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List of wars involving Vietnam

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This is a list of wars involving the Socialist Republic of Vietnam and its predecessor states.


Pre-modern

Ancient (c. 257 BC–111 BC)

Conflict Combatant 1 Combatant 2 Result
Lac Viet-Au Viet War

(257 BC?)

Lạc Việt tribe Âu Việt tribe Lac Viet was annexed into Au Viet.
Baiyue-Qin War

(221 BCE – 214 BCE)

Baiyue tribes Qin Empire Partial victory
  • Minyue and Nanyue tribes were annexed into Qin Empire
  • Âu Lạc retained independence
Au Lac–Nanyue War

(207 BCE or 179 BCE)

Âu Lạc under Thục dynasty Nanyue under Triệu dynasty Nanyue victory
  • Âu Lạc was annexed into Nanyue
Han–Nanyue War

(111 BCE)

Nanyue under Triệu dynasty Han Empire Han victory

Dominated (111 BC–905 AD)

First and Second Chinese Domination (111 BC – 544 AD)

Conflict Combatant 1 Combatant 2 Result
Trung sisters' rebellion

(40–43)

Trưng Sisters rebels in Lingnan Han Empire Rebellion defeated
Jiaozhi revolts

(100, 136–144 AD)

Chamic revolt in Rinan, by 136 it had been spreading to Jiaozhi. Han dynasty Rebellion defeated
Jiuzhen revolt

(157 AD)

Chu Đạt rebels in Jiuzhen Han dynasty Rebellion defeated
Wuhu revolt

(178–181)

Liang Long rebels in Hepu and Jiaozhi Han dynasty Rebellion defeated
Independence of Champa

(192)

Khu Liên revolts in Xianglin (Hue), southern part of Rinan Han dynasty Rebellion success, creation of the first Cham kingdom of Lâm Ấp.
Lady Triệu Revolt

(248)

Lady Triệu rebels in Jiuzhen Wu Rebellion defeated
  • Lady Triệu Revolt was suppressed.
Jin–Wu war

(263–280)

Anti-Wu rebels in Jiaozhi, backed by Jin dynasty Wu Jin victory
  • Jin acquired possession of Northern Vietnam from Wu.
Jin–Lâm Ấp war

(399–431)

Jin dynasty Lâm Ấp Jin victory
  • Cham attacks were driven back with heavy tolls.
Liu Song–Lâm Ấp war

(445–446)

Liu Song dynasty Lâm Ấp Liu Song victory
  • Capital of Lâm Ấp, Kandarapura, was sacked by the Liu Song dynasty.
Lý Bí Revolt

(542–545)

Lý Bí rebels in Jiaozhi Liang Victory

Early Lý Dynasty (545–602)

Conflict Early Lý Dynasty

and allies

Opponents Result
Sui-Van Xuan War

(545–602)

Vạn Xuân under Early Lý dynasty Sui Defeat

Third Chinese Domination (602–905)

Conflict Combatant 1 Combatant 2 Result
Sui–Lâm Ấp war

(605)

Lâm Ấp Sui dynasty Sui victory
  • Chinese briefly established in Champa
Lý Tự Tiên rebellion

(679)

Lý Tự Tiên's Li rebels Tang dynasty Tang victory
Mai Thúc Loan Revolt

(722–23)

Mai Thúc Loan rebels in Annan Great Tang Tang victory
Chen Xingfan revolt

(726–28)

Chen Xingfan rebels in modern-day China-Vietnam borderlands Great Tang Tang victory
Javanese raids in Vietnam coast

(767, 774 & 787)

Javanese raiders Tang dynasty, Champa Tang victory
Phùng Hưng Revolt

(791)

Phùng Hưng rebels in Annan Great Tang Defeat
Tang–Nanzhao war

(846–866)

Nanzhao and local rebels in Northern Vietnam Great Tang Tang victory
  • Exhaustion for the Tang Empire.

Dynastic

Autonomous era under Khúc Family (905–938) and Ngô Dynasty (938–967)

Conflict Khúc Family

and allies

Opponents Result
First Southern Han–Annan War

(930–931)

Dương Đình Nghệ forces in Annan Great Han Victory
Second Southern Han-Annan War(938) Ngô Quyền forces in Annan Great Han Victory
  • Establishment of Ngô dynasty
  • Beginning of independence era of Vietnam

Warlord era (944–968)

Conflict Ngô Dynasty

and allies

Opponents Result
Coup d'état Dương Tam Kha (950) Force of Dương Tam Kha Force of Ngô Xương Ngập later added Ngô Xương Văn Establish a position
12 Warlords Rebellion

(965–968)

Đinh Bộ Lĩnh clan 11 Warlords Victory for Đinh Bộ Lĩnh clan

Đinh Dynasty (968–980)

Conflict Đinh Dynasty

and allies

Opponents Result
Dispute over the throne of the Dinh Dynasty (979) Force of Đinh Điền, Nguyễn Bặc, Phạm Hạp Force of Lê Hoàn Changing dynasty

Early Lê Dynasty (980–1009)

Conflict Early Lê Dynasty

and allies

Opponents Result
First Đại Cồ Việt-Song War

(981)

Đại Cồ Việt under Early Lê dynasty Great Song Victory
  • Establishment of Early Lê dynasty
Champa–Đại Cồ Việt war

(982)

Đại Cồ Việt under Early Lê dynasty Champa Victory
Dispute for the throne of Le Dynasty (1005) Force of Lê Long Việt Force of Lê Long Tích Establish a position
Force of Lê Ngọa Triều Force of Lê Long Cân, Lê Long Kính, Lê Long Đinh Establish a position
  • Lê Ngọa Triều retains the throne
  • Lê Long Kính was killed
  • Lê Long Cân and Lê Long Đinh surrender

Later Lý Dynasty (1009–1225)

Conflict Later Lý Dynasty

and allies

Opponents Result
Dali – Đại Cồ Việt war (1014) Đại Cồ Việt under Later Lý dynasty Dali Kingdom Victory
Third Rebellious Brothers (1028) Đại Cồ Việt under Later Lý dynasty Force of Đông Chinh Vương, Vũ Đức Vương, Dực Thánh Vương Victory
  • Lý Thái Tông ascended the throne
  • Vũ Đức Vương was killed
  • Đông Chinh Vương and Đông Chinh Vương has escape
Nong Quanfu rebellions (1038 –1039) Đại Cồ Việt under Later Lý dynasty Kingdom of Longevity Victory
  • Nong Quanfu was captured and executed
Nong Zhigao rebellions (1040 –1050) Đại Cồ Việt under Later Lý dynasty Kingdom of Changsheng Victory
Champa–Đại Cồ Việt War

(1044)

Đại Cồ Việt under Later Lý dynasty Champa Victory
Champa–Đại Việt War

(1069)

Đại Việt under Later Lý dynasty Champa Victory
Đại Việt–Song War

(1075–1077)

Đại Việt under Later Lý dynasty Great Song Victory
Đại Việt-Khmer War

(1123–1150)[1]

Đại Việt under Later Lý dynasty Khmer Empire

Champa

Victory
Rebellions Quách Bốc (1209) Đại Việt under Later Lý dynasty Force of Quách Bốc Victory
Rebellions Nguyễn Nộn (1213 – 1219) Đại Việt under Later Lý dynasty Force of Nguyễn Nộn

Trần Dynasty (1225–1400)

Conflict Trần Dynasty

and allies

Opponents Result
Champa–Đại Việt War

(1252)

Đại Việt under Trần dynasty

Champa

Champa Victory
First Đại Việt-Mongol War

(1257–1258)

Đại Việt under Trần dynasty

Champa

Mongol Empire Victory
Second Đại Việt-Mongol War

(1284–1285)

Đại Việt under Trần dynasty

Champa

Great Yuan Victory
Third Đại Việt-Mongol War

(1287–1288)

Đại Việt under Trần dynasty

Champa

Great Yuan Victory
Đại Việt-Muang Sua War (1294-1301) Đại Việt under Trần dynasty Muang Sua Victory
Cham–Vietnamese War (1311) Đại Việt under Trần dynasty Champa Victory
  • Chế Chí has been capture
Cham–Vietnamese War (1318) Đại Việt under Trần dynasty Champa Victory
  • Chế Năng escaped to Java
Dispute over the Tran dynasty (1369-1370) Force of Dương Nhật Lễ Force of Trần Phủ Victory
Cham–Vietnamese War (1367–1390) Đại Việt under Trần dynasty Champa Defeat in early periods

Victory in final periods

Hồ Dynasty (1400–1407)

Conflict Hồ Dynasty

and allies

Opponents Result
Champa–Đại Ngu War

(1400–1407)

Đại Ngu under Hồ dynasty Champa Victory[2][3]
Đại Ngu-Ming War

(1406–1407)

Đại Ngu under Hồ dynasty Great Ming Defeat

Fourth Chinese Domination (1407–1427)

Conflict Yue people Opponents Result
Later Trần revolt

(1407–1413)

Later Trần rebels in Jiaozhi Great Ming Defeat
Lam Sơn uprising

(1418–1427)

Lam Sơn rebels in Jiaozhi Great Ming Victory

Later Lê Dynasty (1428–1778)

Conflict Later Lê Dynasty

and allies

Opponents Result
Đại Việt–Ngưu Hống war (1431–1432) Đại Việt under Later Lê dynasty Black River Kingdom Victory
Champa-Đại Việt War

(1446)

Đại Việt under Later Lê dynasty Champa Victory
Coup d'état Lê Nghi Dân (1459) Force of Lê Nhân Tông Force of Lê Nghi Dân Establish a position
Counter-coup Lê Nghi Dân (1460) Force of Lê Nghi Dân Force of Nguyễn Xí, Đinh Liệt, Lê Lăng, Lê Niệm, Nguyễn Đức Trung Establish a position
Champa–Đại Việt War

(1471)

Đại Việt under Later Lê dynasty Champa Victory
Đại Việt-Lan Xang War

(1478–1480)[4]

Đại Việt under Later Lê dynasty Lan XangLan NaMuang PhuanAyutthayaAva Victory
Lê Tương Dực
Trần Cảo Rebellion

(1516–1521)

Đại Việt under Later Lê dynasty Trần Cảo's rebels Victory
  • Trần Cảo rebellion was suppressed
Lê-Mạc Civil War

(1533–1677)

Southern Đại Việt under Later Lê dynasty Northern Đại Việt under Mạc dynasty Victory for Later Lê dynasty
  • Re-establishment of Later Lê Dynasty
First Trịnh–Nguyễn Civil War

(1627–1672)

Đàng Ngoài under Later Lê dynasty and Trịnh lords

Dutch East India Company

Đàng Trong under Nguyễn lords Indecisive
Dutch-Nguyễn War

(1643)

Đàng Trong under Nguyễn lords Dutch East India Company Victory for Nguyễn lords
Cambodian Civil War

(1714–17)[5]

Kaev Hua III

Nguyễn lords

Thommo Reachea III

Ayutthaya Kingdom

Defeat for Nguyễn lords
Đại Việt-Siam War (1769–1773)[6][7] Đàng Trong under Nguyễn lords Thonburi Kingdom Defeat
Second Trịnh–Nguyễn Civil War

(1774–1775)

Đàng Ngoài under Later Lê dynasty

Trịnh lords

Đàng Trong under Nguyễn lords Victory for Trịnh lords

Tây Sơn Dynasty (1778–1802)

Conflict Tây Sơn Dynasty
and allies
Opponents Result
Tây Sơn–Nguyễn Civil War

(1772–1777)[8]

Tây Sơn rebels Đàng Trong under Nguyễn lords Victory for Tây Sơn rebels
Đại Việt-Siam War

(1785)

Đại Việt under Tây Sơn dynasty Rattanakosin Kingdom

Đàng Trong under Nguyễn lords

Victory
  • Near-annihilation of Siamese force.
Tây Sơn–Trịnh Civil War

(1775-1786)[8]

Đại Việt under Tây Sơn dynasty Đàng Ngoài under Trịnh lords Victory for Tây Sơn dynasty
Đại Việt-Qing War

(1788–1789)

Đại Việt under Tây Sơn dynasty  Qing dynastyLater Lê dynasty Victory for Tây Sơn dynasty
Tây Sơn–Nguyễn Civil War

(1778–1802)[8]

Đại Việt under Tây Sơn dynasty Gia Long leading the Nguyễn lords Regime change

Nguyễn Dynasty (1802–1887)

Conflict Nguyễn Dynasty
and allies
Opponents Result
Cambodian Rebellion

(1811–1812)

Vietnam Việt Nam under Nguyễn dynasty

Ang Chan forces of Khmer

Rattanakosin Kingdom

Ang Snguon forces of Khmer

Victory
Chao Anu Rebellion

(1825–1828)

Vietnam Việt Nam under Nguyễn dynasty

Anouvong forces of Laos

Rattanakosin Kingdom Defeat
Siamese–Vietnamese War

(1831–1834)

Vietnam Việt Nam under Nguyễn dynasty Rattanakosin Kingdom Victory
Lê Văn Khôi revolt

(1833–1835)

Vietnam Việt Nam under Nguyễn dynasty Lê Văn Khôi rebels

Rattanakosin Kingdom

Victory
Đại Nam-Siam War

(1841–1845)

Vietnam Đại Nam under Nguyễn dynasty Rattanakosin Kingdom Inconclusive
Cochinchina Campaign

(1858–1862)

Vietnam Đại Nam under Nguyễn dynasty France Second French Empire

Spain Spain

Defeat
Tonkin Campaign

(1883–1886)

Vietnam Đại Nam under Nguyễn dynasty

 Qing dynasty Black Flag Army

 French Third Republic Defeat
Sino-French War

(1884–1885)

Vietnam Đại Nam under Nguyễn dynasty

 Qing dynasty Black Flag Army

 French Third Republic Both sides claimed victory[9][10]

Colonial

French Indochina (1887–1954)

Conflict French Indochina
and allies
Opponents Result
Cần Vương Rebellion

(1885–1896)

 French Third Republic French Indochina Cần Vương forces Victory
  • Insurrection crushed.
Yên Thế Insurrection

(1884–1913)

 French Third Republic French Indochina Hoàng Hoa Thám forces Victory
  • Insurrection crushed.
Franco-Siamese War

(1893)

 French Third Republic French Indochina Thailand Rattanakosin Kingdom Victory
  • Insurrection crushed.
Cochinchina uprising

(1916)

 French Third Republic French Indochina Cochinchina rebels Victory
  • Uprising crushed.
Thái Nguyên uprising

(1917)

 French Third Republic French Indochina Thái Nguyên rebels Victory
  • Uprising crushed.
Yên Bái mutiny

(1930)

 French Third Republic French Indochina Nationalist forces Victory
  • Mutiny defeated.
Nghệ-Tĩnh Soviets

(1930–1931)

 French Third Republic French Indochina Communist forces Victory
  • Uprising crushed.
Japanese invasion of Indochina (1940)  Vichy France French Indochina  Empire of Japan Defeat
  • Japanese occupied Northern French Indochina
Franco-Thai War

(1940–1941)

 Vichy France French Indochina  Thailand Military Indecisive
Thai political victory
  • Disputed enclaves returned to Thailand.

Republic

North Vietnam (1945–1976)

Conflict Vietnam
and allies
Opponents Result General Secretary
Chinese troops enter Vietnam (1945)  North Vietnam  Republic of China (1912–1949)

Supported by:
 France

Victory Hồ Chí Minh
Partisan conflict of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (1945–1947) North Vietnam Việt Minh National Union Front, formed in Nanking Victory
Operation Masterdom

(1945–1946)

North Vietnam Việt Minh

Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng

 United Kingdom

 France

 Japan

Defeat
First Indochina War

(1946–1954)[a]

 North Vietnam

Laos Lao Issara
Laos Pathet Lao
Khmer Issarak

Empire of Japan Japanese volunteers
Supported by:
 China (1949–1954)[11]
 East Germany (1950–1954)[12]
 Soviet Union (1952–1954)[11][13]
 Polish People's Republic

 France

Supported by:
 United States (1950–1954)
 Taiwan

Victory
Operation Shiwan Dashan (1949)  China

 North Vietnam

 Republic of China (1912–1949) Victory
Vietnam War

(1955–1975)[b]

 North Vietnam
Viet Cong Viet Cong
Khmer Rouge
Laos Pathet Lao
 China
 Soviet Union
 North Korea

Supported by:
 Czechoslovakia
 East Germany
 Polish People's Republic
 Socialist Republic of Romania
 Hungarian People's Republic
 People's Republic of Bulgaria
 Cuba
 Sweden[14]

South Vietnam
United States
 South Korea
 Australia
 New Zealand
 Philippines
Kingdom of Laos
Cambodia Khmer Republic

Supported by:
 Taiwan
 Thailand

Victory Hồ Chí Minh (until 2 September 1969)

Lê Duẩn

Laotian Civil War

(1959–1975)

Laos Pathet Lao
 North Vietnam
 Kingdom of Laos
 United States
 South Vietnam
 Thailand
Victory
Cambodian Civil War

(1967–1975)

National United Front of Kampuchea Kingdom of Cambodia (1967–1970)
Khmer Republic (1970–1975)
 United States
 South Vietnam
Victory

State of Vietnam and South Vietnam (1945–1975)

Conflict Vietnam
and allies
Opponents Result President
First Indochina War

(1946–1954)[c]

 France

Supported by:

 United States (1950–1954)

 Taiwan

 North Vietnam

Laos Lao Issara

Laos Pathet Lao

Khmer Issarak

Empire of Japan Japanese volunteers

Supported by:  China (1949–1954)[11]

 East Germany (1950–1954)[12]

 Soviet Union (1952–1954)[11][13]

 Polish People's Republic

Defeat
Battle of Saigon (1955)  State of Vietnam Bình Xuyên Victory
1955 State of Vietnam referendum State of Vietnam Support groups Prime Minister Ngô Đình Diệm

Supported by:

 United States

State of Vietnam Support groups Chief of State former Emperor Bảo Đại

Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng

Nationalist Party of Greater Vietnam

Supported by:

 France

Change of government
Vietnam War

(1955–1975)

 South Vietnam

 United States  South Korea Australia New Zealand Philippines Kingdom of Laos

Cambodia Khmer Republic

Supported by:

 Taiwan

 Thailand

 North VietnamViet Cong Viet Cong

Khmer Rouge Laos Pathet Lao

 China  Soviet Union North Korea Supported by:

Defeat
1960 South Vietnamese coup attempt  Army of the Republic of Vietnam rebels

 Republic of Vietnam Marine Division rebels Republic of Vietnam Airborne Division rebels

Army of the Republic of Vietnam loyalists

Presidential Guard

Victory

Coup attempt defeated

Ngô Đình Diệm
Buddhist crisis  South Vietnam Buddhists Change of government
1963 South Vietnamese coup State of Vietnam Army of the Republic of Vietnam rebels

 Republic of Vietnam Marine Division rebels  Republic of Vietnam Air Force rebels Republic of Vietnam Airborne Division rebels

Supported by:

 United States

Army of the Republic of Vietnam loyalists

Presidential Guard

Army of the Republic of Vietnam Special Forces

Defeat

Coup successful

  • Military Revolutionary Council takes power; political prisoners released
  • Ngô Đình Diệm and Nhu arrested and assassinated, Lê Quang Tung and Hồ Tấn Quyền summarily executed
  • Ngô Đình Cẩn arrested; tried and executed in May 1964
  • The Republic of Vietnam weakened and becomes increasingly dependent on the United States
Montagnard Rebellion  South Vietnam BAJARAKA

FULRO

Victory
January 1964 South Vietnamese coup  Army of the Republic of Vietnam rebels State of Vietnam Military Revolutionary Council of South Vietnam Defeat

Coup successful

  • Bloodless coup successful
September 1964 South Vietnamese coup attempt  Army of the Republic of Vietnam rebels  South Vietnam Victory
December 1964 South Vietnamese coup  Army of the Republic of Vietnam rebels State of Vietnam High National Council other civilian politicians Defeat

High National Council dissolved Nguyễn Khánh political victory

1965 South Vietnamese coup  Army of the Republic of Vietnam rebels  South Vietnam Victory

Original coup failed; Nguyễn Cao Kỳ and Nguyễn Chánh Thi then forced Nguyễn Khánh from power and into exile

Buddhist Uprising  South Vietnam  Army of the Republic of Vietnam rebels

Buddhists monks

Victory
Northeast Cay (1968)  South Vietnam  Philippines Defeat

Philippines capture Northeast Cay and Southwest Cay in Spratly Islands

Southwest Cay (1970)  South Vietnam  Philippines Victory

South Vietnam recapture Southwest Cay in Spratly Islands

Battle of the Paracel Islands  South Vietnam  China Defeat

China capture Paracel Islands

Socialist Republic of Vietnam

Conflict Vietnam
and allies
Opponents Result General Secretary
Insurgency in the Central Highlands

(1975–1992)

 Vietnam FULRO Victory
  • Insurgency quelled
Lê Duẩn (until 10 July 1986)

Trường Chinh (until 18 December 1986)

Nguyễn Văn Linh (until 28 June 1991)

Đỗ Mười

Insurgency in Laos

(1975–2007)

 Vietnam
 Laos
Laos Hmong insurgents Victory
  • Insurgency quelled
Lê Duẩn (until 10 July 1986)

Trường Chinh (until 18 December 1986)

Nguyễn Văn Linh (until 28 June 1991)

Đỗ Mười

Cambodian–Vietnamese War

(1977–1989)[d]

 Democratic Kampuchea (1979–1982)
Post-invasion:
 CGDK/NGC (1982–1990)

 Thailand (border clashes)
Supported by:
 China
 Thailand[15]
 Malaysia[16]
 Singapore[16]
 United Kingdom[17][18]
 United States[19][20]
 Romania[21][22][23]

 Vietnam
People's Republic of Kampuchea FUNSK
Post-invasion:
1979–1989:
 Vietnam
 People's Republic of Kampuchea
1989–1991:
 State of Cambodia
Supported by:
 Soviet Union
 Cuba
 Poland[24]
 Czechoslovakia[25]
 East Germany[26]
Victory Lê Duẩn (until 10 July 1986)

Trường Chinh (until 18 December 1986)

Nguyễn Văn Linh (until 28 June 1991)

Đỗ Mười

Sino-Vietnamese War

(1979)

 Vietnam  China Victory
  • Chinese withdrawal from Vietnam
  • China failed to deter Vietnam from involvement in Cambodia
Lê Duẩn
Sino-Vietnamese conflicts 1979–91

(1979–1991)

 Vietnam  China Stalemate
  • Normalization of bilateral relations
Lê Duẩn (until 10 July 1986)

Trường Chinh (until 18 December 1986)

Nguyễn Văn Linh (until 28 June 1991)

Đỗ Mười

Thai–Laotian Border War

(1987–1988)

 Vietnam
 Laos
 Thailand Victory
  • Peace talks in Bangkok
Nguyễn Văn Linh

Summary

Following is a list of premodern conflicts that occurred in the modern geographic territory of Vietnam regardless of ethnic or narrative-related gnome.

Ancient Vietnam

Medieval Vietnam (500–1527)

Early Modern (1527–1887)

Notes

  1. ^ Official start date at December 19, 1946, when France captured Hanoi. However, the conflict started already in September 1945, when British troops took Saigon during Operation Masterdom. The Haiphong conflict, lasting from March 3, 1946 until 1947, also lead to tensions between France and China.
  2. ^ Start date remains disputed, but North Vietnam did not intervene before 1959. Includes the Laotian Civil War, the North Vietnamese invasion of Laos and the Cambodian Civil War. First battle between the South Vietnamese army and FNL occurred at September 26, 1959; Origins of the Insurgency in South Vietnam, 1954–1960 The Pentagon Papers (Gravel Edition), Volume 1, Chapter 5, (Boston: Beacon Press, 1971), Section 3, pp. 314–346; International Relations Department, Mount Holyoke College.
  3. ^ Official start date at December 19, 1946, when France captured Hanoi. However, the conflict started already in September 1945, when British troops took Saigon during Operation Masterdom. The Haiphong conflict, lasting from March 3, 1946 until 1947, also lead to tensions between France and China.
  4. ^ See also: Vietnamese border raids in Thailand.

Citations

  1. ^ Kohn, p. 524.
  2. ^ Dupuy, p. 483.
  3. ^ Kohn, p. 522.
  4. ^ Stuart-Fox, pp. 65-67.
  5. ^ Kohn, p. 445.
  6. ^ Kohn, p. 447.
  7. ^ Dupuy, p. 768.
  8. ^ a b c Kohn, p. 523.
  9. ^ Chen
  10. ^ Elleman, p. 297.
  11. ^ a b c d "Viện trợ của Trung Quốc đối với cuộc kháng chiến chống Pháp của Việt Nam - Quân đội nhân dân" [China's aid to Vietnam's anti-French resistance war - People's Army.]. 2013-12-02. Archived from the original on 2013-12-02. Retrieved 2021-10-27 – via web.archive.org.
  12. ^ a b http://geb.uni-giessen.de/geb/volltexte/2013/9311/pdf/DaoDucThuan_2013_02_05.pdf [bare URL PDF]
  13. ^ a b "John Foster Dulles on the fall of Dien Bien Phu - Vidéo Dailymotion". Dailymotion. 2007-05-17. Retrieved 2021-10-27.
  14. ^ a b LOGEVALL, FREDRIK (1993). "The Swedish-American Conflict over Vietnam". Diplomatic History. 17 (3): 421–445. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7709.1993.tb00589.x. ISSN 0145-2096. JSTOR 24912244.
  15. ^ "Opinion | Thailand Bears Guilt for Khmer Rouge". The New York Times. March 24, 1993.
  16. ^ a b Richardson, Michael. "Singaporean Tells of Khmer Rouge Aid". International Herald Tribune. Archived from the original on 2018-06-12. Retrieved 29 June 2018.
  17. ^ "How Thatcher gave Pol Pot a hand". New Statesman. Archived from the original on 2018-06-12. Retrieved 29 June 2018.
  18. ^ "Butcher of Cambodia set to expose Thatcher's role". The Guardian. 9 January 2000. Archived from the original on 2018-06-12. Retrieved 29 June 2018.
  19. ^ Allegations of United States support for the Khmer Rouge
  20. ^ "Reagan Vows to Support Sihanouk's Forces". The New York Times. 12 October 1988. Retrieved 8 June 2020.
  21. ^ Michael Shafir (1985). Romania: Politics, Economics and Society : Political Stagnation and Simulated Change. Pinter. p. 187. ISBN 9780861874385.
  22. ^ Desaix Anderson (2002). An American in Hanoi: America's Reconciliation with Vietnam. Eastbridge. p. 104. ISBN 9781891936036.
  23. ^ Gerald Frost (1991). Europe in Turmoil: The Struggle for Pluralism. Praeger. p. 306. ISBN 9780275941291.
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References