Macon|date=2008-10-01|title=The politicisation of football: the European game and the approach to the Second World War|journal=Soccer & Society|volume=9|issue=4|pages=532–550|doi=10.1080/14660970802257606|s2cid=144529219|issn=1466-0970}}</ref> European football stadiums have also assumed various roles throughout history, acting as places of refuge, as well as sites of political uprisings and terrorist attacks. As European politics and relations have changed over time, football has remained a highly politicized game. This holds in other parts of the world as well; football is a means of political expression globally.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Power|first=Martin J.|last2=Widdop|first2=Paul|last3=Parnell|first3=Dan|last4=Carr|first4=James|last5=Millar|first5=Stephen R.|date=2020-03-03|title=Football and politics: the politics of football|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/23750472.2020.1723437|journal=Managing Sport and Leisure|volume=25|issue=1-2|pages=1–5|doi=10.1080/23750472.2020.1723437|issn=2375-0472|doi-access=free}}</ref>


Three former footballers have led their countries, [[Ahmed Ben Bella]], [[George Weah]], and [[Kaj Leo Johannesen]]. Ben Bella played briefly for [[Olympique de Marseille|Marseille]] in the mid-1940s before leading Algeria in the aftermath of the [[Algerian War]], first as Prime Minister then as president. Weah, who played football for 18 years in Africa and Europe, was an unsuccessful candidate for the Liberian presidency in 2005, before being elected [[President of Liberia]] following the [[2017 Liberian general election|Election of 2017]].<ref>{{cite web|date=2018|title=George Weah: From footballer to Liberia's president|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-41824586|website=BBC News}}</ref> Johannesen, who played four times as a goalkeeper for the [[Faroe Islands national football team]] during the 1990s, became [[Prime Minister of the Faroe Islands|Prime Minister]] of the Faroe Islands in 2008. The list of other footballers to have sought high political office includes [[Albert Guðmundsson]], who finished third in the 1980 Icelandic presidential election, and [[Oleg Malyshkin]], who came fifth in the 2004 Russian presidential elections.
Three former footballers have led their countries, [[Ahmed Ben Bella]], [[George Weah]], and [[Kaj Leo Johannesen]]. Ben Bella played briefly for [[Olympique de Marseille|Marseille]] in the mid-1940s before leading Algeria in the aftermath of the [[Algerian War]], first as Prime Minister then as president. Weah, who played football for 18 years in Africa and Europe, was an unsuccessful candidate for the Liberian presidency in 2005, before being elected [[President of Liberia]] following the [[2017 Liberian general election|Election of 2017]].<ref>{{cite web|date=2018|title=George Weah: From footballer to Liberia's president|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-41824586|website=BBC News}}</ref> Johannesen, who played four times as a goalkeeper for the [[Faroe Islands national football team]] during the 1990s, became [[Prime Minister of the Faroe Islands|Prime Minister]] of the Faroe Islands in 2008. The list of other footballers to have sought high political office includes [[Albert Guðmundsson]], who finished third in the 1980 Icelandic presidential election, and [[Oleg Malyshkin]], who came fifth in the 2004 Russian presidential elections.

Revision as of 09:59, 22 April 2021

Association football and politics describes the connection between football and politics, on the level of club identities, clashes, and footballers choosing a career in politics.

In regards to the politics of space and football in Europe, football has historically played a part in maintaining the differences that give each European country its sense of identity, while simultaneously strengthening the bonds that bind them together as one body.[1] According to Macon Benoit, European football underwent a massive transformation during the World War II era (1933–45). The game's sharp rise in popularity came at a time of high political intensity, leading to football being politicized in various ways. Benoit breaks this politicization down, arguing that during this period, European football began to embody four main characteristics, becoming: 1) an agent of international relations, in the sense that the foreign policies of European nations supposedly became articulated in matches; 2) a source of political propaganda, in the sense that football was used to build national pride and establish the legitimacy of political movements; 3) a tool for social pacification, in the sense that football gave people a place to focus their energy that was not inherently political; and 4) an avenue for protest, in the sense that mass gatherings at matches gave spectators a forum for the expression of identity and political sentiment.[2] European football stadiums have also assumed various roles throughout history, acting as places of refuge, as well as sites of political uprisings and terrorist attacks. As European politics and relations have changed over time, football has remained a highly politicized game. This holds in other parts of the world as well; football is a means of political expression globally.[3]

Three former footballers have led their countries, Ahmed Ben Bella, George Weah, and Kaj Leo Johannesen. Ben Bella played briefly for Marseille in the mid-1940s before leading Algeria in the aftermath of the Algerian War, first as Prime Minister then as president. Weah, who played football for 18 years in Africa and Europe, was an unsuccessful candidate for the Liberian presidency in 2005, before being elected President of Liberia following the Election of 2017.[4] Johannesen, who played four times as a goalkeeper for the Faroe Islands national football team during the 1990s, became Prime Minister of the Faroe Islands in 2008. The list of other footballers to have sought high political office includes Albert Guðmundsson, who finished third in the 1980 Icelandic presidential election, and Oleg Malyshkin, who came fifth in the 2004 Russian presidential elections.

Clubs and political identity

Some clubs are related or have a fan base of certain ranks: religious, right-leaning, left-leaning, nationalist, unionist, autonomist etc.

England

While many clubs do not have a fixed political identity, some clubs are known to have clear leanings. According to YouGov statistics, supporters of the English club Sunderland AFC predominantly lean to the political left,[5] and often sing "The Red Flag" during games.[6] While Sunderland fans generally are regarded as left-wing,[5] the hooligan firm Seaburn Casuals was known for having far-right associations. When 26 Seaburn Casuals hooligans were arrested in a police raid before the 1998 FIFA World Cup, some of them were found to be involved with neo-Nazi groups like Combat 18.[7]

Northern Ireland and Scotland

One of the biggest and oldest football rivalries is the Old Firm rivalry between the Scottish clubs Celtic and Rangers in the Original Glasgow derby. The competition between the two clubs had roots in more than just a simple sporting rivalry.[8] It has as much to do with Northern Ireland as Scotland and this can be seen in the flags, cultural symbols, and emblems of both clubs.[9] It was infused with a series of complex disputes, sometimes centered on religion (Catholic and Protestant), Northern Ireland-related politics (Loyalist and Republican), national identity (British or Irish-Scots), and social ideology (Conservatism and Socialism).[10][11] The majority of Rangers and Celtic supporters are not actively involved in sectarianism, but serious incidents do occur with a tendency for the actions of a minority to dominate the headlines.[12][9] The Old Firm rivalry fueled many assaults on Derby days, and some deaths in the past have been directly related to the aftermath of Old Firm matches.[13] An activist group that monitors sectarian activity in Glasgow has reported that on Old Firm weekends, violent attacks increase ninefold over normal levels.[14] An increase in domestic abuse can also be attributed to Old Firm fixtures.[15]

Spain

A footage of a El Classico match.

Many of the Spanish football rivalries outside of local derbies involve politics, either ideological or geographical.[16] The term morbo (roughly translating to morbid fascination and antagonism)[17] sometimes has been used[18][19] to describe the attitudes relating to the complex network of identities and relationships between Spanish clubs.[17] An informal system of alliances and enmities exists across the nation's hooligan groups based on their political allegiance,[20] with arguably the most prominent of these being between Atlético Madrid's right-wing followers and the left-wing group attached to Sevilla.[21] At a local level, Sevilla is perceived as the middle-class club in the Seville derby in contrast to working-class Real Betis, one of the main elements of the rivalry between them.[22] The largest 'ultras' groups who follow Real Madrid and Barcelona, the two clubs in Spain's most famous rivalry, El Clásico, are both aligned to the right. However the cause of hostility between them is their wider profiles as the symbolic representatives of the Castile and Catalonia regions,[23][24] which escalated under the Madrid-based ruling fascist regime of General Franco in the mid-20th century and continued into the next, with many Barcelona supporters sympathetic towards the Catalan independence movement and visibly displaying this during matches. As a result, the team is met with anger by many other clubs' fans when they visit.[25] Barcelona's claimed position as the persecuted team in their relationship with Madrid contrasts entirely with their city rivalry with Espanyol, who are aligned more towards Spanish unionism and whose owners see Barça as the club unfairly favored by the law-makers within Catalonia.[26] Real Madrid's rivalry with Athletic Bilbao, the biggest and most successful team in the Basque region, is one which involves differences both in culture and ideology, although the competitive element between them has diminished in the era of global exposure and recruitment due to Athletic persisting with a policy of using only local players to emphasize pride in their origins.[27][28][29]

Italy

In Italy, the Derby Della Capitale in Rome is often characterized by political tensions. A minority of Lazio's ultras formerly used swastikas and fascist symbols on their banners, and they have displayed racist behavior on several occasions during the derbies. Most notably, at a derby of the season 1998–99, laziali unfurled a 50-meter banner around the Curva Nord that read, "Auschwitz is your town, the ovens are your houses". Black players of Roma have often been victims of racist and offensive behavior.[30] During the late 1970s, Lazio developed a strong hatred for Pescara Calcio, who in return consider Lazio a rival.[31] The far-right Lazio ultras consider both A.S. Livorno Calcio and Atalanta, known to have strong left-wing leanings, to be among their greatest enemies due to political ideologies. In addition to Lazio, Livorno often have clashes with opposing right-wing supporter groups, especially those of Inter Milan and Verona.[32][33] Lazio icon Paolo Di Canio and Livorno counterpart Cristiano Lucarelli have both performed controversial ideological salutes to fans during some of their matches.

Israel

The Israeli club Beitar Jerusalem F.C. is known to have far-right leanings and are known for their long refusal to allow Muslim-Arab players into the club. The most vocal supporters of Beitar Jerusalem make up the controversial nationalist La Familia group.[34] Fans in and out of the stadium's stands chant anti-Arab and racist slogans. The club has also been penalized many times for the behavior of its fans.[35][36] Their arch-rival is the club Hapoel Tel Aviv F.C., known for its left-wing leanings, and politics is the main reason for the two clubs being rivals. Often, fans of the clubs have violent clashes.[37][38][39][40]

International level

Many individual matches ended on disputes, skirmishes, or face-offs as their extension or their start depending on each game.

Salvador-Honduras

The most infamous declaration of politics and sport was the Football War between El Salvador and Honduras. Though the build-up to the war had to do more with socio-economic issues like immigration and land reform, the impetus for war was inflammation of tensions set off by rioters during the second North American qualifying round for the 1970 FIFA World Cup. Disturbances broke out during the first game in Tegucigalpa, but the second leg saw the situation get considerably worse in San Salvador. Honduran fans were roughed up, the Honduran flag and national anthem were insulted, and the emotions of both nations became considerably agitated. In retaliation, violence against Salvadoran residents in Honduras, including several Vice Consuls, increased. An unknown number of Salvadorans were killed or brutalized, and tens of thousands began fleeing the country. The press of both nations contributed to a growing climate of near-hysteria, and on June 27, 1969, an attack against Honduras. The Organization of American States negotiated a cease-fire which took effect on July 20, with the Salvadoran troops withdrawn in early August.[41]

The Muslim and Arab World boycotting Israel

Israel was one of the founding members of the Asian Football Confederation following its own independence in 1948 (prior to that it played under the banner of the "British Mandate of Palestine/Eretz Israel").[42] After the 1974 Asian Games in Iran, and Israel's 0–1 tense loss to Iran in the finals[43]), Kuwait and other Muslim and Arab countries refused to play them. Following this, they were expelled from the confederation and spent a few years trying to qualify from such continental bodies as the OFC before joining UEFA.[44]

Falklands

In the 1986 Mexico World Cup, following the Falklands War between Argentina and the United Kingdom, Argentina and England met in the quarter-finals, where Diego Maradona scored both goals in a 2–1 victory for the South Americans. Both of Maradona's goals, named the Hand of God and the Goal of the Century have been immortalized. Maradona claimed the win was revenge for what had happened in the Falklands War.[45]

Iran-United States

At the 1998 FIFA World Cup, held in France, Iran recorded their first World Cup victory in the second game, beating the United States 2–1, with Estili and Mahdavikia scoring goals for Iran. The match had additional tension and build up due to each country's political stance after the Iranian revolution; however, in an act of defiance against all forms of hatred or politics in sports, both sides presented one another with gifts and flowers and stood together for a photograph before the match kicked off.[46]

Japan-China

The 2004 AFC Asian Cup held in China made headlines due to events that took place during the final between China and Japan, apparently due to historical relations dating back to World War II (see Second Sino-Japanese War and Nanjing Massacre).[47] As the Japanese national anthem was being played, home fans expressed their anti-Japanese sentiment by drowning out the national anthem with their chants. The Chinese home fans also continually booed the players, visiting fans, and officials as they watched Japan defeat China 3–1. After the match, some Chinese fans rioted outside the Beijing Worker's Stadium.

Iraq

The 2007 AFC Asian Cup was another facet of sporting politics. The victorious Iraq national football team came out despite ethnic factionalism in their country to win the biggest Asian football tournament. Following a previous round win, Iraqi military spokesman Brigadier General Qassim Moussawi said they wanted to stop "terrorists, Sunni extremists, and criminals from targeting the joy of the people."[48][49][50] President Jalal Talabani said it was disappointing they could not celebrate at home with the fans.[51][52] Yet many hailed the victory as a show of unity.[53] Iraq's Brazilian coach Jorvan Vieira signified the importance of the win by saying, "This is not just about football...this is more important than that...This has brought great happiness to the whole country. This is not about a team, this is about human beings." Likewise, Saudi coach Hélio dos Anjos chimed in that "Iraq deserved to win today...They were very motivated and we knew the whole world was supporting this team."[54] Likewise, the American leadership[who?] also came out in praise of the Iraqi win.[55]

Armenia-Turkey

Once again, on September 6, 2008, Armenia and Turkey faced each other in a 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification match in Yerevan. In an unprecedented step, Turkish President Abdullah Gül was invited to watch the match, where he and his Armenia counterpart, Serzh Sargsyan, sat together, albeit behind bullet-proof glass. However, the Turkish national anthem was almost drowned out by booing from 35,000 Armenian fans, showing there is still a lot of mistrust between the two countries. However, the gesture "between the presidents showed that they believed 'football diplomacy' had achieved the most important result." This was a first for the two countries divided by the legacy of the 20th century's first genocide.[56][57][58][59][60]

France-Republic of Ireland

In 2009, France and the Republic of Ireland met in the 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification play-off, where the winner of the two-legged tie progressed through to the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa. After a 1–1 aggregate draw, the match went into extra time at France's National Stadium. The winning goal came from France's William Gallas, but in the build-up, Thierry Henry twice handled the ball, before passing to Gallas to score. It was seen as a "Hand of Frog" goal, in reference to the similar "Hand of God" goal in the match between Argentina and England. It then became an international incident with Irish Taoiseach Brian Cowen demanding a replay and the French President telling him to "stick to politics".[61] The replay was not given.

Iran-Saudi Arabia

In 2010 relations between Iran and the UAE took a turn for the worse when the Football Federation Islamic Republic of Iran sent a letter to the AFC complaining about the misuse of the Persian Gulf name. "The move was made after the UAE misrepresented the name Persian Gulf during a match between Iran's Sepahan and the UAE's Al Ain. The Emirate television displayed various banners showing a fictitious name for the Persian Gulf during the match between Iran's Sepahan and the UAE's Al Ain. The AFC must take serious measures to deal with UAE actions of the sort", Taj added. "The UAE side must be fined for showing a fictitious name for the Persian Gulf during the live broadcast of the match."[62] In addition to official comments from the UAE in regards to comparing the three disputed islands of Greater Tunb, the Lesser Tunb and Abu Musa, held by Iran, to the occupation of Palestine, calls were made for a downgrade of ties.[63] This also comes after the Islamic Solidarity Games, to be held in Iran, were canceled over the dispute of the Persian Gulf label.

Netherlands-Turkey

Mounted Policemen in Front of the Turkish consulate in Rotterdam.

The Netherlands saw riots after the game against Turkey from its own Turkish community as well as in Turkey against the Dutch Embassy.

Gibraltar-Spain

When drawing for UEFA European Championships Qualification a special measure is put in place whereby Gibraltar and Spain cannot be drawn together because of the Disputed status of Gibraltar. The same system is in place for Azerbaijan and Armenia because of the poor relations between the two countries. The same measure was put in place for Russia and Georgia after the 2008 Russo-Georgian War. However, it was lifted for the Euro 2016 tournament when the two agreed to play each other again.[64]

State-sponsored doping in Russian Federation

See full article: Doping in Russia

Due to not all athletes being tested and tests being conducted but revealing only some of the banned substances, athletes who were not found to be doping were allowed to run under the International Olympic Flag (also called running "neutral athletes").

Hundreds of positive samples were taken from Russian athletes which eventually led to Russia being banned from the 2018 Winter Olympic Games.[65]

According to Grigory Richenkov ex-director of the Russian anti-doping agency, at least one of the players of the Russian national team was found by the agency to be doping.[66]

The Russian Federation achieved the best results of its history at the Russian-organised World cup of 2018. The exceptionally good results were speculated to have been due to doping.

List of footballer-politicians

Criteria

The following are people who have played professional and/or international football and have run for or occupied political offices

Name Country Football Politics Comments Reference
Camille Dimmer Luxembourg Luxembourg (1957 – 1964) Member of the Chamber of Deputies of Luxembourg (1989 – 1994)
General Secretary of the Christian Social People's Party (1990 – 1995) 		[67][68]
Pelé Brazil Santos (1956 – 1974)
New York Cosmos (1975 – 1977)
Brazil (1957 – 1971) 		Extraordinary Minister of Sport (1995 – 1998) [69]
Mustafa Mansour Egypt Egypt
Al-Ahly
Referee
General Secretary of CAF (1958 – 1961) 		Government minister [70][71][72][73]
Ahmed Ben Bella Algeria Olympique Marseille (1939 – 1940) Prime Minister of Algeria (1962 – 1963)
President of Algeria (1963 – 1965) 		[74]
George Weah Liberia Liberia
A.C. Milan 		Presidential candidate in the 2005 Liberian general election
Senator
President of Liberia (January 2018 onwards) [75] 		[76]
Don Rossiter England Leyton Orient Mayor of Rochester, Kent
Garan Fabou Kouyate Mali
Albert Guðmundsson Iceland Arsenal
Racing Club
A.C. Milan 		Presidential candidate in the 1980 Icelandic presidential election
Member of the Althing
Minister of Finance
Minister of Industry
Icelandic Ambassador to France 		Father of Ingi Björn Albertsson [77]
Ingi Björn Albertsson Iceland Iceland Member of the Althing (1987 – 1995) Son of Albert Guðmundsson [78]
Oleg Blokhin Soviet Union, Ukraine Soviet Union
Dynamo Kyiv 		Member of the Parliament of Ukraine [79]
Carlos Bilardo Argentina San Lorenzo de Almagro
Deportivo Español
Estudiantes 		Buenos Aires Province Secretary of Sports [80]
József Bozsik Hungary Hungary
Budapest Honvéd FC 		Member of the National Assembly of Hungary (1953 – 1957) [81][82]
Toshiro Tomochika Japan Ehime FC Diet of Japan (2007 – present)
Danny Jordaan South Africa Member of the Parliament of South Africa (1994 – 1997)
Randy Horton Bermuda Bermuda
New York Cosmos 		Member of the Parliament of Bermuda (1998 – present)
Éric Di Meco France France
Marseille
William Clegg England England
Sheffield Wednesday 		Lord Mayor of Sheffield (1898) [83]
Roberto Dinamite Brazil Brazil
Vasco da Gama 		State Assembly of Rio de Janeiro (1994 – present)
Romário Brazil Brazil Senate of Brazil (2010 – present) [84]
Bebeto Brazil Brazil
Deportivo La Coruña 		[84]
Gianni Rivera Italy Italy
A.C. Milan 		Member of the Chamber of Deputies of Italy (1994 – 2001)
Undersecretary for Defense (2000 – 2001)
Member of the European Parliament (2005 – 2009) 		[2], [3], [4]
Kakha Kaladze Georgia Georgia
Dinamo Tbilisi
Dynamo Kyiv
A.C. Milan
Genoa C.F.C. 		Minister of Energy
Deputy Prime Minister of Georgia
Mayor of Tbilisi [85]
José Francisco Cevallos Ecuador Ecuador
Barcelona SC
Once Caldas
Deportivo Azogues
LDU Quito 		Ecuadorian Minister of Sports (2011 – present) [86]
Roman Kosecki Poland Poland (1998 – 1995) Member of the Sejm of the Republic of Poland (2007 – ?) [87]
Roman Pavlyuchenko Russia Russia
Tottenham Hotspur 		Member of Stavropol regional council [88]
Kaj Leo Johannesen Faroe Islands Faroe Islands Prime Minister of the Faroe Islands [89]
Titi Camara Guinea Guinea
Saint-Étienne
Lens
Marseille
Liverpool
West Ham United
Al-Ittihad
Al-Siliya
Amiens 		Minister of Sport [citation needed]
Detlef Irrgang Germany Energie Cottbus Councillor in Cottbus for the CDU
Zico (footballer) Brazil Brazil Minister of Sport (1990) [90]
Lawrie McKinna Scotland, Australia Kilmarnock Mayor of the City of Gosford (2012 – present) [91]
Alistair Edwards Australia Australia (1991 – 1997) Councillor of City of Cockburn (2000 – 2005)
Hakan Şükür Turkey Turkey
Sakaryaspor
Bursaspor
Galatasaray
Torino
Inter
Parma
Blackburn Rovers 		Member of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey (2011–) [92]
Marc Wilmots Belgium Belgium (1990 – 2002)
Belgium manager (2012 – 2016)
Sint-Truiden
Mechelen
Standard Liège
Schalke 04
Bordeaux 		Member of Belgian Senate (2003 – 2005) [93]
Thomas Bodström Sweden AIK (1987 – 1989) Minister for Justice (2000 – 2006)

See also

References

  1. ^ Mohammed, Farah (15 June 2018). "Soccer and European Identity". JSTOR Daily. Retrieved 22 November 2019.
  2. ^ Benoit, Macon (1 October 2008). "The politicisation of football: the European game and the approach to the Second World War". Soccer & Society. 9 (4): 532–550. doi:10.1080/14660970802257606. ISSN 1466-0970. S2CID 144529219.
  3. ^ Power, Martin J.; Widdop, Paul; Parnell, Dan; Carr, James; Millar, Stephen R. (3 March 2020). "Football and politics: the politics of football". Managing Sport and Leisure. 25 (1–2): 1–5. doi:10.1080/23750472.2020.1723437. ISSN 2375-0472.
  4. ^ "George Weah: From footballer to Liberia's president". BBC News. 2018.
  5. ^ a b Campbell, Paul (18 November 2014). "Are you an average fan? Find out with YouGov's Premier League profiles". The Guardian. Retrieved 7 October 2015.
  6. ^ Tim Rich (9 May 2015). "Everton vs Sunderland match report: Danny Graham and Jermain Defoe fire Black Cats closer to Premier League safety". The Independent. Retrieved 4 January 2016.
  7. ^ Lowles, Nick; Nicholls, Andy (2007). Hooligans 2: The M-Z of Britain's Football Hooligan Gangs. Milo Books. ISBN 978-1903854648.
  8. ^ "FIFA Player of the Century" (PDF). touri.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 April 2012. Retrieved 30 November 2010.
  9. ^ a b Forsyth, Roddy (26 October 2007). "Old Firm rivalry? It's a lot to do with football". The Telegraph. London. Retrieved 4 November 2017.
  10. ^ Richard Wilson, "Inside the Divide" (Edinburgh: Canongate Books, 2012), p. 87: "What is being asserted is two identities: Rangers and Celtic. There are other boundaries: Protestant and Catholic / Unionist and Republican / Conservative and Socialist...."
  11. ^ The final whistle for God’s squad?, The Guardian, 27 February 1999
  12. ^ "A rivalry tied up in religion". BBC News. 26 August 2006.
  13. ^ Foer, Franklin (2010). How Soccer Explains the World: An Unlikely Theory of Globalization (Reprint ed.). Harper Perennial. pp. 36–37. ISBN 978-0061978050.
  14. ^ France, Stephanie (9 March 2001). "CAMPAIGNS: Public Awareness – Nil by Mouth fights bigots in Scotland". PR Week. Retrieved 23 December 2010.
  15. ^ "Drop in domestic abuse incidents on Old Firm match days". BBC News. 9 March 2010. Retrieved 23 December 2010.
  16. ^ David Child (18 April 2018). "More than a game: How politics and football interplay in Spain". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 30 September 2020.
  17. ^ a b Sid Lowe (26 March 2001). "Morbo: The Story of Spanish Football by Phil Ball (London: WSC Books, 2001)". The Guardian. Retrieved 26 September 2020.
  18. ^ Phil Ball (21 April 2002). "Mucho morbo". The Guardian. Retrieved 26 September 2020.
  19. ^ "Las citas con morbo: Clásicos, derbis, Vitolo en el Pizjuán..." [The dates with 'morbo': Classics, derbies, Vitolo in the Pizjuán ...] (in Spanish). Diario AS. 21 July 2017. Retrieved 26 September 2020.
  20. ^ Spain’s football hooligan map, El País, 12 December 2014
  21. ^ The Spanish corner: a hate divided, The 42, 28 February 2011
  22. ^ Conspiracies, class divides and all-night parties: Why Real Betis vs Sevilla is Spain's hottest derby, FourFourTwo, March 2002
  23. ^ European football cultures and their integration: the 'short' Twentieth Century, Antonio Missiroli, European Union Institute for Security Studies, 1 March 2002
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