List of Russian inventions: Difference between revisions
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*[[Synchrophasotron]] |
*[[Synchrophasotron]] |
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*[[Shashlik (physics)]] |
*[[Shashlik (physics)]] |
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*[[EPR spectroscopy]] <ref>{{cite book|last=Eaton|first=Gareth|last2=Eaton|first2=Sandra|last3=Salikhov|first3=Kev|title=Foundations of modern EPR|publisher=World Scientific|year=1998|pages=45–46|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=1LdKSYIQtPYC&pg=PA45|isbn=9810232950}}</ref> |
*[[EPR spectroscopy]] <ref>{{cite book|last=Eaton|first=Gareth|last2=Eaton|first2=Sandra|last3=Salikhov|first3=Kev|title=Foundations of modern EPR|publisher=[[World Scientific]]|year=1998|pages=45–46|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=1LdKSYIQtPYC&pg=PA45|isbn=9810232950}}</ref> |
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*[[Cherenkov detector]] |
*[[Cherenkov detector]] |
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*[[NMR spectroscopy]] (by [[Yevgeny Zavoisky]] (co-developer)) |
*[[NMR spectroscopy]] (by [[Yevgeny Zavoisky]] (co-developer)) |
Revision as of 23:33, 24 November 2011
Ancient inventions
Inventions which originated on the territory of the Russian Plain, Northern Russia, North Caucasus and Siberia from Mesolithic to the Bronze Age.
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (October 2011) |
- ...
- Oldest preserved:
Agriculture and biotechnology
External image | |
---|---|
Rabbage, the first ever non-sterile hybrid obtained through the crossbreeding. |
- Sokha
- Grow light (by Andrei Famintsyn) [3]
- Beehive frame
- Raphanobrassica
- Winogradsky column
- Sunflower oil industry [4] (by Daniil Bokarev (Russian wikipedia article))
- Caterpillar farm tractor
Arts and music
- Montage
- Theremin
- Bone watch [5][6]
- Birch bark art [7]
- Constructivism
- Drum machine (Rhythmicon)
- Wooden watch (by Semyon Bronnikov) [8][5]
- Kuleshov Effect
- Musical carriage (by Yegor Kuznetsov) [9]
- Socialist realism
- Pure abstract art
- ANS synthesizer
- Optophonic piano
- Welded sculpture [10]
- Puppet animation
- Stanislavsky's system
Chemistry
- Pobedit
- Periodic table
- Chromatography
- Synthetic rubber (first commercially viable form of production)
- Fire fighting foam
- Nuclear desalination (BN-350 reactor)
Communications
External image | |
---|---|
Kupriyanovich's 1958 pocket phone. More info (in Russian). |
- Thing (precursor to modern RFID technology)
- Interlace
- Crystodine
- Pocket phone (by Leonid Kupriyanovich)
- Radio receiver [11]
- CRT television
- Optical telegraph (with searchlight as medium, by Ivan Kulibin) [12]
- Flip-flop (electronics) (by Mikhail Bonch-Bruevich, independently from William Henry Eccles and Frank Jordan)
- Portable mobile phone (by Leonid Kupriyanovich)
Computing and information technology
- TRIZ
- RAR
- Integraph
- Acmeology (Russian wikipedia article)
- Russian abacus
- Personal computer (MIR)
- Unit record equipment (by Semyon Korsakov)
- AVL tree datastructure
- Abstract state machine
- Modern ternary computer (Setun)
- Topological quantum computer
- Randomized webcam chatroom (Chatroulette)
- Computer for operations with functions
Cuisine
- Soups
- Meat, fish, dairy products
- Aibat-nyarhul 5 · Balyk · Chopsy Shomoh 6 · Khinkal 7 · Smetana · Stroganina 8
- Pies, wraps, pancakes
- Blini · Khingalsh 9 · Khychin 10 · Kulebyaka · Litsuklibzhe 11 · Ochpochmak · Peremech 12 · Pirog · Pirozhki · Qabartma 13 · Qistibi · Syrniki · Vatrushka
- Drinks, alcoholic beverages
- Snacks
- Chakchak · Kozuli 15 · Tetyory 16 · Tula gingerbread · Urbech 17
- Other
- Borodinsky (bread) · Khrenovina (sauce) · Pelmeni (dumpling) [15] · Vareniki (dumpling)
- Russian wikipedia articles:
Culture-specific inventions
Art
- Khokhloma
- Vologda lace (Russian wikipedia article)
- Kargopol toys
- Borok drawing (Russian wikipedia article)
- Dymkovo toys
- Mezen drawing (Russian wikipedia article)
- Matryoshka doll
- Miniature painting:
Architecture
- Vysotka
- Zvonnitsa
- Kokoshnik
- Bochka roof
- Onion dome
- Native styles:
- Neo-Russian [16]
- Constructivism
- Neo-Byzantine (developed)
- Late Muscovite
- Russian Revival
- Stalinist Empire
- Siberian Baroque (Russian wikipedia article)
- Middle Muscovite
- Naryshkin Baroque
- Postconstructivism
- Early Russian architecture
- North Caucasus architecture [17]
- Russian wooden architecture (Russian wikipedia article)
Music
Clothing
- Lapti
- Kalfak (Russian wikipedia article)
- Sarafan
- Valenki
- Ushanka
- Boyar hat
- Kokoshnik
- Kosovorotka
- Orenburg shawl
Earth studies
- Radiosonde (by Pavel Molchanov, independently from Robert Bureau)
- Lightning detector
- Electric seismometer
- Sounding weight probe [18]
- Manned drifting ice station
Energy
- Kalina cycle (by Aleksandr Kalina)
- Photoelectric cell (first solar cell based on the outer photoelectric effect (by Aleksandr Stoletov))
- Coal cutter-loader (Russian wikipedia article)
- Straight-flow boiler (Ramzin boiler)
- Mobile floating power station (by Nikolai Kukhto (Russian wikipedia article))
- Synthesis of hydrogen and oxygen through electrolysis (by Dmitry Lachinov)
Oil and gas
- Gas lift (by Mikhail Tikhvinsky, 1914) [19]
- Turbodrill (by Matvei Kapelyushnikov, 1922)
- Modern oil well
- Thermal cracking
- Pipeline transport
- Cylindric oil depot
Nuclear energy
- Nuclear power plant
- Fast-neutron reactor
- Lead-cooled fast reactor
- Pressurized water reactor [20]
- Nuclear power station barge (mass-produced)
Everyday life
- Anbur script
- Burglar alarm
- AC transformer
- Decimal currency
- Light-emitting diode
- Synthetic detergent (by Grigory Petrov) [23]
- Electric street lights (Yablochkov candle)
- Multicolored printing press (Orlov Stamp)
Housing and structural engineering
- Izba
- Rebar
- Gridshell
- Lightning rod
- Tensile structure
- Foamed concrete (Russian wikipedia article)
- Thin-shell structure
- Screw drive elevator
- Hyperboloid structure
Food preparation, kitchenware
Mechanical engineering
- Lever press (by Ivan Nevedomsky, 1813) [24]
- Welding:
Medicine
- Air ioniser
- Blood bank
- EHF therapy (by Nikolai Devyatkov, Mikhail Golant and others)
- Turpentine bath
- Head transplant (first head transplant with full cerebral function (by Vladimir Demikhov))
- External fixation
- Plasmapheresis (by Vadim Yurevich) [25]
- Coding (therapy)
- Oxygen cocktail
- Field anesthesia
- Ilizarov apparatus
- MM-wave therapy
- Ultrasonic testing (by Sergei Sokolov (Russian wikipedia article))
- Radial keratotomy
- Bekhterev's Mixture
- Acoustic microscope (by Sergei Sokolov)
- Classical conditioning
- Distraction osteogenesis
- Cadaveric blood transfusion
- Anthropometric cosmetology
- Magnetic resonance imaging (by Vladislav Ivanov)
- Auscultatory blood pressure measurement
Metallurgy
- Bulat steel
- Aluminothermy
- Weldable titanium alloys (by Igor Gorynin)
- Modern powder metallurgy (by Pyotr Sobolevsky and Vasily Lyubarsky) [26]
- Metallographic microscopy
Military
Major innovations that became standard means of modern warfare are in bold.
- Systema
- Flamethrower (first use in modern era (Vasily Korchmin))
- Bistatic radar
- Railway troops (Russian wikipedia article)
- Radio rangefinder (Russian wikipedia article)
- Modern field kitchen (Anton Turchanovich)
- Modern field surgery (theoretical and practical foundations (Nikolai Pirogov))
- Explosively pumped flux compression generator
Air Force
- Aerobatics (theoretical and practical foundations (Pyotr Nesterov))
- Drag chute
- Rocket fighter (Bereznyak-Isayev BI-1)
- Pressure suit
- Stealth aircraft (theory of modern stealth technology (Pyotr Ufimtsev))
- Thrust vectoring (by Nikolai Kibalchich (proposal, 1881))
- Drogue parachute (first application (Gleb Kotelnikov))
- Flying boat fighter (Grigorovich M-11)
- 3D thrust vectoring (Sukhoi Su-37)
- Strategic bomber (Ilya Muromets)
- Backpack parachute
- Helicopter ejection seat (first production helicopter (Kamov Ka-50))
- Helmet-mounted sight (Mikoyan MiG-29)
- Supermaneuverability (Sukhoi Su-27)
Artillery
- Licorne
- Railway gun [27][28]
- Battery tower [29]
- Quick-firing gun (precursor (Russian wikipedia article))
- Telescopic sight (by Andrei Nartov)
- Multibarreled mortar (modular multibarreled mortar (by Ivan Fyodorov)) [30]
- Modern quick-firing gun (Baranovsky cannon (Russian wikipedia article))
Cold weaponry
Firearms
- Laser pistol [33]
- Assault rifle (Fedorov Avtomat) [N 4]
- Modern mortar (by Leonid Gobyato (co-inventor Roman Kondratenko))
- Noiseless firearm [34] (Russian wikipedia article)
- Underwater assault rifle (APS)
- Amphibious assault rifle (ASM-DT)
- Unification of firearms (by Vladimir Fyodorov) [35][36]
- Noiseless grenade launcher (Device D) [37]
- Squad automatic weapon (RPD)
- Automatic grenade launcher (by Yakov Taubin (Russian wikipedia article))
- General purpose machine gun (by Vladimir Fyodorov) [38]
Gear
- Yuft (Russian wikipedia article)
- Kirza
- Gazyr (Russian wikipedia article)
- Sailor cap
- Budyonovka
- Peaked cap
- Gimnastyorka
- Pointillist camouflage (by Vladimir Baranov-Rossine) [39]
- Activated charcoal gas mask (by Nikolai Zelinsky, independently from James Bert Garner)
Rocketry
- Mobile ICBM
- Rocket warfare (contributions to theory and tactics by Aleksandr Zasyadko)
- Air-augmented rocket
- Anti-ballistic missile
- Railcar-launched ICBM
- Intercontinental ballistic missile (world's first true ICBM (R-7 Semyorka))
- Modern multiple rocket launcher (BM-13 Katyusha)
- Fractional Orbital Bombardment System
Military vehicles
- Aerosani
- Tachanka
- Flame tank (first practical design (KhT-26))
- Mobile banya
- Gulyay-gorod (modular wagon fort)
- Military robot (Teletank)
- Main battle tank (1911-1916 contributions to modern tank design by Aleksandr Porokhovschikov and Vasily Mendeleyev (Russian wikipedia article))
- Reactive armor
- Infantry fighting vehicle (BMP-1) [N 5]
- Active protection system
- Self-propelled laser system (Stilet (Russian wikipedia article))
- Tank support fighting vehicle
- Mobile rocket launcher system (BM-13 Katyusha)
Navy
- Minelayer (Amur class minelayer (1898))
- Degaussing (by Anatoly Aleksandrov, independently from Charles F. Goodeve)
- Minesweeper (first use of minesweepers as part of regular force)
- Missile boat
- Rangefinder (by Vasily Petrushevsky) [40]
- Armored cruiser (Russian cruiser General-Admiral (1873))
- Torpedo boat tender
- Submarine minelayer (Russian submarine Krab (1912))
- Ballistic missile submarine (Project 611)
Nanotechnology
Physics
- Laser (by Nikolai Basov and Aleksandr Prokhorov (co-inventors))
- Maser (by Nikolai Basov and Aleksandr Prokhorov (co-inventors))
- Graser
- Collider (by Gersh Budker (co-inventor))
- Orbitrap
- Tokamak
- Microtron
- Nuclotron
- Reflectron
- Electric arc
- Synchrotron (by Vladimir Veksler (co-inventor))
- Reflex klystron (by Nikolai Devyatkov, 1939) [41]
- Photomultiplier (by Leonid Kubetsky) [42]
- Electron cooling
- Heterotransistor (by Zhores Alfyorov (with Herbert Kroemer))
- Magnetotellurics
- Synchrophasotron
- Shashlik (physics)
- EPR spectroscopy [43]
- Cherenkov detector
- NMR spectroscopy (by Yevgeny Zavoisky (co-developer))
- Superconducting nanowire single-photon detector
Recording
Audio
- Graphical sound (Pavel Tager (1926) and Aleksandr Shorin (1927))
- Laser microphone
- Piezoelectric microphone (Sergei Rzhevkin, 1925)
Photography
- Stereo camera (Ivan Aleksandrovsky, 1852)
- Wide-angle lens (Ivan Boldyrev, 1878)
- Kirlian photography
- Instant focal-plane shutter (Sigizmund Yurkovsky, 1882)
- Electroplated daguerreotype (Aleksei Grekov, 1840)
- By Vyacheslav Sreznevsky (Russian wikipedia article), a prolific inventor in the field of photography [44][45] :
- Aerial camera and photographic plates (1886)
- Camera for solar eclipses (1887)
- Expeditional photocamera (1882)
- Watertight marine camera (1886)
- Mobile photographic studio (1875)
Video
Space exploration
Dates in green - inventions made before Space Era.
- 1756 - Night vision telescope
- 1762 - Off-axis reflecting telescope (by Mikhail Lomonosov (not published until 1827))
- 1895 - Space elevator (proposal)
- 1903 - Theoretical foundations of spaceflight (by Konstantin Tsiolkovsky)
- 1919 - Gravity assist (proposal, first application (1959))
- 1930 - Radiosonde (by Pavel Molchanov, independently from Robert Bureau)
- 1931 - Hypergolic propellant
- 1931 - Space suit
- 1941 - Maksutov telescope
- 1947 - Modern multistage rocket (by Mikhail Tikhonravov and Dmitry Okhotsimsky)
- 1949 - Staged combustion cycle (proposal, first application (1963))
- ???? - Feathering spectrograph (by Gavriil Tikhov)
- ???? - Electric propulsion (first application) [citation needed]
- 1957 - Spaceport
- 1957 - Orbital space rocket
- 1957 - Satellite
- 1957 - Space capsule
- 1958 - Air-augmented rocket
- 1961 - Space food
- 1961 - Human spaceflight
- 1961 - Reentry capsule
- 1962 - Automated space docking
- 1963 - Plasma propulsion engine
- 1964 - Pulsed plasma thruster
- 1965 - Extra-vehicular activity
- 1965 - Molniya orbit satellite
- 1966 - Lander spacecraft (Luna 9)
- 1966 - Orbiter (Luna 10)
- 1966 - Orbital module
- 1967 - Space toilet
- 1970 - Space probe
- 1970 - Robotic sample return
- 1970 - Space rover
- 1971 - Space station
- 1971 - Hall effect thruster
- 1975 - Venus lander
- 1975 - Androgynous Peripheral Attach System
- 1978 - Unmanned resupply spacecraft
- 1982 - Modular space station
- 1992 - Space mirror
- 1995 - Submarine-launched spacecraft
- 1999 - Sea Launch (multinational cooperation)
- 2001 - Space tourism
- 2015 - Space cleaner (planned) [46]
Sports and games
- Tetris
- Lapta
- Bandy
- Sambo
- Gorodki
- Preferans
- Spirograph
- Yacht club (Neva Yacht Club) [47][48]
- Orlov Trotter
- Rocket boots
- Roller coaster (precursor (Russian Mountains))
- Harness racing (first conducted by Grigory Orlov in 1776)
- Abalakov thread [49]
- Russian pyramid
- Chapayev (game)
- Fire-fighting sport
- Parachuting sport
- Aviamodelling sport
- Russian fist fighting
- Spring-loaded camming device [50]
- Competitive rhythmic gymnastics
Transportation
- Troika
- Gyrocar
- Droshky
- Bolotokhod (amphibious ATV specially for swamp terrain (Russian wikipedia article))
- Electric bus (by Ippolit Romanov)
- Snowmobile (Aerosani)
- Snegobolotokhod (bolotokhod for snow and swamp terrain)
- Self-propelling carriage (precursors to bicycle and automobile (by Leonty Shamshurenkov, 1752 and Ivan Kulibin, 1780s))
- Modern bascule bridge
Maritime
- Horse-boat (Russian wikipedia article)
- Icebreakers:
Rail transport
- Monorail (precursor, by Ivan Elmanov) [54]
- Headlamp (by Pavel Yablochkov)
- Aerowagon (precursor of turbojet train)
- Work trains [ refer to [55] for inventions listed below ] :
- Snowplow (Russian wikipedia article)
- Track liner (Russian wikipedia article)
- Ballast cleaner
- Ballast regulator
- Ballast compactor (Russian wikipedia article)
- Snow-removal train (Russian wikipedia article)
- Track geometry car (by Iosif Livchak, 1887)
- Ditch cleaning machine (Russian wikipedia article)
- Track cleaning machine (Russian wikipedia article)
- Electric tram
- String transport
- Children's railway
- Diesel locomotive (first successful mainline diesel locomotive, by Yury Lomonosov)
- Rail assembly line [56] (Russian wikipedia article)
- Deep column station
- Platform screen doors
- Railway electrification system
Aviation
- Airliner (Ilya Muromets)
- Ekranolet (hybrid of ekranoplan and airplane (Russian wikipedia article))
- Turboprop (by Mikhail Nikolsky, 1914) [57]
- Ekranoplan
- Thermoplan
- Regional jet (Yak-40)
- Coaxial rotor
- Model helicopter
- Supersonic transport (Tu-144)
Other
- U-stage (a.k.a. Fyodorov's table) [58]
- Searchlight (by Ivan Kulibin) [59]
- Orlov printing (by Ivan Orlov) [60]
- Smokejumping [61]
- Foam extinguisher
- Forensic facial reconstruction
Inventions by Russian emigrants
|
: Tandem rotor helicopter (first to fly freely) : Continuous-wave-operating diode laser (with Zhores Alfyorov) : Kinescope · Iconoscope (with Semyon Katayev) : Electrical filament · Incandescent light bulb : Graphene (with Andrei Geim) |
Russian discoveries
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (October 2011) |
- Hafnium (claimed by Vladimir Vernadsky and Georges Urbain (independently))
- Ununhexium
- Ununquadium
- Korotkov sounds
- Carbon nanotubes
- Detonation nanodiamond (by Yevgeny Zababakhin, Vyacheslav Danilenko and others)
Technology records
— Tsar Bell (the largest and heaviest bell in the world)
— Trans-Siberian Railway (the longest railway in the world)
— Moscow Metro (the world's most heavily used single operator metro system)
— Leningrad Metro (the deepest subway in the world)
— Druzhba pipeline (the longest oil pipeline system in the world)
— Proton rocket (the most used heavy lift launch system)
— Soyuz rocket (the most frequently used and most reliable launch vehicle in the world) [62]
— The Motherland Calls (the largest complex sculpture)
— Lunokhod 2 (longest distance of surface travel of any extraterrestrial vehicle) [63]
— Arktika class icebreaker (the world's most powerful nuclear icebreaker; the first surface ship to reach the North Pole)
— MIR submersible (the first to reach the seabed under the North Pole; developed in cooperation with Finland)
— RD-170 rocket engine (the world's most powerful liquid-fuel rocket engine)
— An-225 (the largest fixed-wing aircraft)
— Kola Superdeep Borehole (the deepest borehole)
— Mirny Mine (the largest diamond mine in the world and the second largest human-made excavation)
— NS 50 Years Since Victory (the world's largest nuclear powered icebreaker, and the largest icebreaker in general) [64]
— Nord Stream (the longest offshore pipeline)
— Russky Island Bridge (the longest cable-stayed bridge)
— SP-117 (allegedly the most potent truth drug)
Weaponry records
- — Great Abatis Line (the largest fortification line of abatis type)
- — Tsar Cannon (the largest-calibre bombard)
- — Three-line rifle (the most produced rifle of the era)
- — Polikarpov Po-2 (world's most produced biplane)
- — Ilyushin Il-2 (world's most produced combat aircraft)
- — T-34 (the most successful tank design of World War II) [65]
- — T-54/55 (world's most produced tank)
- — MiG-15 (world's most produced jet aircraft)
- — AK-47 (world's most produced assault rifle; more AK-type rifles have been produced than all other assault rifles combined)
- — MiG-21 (world's most produced supersonic aircraft)
- — S-75 Dvina (the most widely-deployed and -used air defense missile in history)
- — RPG-7 (world's most used anti-tank weapon)
- — Mil Mi-8 (world's most-produced helicopter)
- — Tsar Bomb (the most powerful weapon ever tested)
- — TKB-022PM (best barrel length to overall length ratio)
- — KM "Caspian Monster" (the largest ekranoplan and the second largest fixed-wing aircraft (Russian wikipedia article))
- — Mil Mi-12 (the largest helicopter ever built)
- — Kirov class battlecruiser (the largest and heaviest surface combatant warships currently in active operation in the world)
- — R-36M (ICBM with the heaviest throw-weight)
- — Typhoon class submarine (the largest submarine ever built)
- — Tupolev Tu-160 (the world's largest combat, supersonic, and variable-sweep aircraft built; the heaviest takeoff weight of any combat aircraft)
- — Novichok agent (allegedly the most deadly nerve agents ever made) [66]
- — Beriev A-40 (the largest amphibious flying boat) [67]
- — Zubr class LCAC (world's largest hovercraft) [68]
- — Don-2N (the most powerful early-warning radar (Russian wikipedia article))
- — Aviation Thermobaric Bomb of Increased Power (the most powerful non-nuclear weapon in the world)
See also
- List of Russian artists
- List of Russian philosophers
- List of Russian inventors
- Timeline of largest projects in the Russian economy
- Timeline of Russian inventions and technology records
Notes
- Footnotes
- ^ It is unclear yet whether the discovery was a bridge or a docking pier.
- ^ First mentioned in the Primary Chronicle. By the XVth century Russians already knew more than 500 variations of the recipe.
- ^ First mentioned in the Tale of Igor's Campaign. However, according to the Kitab al-I'tibar, carrying a concealed knife in a boot was done around the same time in the Middle East.
- ^ Cei-Rigotti was the first automatic battle rifle for standard infantry ammunition. Fedorov Avtomat was specifically designed for a lower-energy ammunition. Vladimir Fyodorov was first to reach conclusion that battle rifles must have full auto capability and cartridge of lower energy and caliber. Sturmgewehrs were first assault rifles of modern type.
- ^ BMP-1 was the first purpose-designed infantry fighting vehicle. The preceding Schützenpanzer 12-3 is classified as an IFV in Western sources but does not meet Russian standards for such a vehicle.
- Citations
- ^ Омельницкий, Пётр. "Чудеса России: Мост возле Закубежья". ОАО "Известия", ГТК «Телеканал «Россия». Template:Ru icon
- ^ Понизовкин, Андрей (2003). "Куда шагал Шигирский идол?". Наука Урала. Vol. 20, no. 848. published at the Ural Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences website.
{{cite news}}
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ignored (help) Template:Ru icon - ^ Шульгин, И. А. (1969–1978). "Светокультура". Большая советская энциклопедия (3 ed.). М.: Советская энциклопедия.
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- ^ a b Crom, Theodore (2001). "The Bronnikov Dynasty". Watch & Clock Bulletin. Vol. 43/6, no. 335. National Association of Watch and Clock Collectors. pp. 746–754. ISSN 1527-1609.
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ignored (help) - ^ "Watch built from Bone! Wood you believe?". Watchismo Times. 2007. Retrieved 18-Sep-2011.
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(help) - ^ Федорова, Наталья (2008). "Традиции народного искусства Ямало-Ненецкого автономного округа". Наше Наследие. No. 87. Template:Ru icon
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(help) Template:Ru icon - ^ Смирнов, Александр (10 августа 1995). "Егор Григорьевич Кузнецов (Жепинский) (1725-1805 гг.)". Тагильский рабочий.
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(help) Template:Ru icon - ^ Эрлихман, Вадим (2006). "Сварено с огоньком". Энергия промышленного роста. No. 1-2 [3]. Retrieved 6-Apr-2010.
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(help); Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) Template:Icon ru - ^ Vonderheid, Erica (6-May-2005). "Early Radio Transmission Recognized as Milestone". IEEE. Archived from the original on 16-Jan-2008.
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and|archivedate=
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suggested) (help) - ^ Альманах "Великая Россия. Личности. Год 2003-й.". Vol. 2. М.: АСМО-пресс. 2004. Template:Icon ru
- ^ Mack, Glenn; Surina, Asele (2005). Food Culture In Russia And Central Asia. Food culture around the world. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 22. ISBN 0313327734.
- ^ Балязин, Вольдемар (2006). Восточные славяне и нашествие Батыя. Неофициальная история России. М.: ОЛМА-пресс. p. 21. ISBN 9785373006712. Template:Icon ru
- ^ Wilson, Josh; Nesterov, Andrei (10-Jan-2010). "Pelmeni. A Tasty History". Eurasian Cookbook. School of Russian and Asian Studies. Retrieved 20-May-2010.
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and|date=
(help) - ^ Слёзкин, А. В. (2008). "Церковь Покрова в Пархомовке и ее влияние на храмостроение неорусского стиля". Архитектурное наследство. 49. Научно-исследовательский институт теории и истории архитектуры и градостроительства Российской академии архитектуры и строительных наук: 274–290. Template:Icon ru
- ^ Khan-Magomedov, Selim. Architecture of Dagestan. Vol. 1–6. Moscow: Lad'ya, Arkhitektura-S. ISBN 5706801053. Template:Icon ru
- ^ Ренкель, Алексей (2008). "Всё могут короли. Изобретатель Пётр Великий". Изобретатель и рационализатор. Vol. 9, no. 705.
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ignored (help) Template:Ru icon - ^ http://www.industring.ru/mountain/mountain3.html Template:Ru icon
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(help) - ^ Школьник, А. Е. (1988). "Русская печь XX века". Наука и жизнь. Vol. 1. p. 97. Template:Ru icon
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- ^ Денисов, А. П.; Перечнев, Ю. Г. (1956). "Глава 4. Береговая артиллерия в Крымской войне 1853–1856 годов". Русская береговая артиллерия. М.: Воениздат. pp. 81–82.
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- ^ Немировский, Евгений (1985). Чеканов, Андрей (ed.). Иван Федоров, около 1510-1583. Научно-биографическая литература. М.: Наука. Template:Ru icon
- ^ Дмитрієнко, Марія; Тоїчкін, Денис (2005). "Холодна зброя як неодмінна складова розвитку людської цивілізації" (PDF). Спеціальні історичні дисципліни: питання теорії та методики. 12 (2): 427. ISSN 577021280.
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value (help) Template:Uk icon - ^ Кирпичников, Анатолий (1966–1971). Каргер, Михаил (ed.). Древнерусское оружие (PDF). Vol. 2. М.-Л.: Наука. pp. 10–16.
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(help) - ^ Eaton, Gareth; Eaton, Sandra; Salikhov, Kev (1998). Foundations of modern EPR. World Scientific. pp. 45–46. ISBN 9810232950.
- ^ Шершень, А. И. (1949). "Развитие аэрофотосъемки в России". Аэрофотосъемка. Летносъемочный процесс. М.: Геодезиздат.
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(help) Template:Icon ru - ^ "World's Oldest Yacht Clubs". Yachting Club of America. Retrieved 12-May-2010.
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(help) - ^ Кукушкин, Иван (2008). ""Ермак", линейный ледокол". Полярная Почта. Retrieved 20-May-2010.
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(help) Template:Icon ru - ^ Веселов, Павел (1993). "Продлить навигацию". Ледоколы. Морской Музей ТМ. Tekhnika Molodezhi. pp. 36–37.
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(help) - ^ Измеров, Олег. "Впереди паровоза". Неизвестный отечественный монорельс. Retrieved 11-May-2009.
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(help) Template:Icon ru - ^ Конарев, Николай, ed. (1994). Железнодорожный транспорт. М.: Большая Российская энциклопедия. ISBN 5852701157.
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(help) - ^ Гуриков, Владимир. ""Шлифовальных и оптических дел мастер" Иван Петрович Кулибин". Институт истории естествознания и техники Российской академии наук. Template:Ru icon
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(help) Template:Ru icon - ^ Ford, Bruce (July 2006). "Russian Smokejumpers: The Pre-War Years". Smokejumper Magazine. National Smokejumper Association. Retrieved 22-Nov-2011.
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(help) - ^ "Soyuz launch vehicle: The most reliable means of space travel". ESA. Retrieved 20-May-2010.
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(help) - ^ "Tank on the Moon". The Nature of Things with David Suzuki. 6-Dec-2007. CBC-TV.
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(help) - ^ Tucker, Jonathan. War of Nerves: Chemical Warfare from World War I to al-Qaeda. Anchor Books. ISBN 9781400032334.
- ^ "Бериев А-40 Альбатрос". Уголок неба - Большая авиационная энциклопедия. Retrieved 6-Nov-2011.
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(help) Template:Ru icon - ^ "Hellenic Command Amphibious Forces: Ships". Hellenic Navy. 2008. Retrieved 18-Apr-2009.
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