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The history of medical cannabis, which is a plant based, or botanical product, goes back to ancient times. Ancient physicians in many parts of the world mixed cannabis into medicines to treat pain and other ailments. There is extensive research that it was used more than 5,000 years ago in what is now Romania.^[1] According to one direct source of evidence (Δ6-tetrahydrocannabinol [Δ6-THC] found in ashes), cannabis was first used medicinally as long ago as 400 A.D.^[2]

In the 19th century, cannabis was introduced for therapeutic use in Western Medicine. In the United States, it was widely utilized as a patent medicine, it was described in the United States Pharmacopoeia for the first time in 1850 (and was then dropped in 1942). The federal restrictions of cannabis use and cannabis sale first occurred in 1937 with the passage of the Marihuana Tax Act; while legal penalties for possession increased in 1951 and 1956, as part of the Boggs and Narcotic Control Acts. Prohibition under federal law occurred with the Controlled Substance Act of 1970. Unfortunately not only did these legislative actions criminalize the plant, they also created limitations on research by restricting procurement of cannabis for academic purposes.^[3]

Despite the lack of scientific research, there have been several advancements in how the drug is administered. Initially, cannabis was reduced to a powder and mixed with wine for administration. By the 1970's, synthetic THC was created to be administered as the drug Marinol in a capsule. Since that time, edibles, hash and a special concentrated form of hash called "hash oil" have been developed or popularized within the medical marijuana community. However, the main mode of administration for cannabis continues to be smoking because its effects are almost immediate when the smoke is inhaled.

In 1996, California became the first state to permit legal access to and use of botanical cannabis for medicinal purposes under physician supervision with the enactment of the Compassionate Use Act. Between 1996 and 1999, eight U.S. states supported cannabis prescriptions opposing policies of the federal government. By January 2017, it was approved for medicinal use in 28 states, the District of Columbia, Guam and Puerto Rico. Most people who are prescribed marijuana for medical purposes use it to alleviate severe pain.

Ancient China

"Dàmá", the Chinese word for "cannabis", compounds "big; great" and "cannabis; hemp."

Cannabis, called má 麻 (meaning "hemp; cannabis; numbness") or dàmá 大麻 (with "big; great") in Chinese, was used in Taiwan for fiber starting about 10,000 years ago.^[4] The botanist Hui-lin Li wrote that in China, "The use of Cannabis in medicine was probably a very early development. Since ancient humans used hemp seed as food, it was quite natural for them to also discover the medicinal properties of the plant."^[5] The oldest Chinese pharmacopeia, the (c. 100 AD) Shennong Bencaojing 神農本草經 ("Shennong's Materia Medica Classic"), describes dama "cannabis".

The flowers when they burst (when the pollen is scattered) are called 麻蕡 [mafen] or 麻勃 [mabo]. The best time for gathering is the seventh day of the seventh month. The seeds are gathered in the ninth month. The seeds which have entered the soil are injurious to man. It grows in [Taishan] (in [Shandong] ...). The flowers, the fruit (seed) and the leaves are officinal. The leaves and the fruit are said to be poisonous, but not the flowers and the kernels of the seeds.^[6]

The early Chinese surgeon Hua Tuo (c. 140-208) is credited with being the first recorded person to use cannabis as an anesthetic. He reduced the plant to powder and mixed it with wine for administration prior to conducting surgery.^[7] The Chinese term for "anesthesia" (mázui 麻醉) literally means "cannabis intoxication". Elizabeth Wayland Barber says the Chinese evidence "proves a knowledge of the narcotic properties of Cannabis at least from the 1st millennium B.C." when ma was already used in a secondary meaning of "numbness; senseless." "Such a strong drug, however, suggests that the Chinese pharmacists had now obtained from far to the southwest not THC-bearing Cannabis sativa but Cannabis indica, so strong it knocks you out cold.^[8]

The Dutch sinologist Frank Dikötter's history of drugs in China says,

The medical uses were highlighted in a pharmacopeia of the Tang, which prescribed the root of the plant to remove a blood clot, while the juice from the leaves could be ingested to combat tapeworm. The seeds of cannabis, reduced to powder and mixed with rice wine, were recommended in various other materia medica against several ailments, ranging from constipation to hair loss. The Ming dynasty Mingyi bielu provided detailed instructions about the harvesting of the heads of the cannabis sativa plant (mafen, mabo), while the few authors who acknowledged hemp in various pharmacopoeias seemed to agree that the resinous female flowering heads were the source of dreams and revelations. After copious consumption, according to the ancient Shennong bencaojing, one could see demons and walk like a madman, even becoming 'in touch with the spirits' over time. Other medical writers warned that ghosts could be seen after ingesting a potion based on raw seeds blended with calamus and podophyllum (guijiu).^[9]

Cannabis is one of the 50 "fundamental" herbs in traditional Chinese medicine,^[10] and is prescribed to treat diverse indications. FP Smith writes in Chinese Materia Medica: Vegetable Kingdom:

Every part of the hemp plant is used in medicine ... The flowers are recommended in the 120 different forms of (風 feng) disease, in menstrual disorders, and in wounds. The achenia, which are considered to be poisonous, stimulate the nervous system, and if used in excess, will produce hallucinations and staggering gait. They are prescribed in nervous disorders, especially those marked by local anaesthesia. The seeds ... are considered to be tonic, demulcent, alternative [restorative], laxative, emmenagogue, diuretic, anthelmintic, and corrective. ... They are prescribed internally in fluxes, post-partum difficulties, aconite poisoning, vermillion poisoning, constipation, and obstinate vomiting. Externally they are used for eruptions, ulcers, favus, wounds, and falling of the hair. The oil is used for falling hair, sulfur poisoning, and dryness of the throat. The leaves are considered to be poisonous, and the freshly expressed juice is used as an anthelmintic, in scorpion stings, to stop the hair from falling out and to prevent it from turning gray. ... The stalk, or its bark, is considered to be diuretic ... The juice of the root is ... thought to have a beneficial action in retained placenta and post-partum hemorrhage. An infusion of hemp ... is used as a demulcent drink for quenching thirst and relieving fluxes.^[11]

Ancient Netherlands

In 2007, a late Neolithic grave attributed to the Beaker culture (found near Hattemerbroek [nl], Gelderland; dated 2459-2203 BCE) was found containing an unusually large concentration of pollen. After five years of careful investigation these pollen were concluded to be mostly cannabis along with a smaller amount of meadowsweet. Due to the fever-reducing properties of meadowsweet, the archeologists speculated that the person in the grave had likely been very ill, in which case the cannabis would have served as painkiller.^[12]

Ancient Egypt

The Ebers Papyrus (c. 1550 BC) from Ancient Egypt describes medical cannabis.^[13] Other ancient Egyptian papyri that mention medical cannabis are the Ramesseum III Papyrus (1700 BC), the Berlin Papyrus (1300 BC) and the Chester Beatty Medical Papyrus VI (1300 BC).^[14] The ancient Egyptians used hemp (cannabis) in suppositories for relieving the pain of hemorrhoids.^[15] Around 2,000 BCE, the ancient Egyptians used cannabis to treat sore eyes.^[16] The egyptologist Lise Manniche notes the reference to "plant medical cannabis" in several Egyptian texts, one of which dates back to the eighteenth century BCE.^[17]

Ancient India

Cannabis was a major component in religious practices in ancient India as well as in medicinal practices. For many centuries, most parts of life in ancient India incorporated cannabis of some form.^[18] Surviving texts from ancient India confirm that cannabis' psychoactive properties were recognized, and doctors used it for treating a variety of illnesses and ailments. These included insomnia, headaches, a whole host of gastrointestinal disorders, and pain: cannabis was frequently used to relieve the pain of childbirth.^[19] One Indian philosopher expressed his views on the nature and uses of bhang (a form of cannabis), which combined religious thought with medical practices. "A guardian lives in the bhang leaf. …To see in a dream the leaves, plant, or water of bhang is lucky. …A longing for bhang foretells happiness. It cures dysentry and sunstroke, clears phlegm, quickens digestion, sharpens appetite, makes the tongue of the lisper plain, freshens the intellect and gives alertness to the body and gaiety to the mind. Such are the useful and needful ends for which in His goodness the Almighty made bhang."^[18]

Ancient Greece

The Ancient Greeks used cannabis to dress wounds and sores on their horses.^[20] In humans, dried leaves of cannabis were used to treat nose bleeds, and cannabis seeds were used to expel tapeworms.^[20] The most frequently described use of cannabis in humans was to steep green seeds of cannabis in either water or wine, later taking the seeds out and using the warm extract to treat inflammation and pain resulting from obstruction of the ear.^[20]

In the 5th century BC Herodotus, a Greek historian, described how the Scythians of the Middle East used cannabis in steam baths. These baths drove the people to a frenzied state.^[20]

Medieval Islamic world

In the medieval Islamic world, Arabic physicians made use of the diuretic, antiemetic, antiepileptic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic properties of Cannabis sativa, and used it extensively as medication from the 8th to 18th centuries.^[21]

*Cannabis sativa* from *Vienna Dioscurides*, 512 AD

Modern history

An advertisement for *Maltos-Cannabis*, a Scandinavian cannabis-based drink popular in the early 20th century.^[22]

In the mid 19th century, medical interest in the use of cannabis began to grow in the West.^[23] In the 19th century cannabis was one of the secret ingredients in several so called patent medicines. There were at least 2000 cannabis medicines prior to 1937, produced by over 280 manufacturers.^[24] The advent of the syringe and injectable medicines contributed to an eventual decline in the popularity of cannabis for therapeutic uses, as did the invention of new drugs such as aspirin.^[23]

An Irish physician, William Brooke O'Shaughnessy, is credited with introducing the therapeutic use of cannabis to Western medicine. He was Assistant-Surgeon and Professor of Chemistry at the Medical College of Calcutta, and conducted a cannabis experiment in the 1830s, first testing his preparations on animals, then administering them to patients to help treat muscle spasms, stomach cramps or general pain.^[25] Modern medical and scientific inquiry began with doctors like O'Shaughnessy and Moreau de Tours, who used it to treat melancholia and migraines, and as a sleeping aid, analgesic and anticonvulsant. At the local level authorities introduced various laws that required the mixtures that contained cannabis, that was not sold on prescription, must be marked with warning labels under the so-called poison laws.^[26] In 1905 Samuel Hopkins Adams published an exposé entitled "The Great American Fraud" in Collier's Weekly about the patent medicines that led to the passage of the first Pure Food and Drug Act in 1906.^[27] This statute did not ban the alcohol, narcotics, and stimulants in the medicines; rather, it required medicinal products to be labeled as such and curbed some of the more misleading, overstated, or fraudulent claims that previously appeared on labels.

At the turn of the 20th century the Scandinavian maltose- and cannabis-based drink Maltos-Cannabis was widely available in Denmark and Norway.^[22]^[28] Promoted as "an excellent lunch drink, especially for children and young people", the product had won a prize at the Exposition Internationale d'Anvers in 1894.^[22] A Swedish encyclopedia from 1912 claim that European hemp, the raw material for Maltos-Sugar, almost lacked the narcotic effect that is typical for Indian hemp and that products from Indian hemp was abandon by modern science for medical use. Maltos-Cannabis was promoted with text about its content of maltose sugar.^[29]

Later in the century, researchers investigating methods of detecting cannabis intoxication discovered that smoking the drug reduced intraocular pressure.^[30]^{[unreliable source?]} In 1955 the antibacterial effects were described at the Palacký University of Olomouc. Since 1971 Lumír Ondřej Hanuš was growing cannabis for his scientific research on two large fields in authority of the University. The marijuana extracts were then used at the University hospital as a cure for aphthae and haze.^[31] In 1973 physician Tod H. Mikuriya reignited the debate concerning cannabis as medicine when he published "Marijuana Medical Papers". High intraocular pressure causes blindness in glaucoma patients, so he hypothesized that using the drug could prevent blindness in patients.^{[citation needed]} Many Vietnam War veterans also found that the drug prevented muscle spasms caused by spinal injuries suffered in battle.^[32]

In 1964, Dr. Albert Lockhart and Manley West began studying the health effects of traditional cannabis use in Jamaican communities. They discovered that Rastafarians had unusually low glaucoma rates and local fishermen were washing their eyes with cannabis extract in the belief that it would improve their sight. Lockhart and West developed, and in 1987 gained permission to market, the pharmaceutical Canasol: one of the first cannabis extracts. They continued to work with cannabis, developing more pharmaceuticals and eventually receiving the Jamaican Order of Merit for their work.^[33]

Later, in the 1970s, a synthetic version of THC was produced and approved for use in the United States as the drug Marinol. It was delivered as a capsule, to be swallowed. Patients complained that the violent nausea associated with chemotherapy made swallowing capsules difficult. Further, along with ingested cannabis, capsules are harder to dose-titrate accurately than smoked cannabis because their onset of action is so much slower. Smoking has remained the route of choice for many patients because its onset of action provides almost immediate relief from symptoms and because that fast onset greatly simplifies titration. For these reasons, and because of the difficulties arising from the way cannabinoids are metabolized after being ingested, oral dosing is probably the least satisfactory route for cannabis administration.^[34]

In 1970, the U.S. Drug Enforcement Agency's (DEA's) Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act (Controlled Substance Act) declared marijuana to be a Schedule 1 drug. Under the United State's system of scheduled controlled substances, a Schedule I controlled substance is defined as having a high potential for abuse, no currently accepted medicinal use in treatment and a lack of safety data for use of the treatment under medical supervision.^[35] It is for that reason that there have been very few studies in the United States on the medical benefits of marijuana.

In 1976, a federal judge ruled that the Food and Drug Administration must provide Robert Randall of WAshington, D.C. with marijuana because of his glaucoma - for which no other drug could effectively combat his condition.^[36] With that ruling, he became the nation's first legal pot smoker since the drug was prohibited in 1970. Eventually, the government created its program as part of a compromise over Randal's care in 1978, long before any state had passed a medical marijuana law.^[37] All of the marijuana used in the program is grown, harvested and stored at the University of Mississippi, and is then sent to a tightly controlled North Carolina lab, where it is rolled into cigarettes, according to the program's director, Dr. Mahmoud ElSohly. ^[38] Currently, the patients receive pot that is about 4 percent THC, which he claims is the range patients have prefered in blind tests.^[39] After the program was created, a series of people petitioned to join the program, and continued to do so until 1992, when George H.W. Bush's administration decided to stop accepting new patients as part of their "War on Drugs" agenda.^[40] However, the patients who were already receiving federal marijuana got to stay in the program.

By 2001, there were 5 patients left, four in Florida and Iowa and one in Oregon (Elvy Muusikka, who is entitled to more legal pot than anyone in the nation because she is also enrolled in the state's medical marijuana program). One of the patients, Irv Rosenfeld, a financial adviser in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, has been in the program since November, 1982. He has a condition that results in painful bone tumors, and he says marijuana has replaced addictive and expensive prescription painkillers. In May 2001, "The Chronic Cannabis Use in the Compassionate Investigational New Drug Program: An Examination of Benefits and Adverse Effects of Legal Clinical Cannabis" (Russo, Mathre, Byrne et al.) was completed. This three-day examination of major body functions of four of the five living US federal cannabis patients found "mild pulmonary changes" in two patients.^[41] According to documents from the National Institute on Drug Abuse, the agency that administers the program, between 2005 and 2011, the federal government distributed more than 100 pounds of high grade marijuana to patients (for free).^[42] As of 2011, the four remaining patients estimate that they have received over 584 pounds from the federal government, which would have cost over $500,000 if bought on the street. ^[43]

Fortunately, the use and acceptance of medical cannabis continues to evolve in the United States and around the world and marijuana is finally being recognized for its potential medical benefits. As of January 1, 2017, cannabis use is approved for medicinal use in 28 states, the District of Columbia, Guam and Puerto Rico, going against policies of the federal government.^[44] According to a recent Quinnipiac University poll, 81% of American voters surveyed favored the legalization of cannabis for medicinal purposes. ^[45]

Among the more than 108,000 persons in Colorado who in 2012 had received a certificate to use marijuana for medical purposes, 94% said that severe pain was the reason for the requested certificate, followed by 3% for cancer and 1% for HIV/Aids. The typical card holder was a 41-year-old male. Twelve doctors had issued 50% of the certificates. Opponents of the card system claim that most card holders are drug abusers who are faking or exaggerating their illnesses; three-fourths male patients is not the normal pattern for pain patients, it is the normal pattern for drug addicts, claim the critics. After the implementation of medical cannabis in Colorado has also the past 30-day use of marijuana by teens increased significant compared with the average in the U.S. (Prescription to teens is not allowed in Colorado).^[46]^[47]^[48]

References

^ Bennett, C. (2010). The Pot Book: A Complete Guide to Cannabis.
^ Zias, J & Stark, H. (1993). "Early medical use of cannabis". Nature.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Bridgeman, Mary Barna; Abazia, Daniel T. (2017-3). "Medicinal Cannabis: History, Pharmacology, And Implications for the Acute Care Setting". Pharmacy and Therapeutics. 42 (3): 180–188. ISSN 1052-1372. PMC PMCPMC5312634. PMID 28250701. {{cite journal}}: Check |pmc= value (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
^ Abel, Ernest L. (1980). "Cannabis in the Ancient World". Marihuana: the first twelve thousand years. New York City: Plenum Publishers. ISBN 978-0-306-40496-2. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)^{[page needed]}
^ Li, Hui-Lin (1974). "An Archaeological and Historical Account of Cannabis in China", Economic Botany 28.4:437–448, p. 444.
^ Bretschneider, Emil (1895). Botanicon Sinicum: Notes on Chinese Botany from Native and Western Sources. Part III, Botanical Investigations in the Materia Medica of the Ancient Chinese. Kelly & Walsh. p. 378.
^ de Crespigny, Rafe (2007). A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD). Leiden: Brill Publishers. p. 332. ISBN 978-90-04-15605-0. OCLC 71779118.
^ Barber, Elizabeth Wayland. (1992). Prehistoric Textiles: The Development of Cloth in the Neolithic and Bronze Ages with Special Reference to the Aegean. Princeton University Press. p. 38.
^ Dikötter, Frank, Lars Laamann, and Zhou Xun (2004), Narcotic Culture: A History of Drugs in China, University Of Chicago Press, p. 200.
^ Wong, Ming (1976). La Médecine chinoise par les plantes. Paris: Tchou. p. 142. OCLC 2646789.
^ Smith, Frederick Porter (1911). Chinese Materia Medica: Vegetable Kingdom. Shanghai: American Presbyterian Mission Press. pp. 90–91.
^ Cannabis van 4200 jaar oud in graf Hanzelijn (Dutch), NU.nl
^ "The Ebers Papyrus The Oldest (confirmed) Written Prescriptions For Medical Marihuana era 1,550 BC". onlinepot.org. Retrieved 2008-06-10.
^ "History of Cannabis". reefermadnessmuseum.org. Archived from the original on 25 May 2008. Retrieved 2008-07-09.
^ Pain, Stephanie (15 December 2007). "The Pharaoh's pharmacists". New Scientist. Reed Business Information Ltd.
^ (Webley, Kayla. "Brief History: Medical Marijuana." Time 21 June 2010.)
^ Lise Manniche, An Ancient Egyptian Herbal, University of Texas Press, 1989, ISBN 978-0-292-70415-2^{[page needed]}
^ ^a ^b Bloomquist, Edward (1971). Marijuana: The Second Trip. California: Glencoe Press.
^ Touw, Mia (1981). "The Religious and Medicinal Uses of Cannabis in China, India and Tibet". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 13 (1): 23–34. doi:10.1080/02791072.1981.10471447. PMID 7024492.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Butrica, James L. (2002). "The Medical Use of Cannabis Among the Greeks and Romans". Journal of Cannabis Therapeutics. 2 (2): 51. doi:10.1300/J175v02n02_04.
^ Lozano, Indalecio (2001). "The Therapeutic Use of Cannabis sativa (L.) in Arabic Medicine". Journal of Cannabis Therapeutics. 1: 63. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.550.1717. doi:10.1300/J175v01n01_05.
^ ^a ^b ^c Tom Decorte; Gary W. Potter; Martin Bouchard (2011). World Wide Weed: Global Trends in Cannabis Cultivation and Its Control. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 59. ISBN 978-1-4094-1780-4.
^ ^a ^b "History of Cannabis". BBC News. 2 November 2001. Retrieved 17 August 2011.
^ The Antique Cannabis Book. antiquecannabisbook.com (16 March 2012). Retrieved 2012-05-19.
^ Alison Mack; Janet Joy (7 December 2000). Marijuana As Medicine?: The Science Beyond the Controversy. National Academies Press. pp. 15–. ISBN 978-0-309-06531-3.
^ "The Newsweekly for Pharmacy". Chemist + Druggist. 28. London, New York City, Melbourne: Benn Brothers: 68, 330. 1886.
^ Adams, Samuel Hopkins (1905). The Great American Fraud (4th ed., 1907). Chicago: American Medical Association. Retrieved 2009-07-30.
^ "Hurudan är Extract af Maltos". Kalmar (in Swedish). 1894-07-08. p. 4.
^ "Hasjisj, Nordisk familjebok, 1912". Runeberg.org. 2016-01-17. Retrieved 2018-02-12.
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^ Zimmerman, Bill; Nancy Crumpacker; Rick Bayer (1998). Is Marijuana the Right Medicine for You?: A Factual Guide to Medical Uses of Marijuana. Keats Publishing. ISBN 978-0-87983-906-2.^{[page needed]}
^ Dr Farid F. Youssef. "Cannibis Unmasked: What it is and why it does what it does". UWIToday: June 2010. http://sta.uwi.edu/uwitoday/archive/june_2010/article9.asp
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^ "DEA Diversion Control Division". www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov. Retrieved 2019-04-29.
^ "4 Americans get medical pot from the feds". {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |dead-url= (help)
^ "4 Americans get medical pot from the feds". www.cbsnews.com. Retrieved 2019-04-29.
^ "4 Americans get medical pot from the feds". www.cbsnews.com. Retrieved 2019-04-29.
^ "4 Americans get medical pot from the feds". www.cbsnews.com. Retrieved 2019-04-29.
^ "4 Americans get medical pot from the feds". www.cbsnews.com. Retrieved 2019-04-29.
^ Russo, Ethan; Mathre, Mary Lynn; Byrne, Al; Velin, Robert; Bach, Paul J.; Sanchez-Ramos, Juan; Kirlin, Kristin A. (2002). "Chronic Cannabis Use in the Compassionate Investigational New Drug Program". Journal of Cannabis Therapeutics. 2: 3. doi:10.1300/J175v02n01_02.
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^ Bridgeman, Mary Barna; Abazia, Daniel T. (2017-3). "Medicinal Cannabis: History, Pharmacology, And Implications for the Acute Care Setting". Pharmacy and Therapeutics. 42 (3): 180–188. ISSN 1052-1372. PMC PMCPMC5312634. PMID 28250701. {{cite journal}}: Check |pmc= value (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
^ Medical Marijuana Regulatory System, Part II. Department of Public Health and Environment, Department of Revenue Performance Audit, June 2013
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^ Polk, Sheila (2014-01-06). "Sheila Polk: Legalized marijuana: Colorado kids are paying the price, 2014 azcentral.com, Mon Jan 6, 2014". Azcentral.com. Retrieved 2018-02-12.

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 The '''history of medical cannabis,''' which is a plant based, or botanical product, goes back to ancient times. Ancient physicians in many parts of the world mixed [[cannabis]] into medicines to treat pain and other ailments. There is extensive research that it was used more than 5,000 years ago in what is now Romania.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Pot Book: A Complete Guide to Cannabis.|last=Bennett|first=C.|publisher=|year=2010|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref>  According to one direct source of evidence (Δ6-tetrahydrocannabinol [Δ6-THC] found in ashes), cannabis was first used medicinally as long ago as 400 A.D.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zias, J & Stark, H.|first=|date=1993|title=Early medical use of cannabis.|url=|journal=Nature|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref>
-In the 19th century, cannabis was introduced for therapeutic use in Western Medicine. In the United States, it was widely utilize as a patent medicine, it was described in the ''United States Pharmacopoeia'' for the first time in 1850 (and was then dropped in 1942). The federal restrictions of cannabis use and cannabis sale first occurred in 1937 with the passage of the Marihuana Tax Act; while legal penalties for possession increased in 1951 and 1956, as part of the Boggs and Narcotic Control Acts. Prohibition under federal law occurred with the Controlled Substance Act of 1970. Unfortunately not only did these legislative actions criminalize the plant, they also created limitations on research by restricting procurement of cannabis for academic purposes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bridgeman|first=Mary Barna|last2=Abazia|first2=Daniel T.|date=2017-3|title=Medicinal Cannabis: History, Pharmacology, And Implications for the Acute Care Setting|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5312634/|journal=Pharmacy and Therapeutics|volume=42|issue=3|pages=180–188|issn=1052-1372|pmc=PMCPMC5312634|pmid=28250701}}</ref>
+In the 19th century, cannabis was introduced for therapeutic use in Western Medicine. In the United States, it was widely utilized as a patent medicine, it was described in the ''United States Pharmacopoeia'' for the first time in 1850 (and was then dropped in 1942). The federal restrictions of cannabis use and cannabis sale first occurred in 1937 with the passage of the Marihuana Tax Act; while legal penalties for possession increased in 1951 and 1956, as part of the Boggs and Narcotic Control Acts. Prohibition under federal law occurred with the Controlled Substance Act of 1970. Unfortunately not only did these legislative actions criminalize the plant, they also created limitations on research by restricting procurement of cannabis for academic purposes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bridgeman|first=Mary Barna|last2=Abazia|first2=Daniel T.|date=2017-3|title=Medicinal Cannabis: History, Pharmacology, And Implications for the Acute Care Setting|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5312634/|journal=Pharmacy and Therapeutics|volume=42|issue=3|pages=180–188|issn=1052-1372|pmc=PMCPMC5312634|pmid=28250701}}</ref>
 Despite the lack of scientific research, there have been several advancements in how the drug is administered. Initially, cannabis was reduced to a powder and mixed with wine for administration. By the 1970's, synthetic [[Tetrahydrocannabinol|THC]] was created to be administered as the drug [[Dronabinol|Marinol]] in a capsule. Since that time, edibles, hash and a special concentrated form of hash called "hash oil" have been developed or popularized within the medical marijuana community. However, the main mode of administration for cannabis continues to be smoking because its effects are almost immediate when the smoke is inhaled.