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Turkoman (ethnonym)

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Turkomans
تركمنلر Türkmenler
Turkoman tower near Yerevan, Armenia
Regions with significant populations
Central Asia, South Caucasus, Middle East
Languages
Oghuz Turkic
(Azerbaijani · Turkmen · Turkish)
Religion
Predominantly Islam
(Sunni · Alevi · Bektashi · Twelver Shia)
Related ethnic groups
Other Turkic people

Turkoman (Middle Turkic: تُركْمانْ, Ottoman Turkish: تركمن, romanized: Türkmen and Türkmân; Azerbaijani: Türkman and Türkmən, Turkish: Türkmen, Turkmen: Türkmen, Persian: ترکمن sing. Turkamān, pl. Tarākimah), also called Turcoman and Turkman, is a term that was widely used during the Middle Ages for the people of Oghuz Turkic origin. Oghuz Turks were a western Turkic people that, in the 8th century A.D, formed a tribal confederation in an area between the Aral and Caspian seas in Central Asia, and spoke the Oghuz branch of the Turkic language family.

Turkmen, originally an exonym, dates from the High Middle Ages, along with the ancient and familiar name "Turk" (türk), and tribal names such as "Bayat", "Bayandur", "Afshar", "Kayi", and others. By the 10th century, Islamic sources were calling Oghuz Turks as Muslim Turkmens, as opposed to Shamanist or Buddhist Turks. It entered into the usage of the Western world through the Byzantines in the 12th century, since by that time Oghuz Turks were overwhelmingly Muslim. Later, the term "Oghuz" was gradually supplanted by "Turkmen" among Oghuz Turks themselves, thus turning an exonym into an endonym, a process which was completed by the beginning of the 13th century.

In Anatolia, since the Late Middle Ages, "Turkmen" was superseded by the term "Ottoman", which came from the name of the Ottoman Empire and its ruling dynasty. It remains as an endonym of semi-nomadic tribes of the Terekeme, a sub-ethnic group of the Azerbaijani people.

Today, a significant percentage of residents of Azerbaijan, Gagauzia, Turkey, and Turkmenistan are descendants of Oghuz Turks (Turkmens), and the languages they speak belong to the Oghuz group of the Turkic language family. As of the early 21st century, this ethnonym is still used by the Turkmens of Central Asia,[1] the main population of Turkmenistan, who have sizeable groups in Iran, Afghanistan and Russia, as well as Iraqi and Syrian Turkmens, the other descendants of Oghuz Turks.

Etymology and history

Turkomania of the Ottoman Empire, as shown on the German map

The current majority view for the etymology of the ethnonym Türkmen or Turcoman is that it comes from Türk and the Turkic emphasizing suffix -men, meaning "'most Turkish of the Turks' or 'pure-blooded Turks.'"[2] A folk etymology, dating back to the Middle Ages and found in al-Biruni and Mahmud al-Kashgari, instead derives the suffix -men from the Persian suffix -mānind, with the resulting word meaning "like a Turk". While formerly the dominant etymology in modern scholarship, this mixed Turkic-Persian derivation is now viewed as incorrect.[3]

The first-known mention of the term "Turkmen", "Turkman" or "Turkoman" occurs near the end of the 10th century A.D in Islamic literature by the Arab geographer al-Muqaddasi in Ahsan Al-Taqasim Fi Ma'rifat Al-Aqalim. In his work, which was completed in 987 A.D, al-Muqaddasi writes about Turkmens twice while depicting the region as the frontier of the Muslim possessions in Central Asia.[4] According to medieval Islamic authors Al-Biruni and al-Marwazi, the term Turkmen referred to the Oghuz who converted to Islam.[5] There is evidence, however, that non-Oghuz Turks such as Karluks also have been called Turkomans and Turkmens.[6] Later during the Middle Ages, the term was extensively employed for Oghuz Turks, a western Turkic people, who established a large tribal confederation called Oghuz Yabgu in the 8th century A.D. This polity, whose inhabitants spoke Oghuz Turkic, occupied an area between the Aral and Caspian seas in Central Asia.[7][8][9][10]

Originally an exonym, the term "Turkmen" was used along with the ancient and familiar name "Turk" (türk), and tribal names such as "Bayat", "Bayandur", "Afshar", "Kayi", and others. By the 10th century, Islamic sources were referring to Oghuz Turks as Muslim Turkmens, to distinguish them from Shamanist or Buddhist Turks.[5]

11th century was the era of the Seljuq conquests in Central Asia and the Middle East.[11] Muslim Oghuz people, generally identified as Turkmens by then,[12] rallied around the Qinik tribe that made up the core of the future Seljuq tribal union and the state they would create in the 11th century.[13] These Seljuk Turkmens moved from their homeland in Transoxiana through the Qara Qum desert to the edges of Ghaznavid Khorasan in the 1020s. Later, large groups of Turkmens moved with their flocks and herds westward to Ray and Jebal, and as far west as Azerbaijan by 1030. Punitive Ghaznavid counter-attacks pushed some of these Turkmens back, but other bands were already plundering towns across the whole of northern Khorasan, severely impeding caravan traffic and commercial life, as well as destroying the oases by the pasturing of their sheep and horses. The decisive Seljuk victory over the Ghaznavid army at Dandanaqan in 1040 enabled the Seljuq dynasty to establish their own polity in Iran and beyond.[14]

Medieval Qara Qoyunlu Turkmen helmet

Since the Seljuk era, the sultans of the dynasty created military settlements in parts of the Near and Middle East to strengthen their power; large Turkmen settlements were created in Syria, Iraq, and Eastern Anatolia. After the Battle of Manzikert, the Oghuz extensively settled throughout Anatolia and Azerbaijan. In the 11th century, Turkmens densely populated Arran.[15] The 12th-century Persian writer al-Marwazi wrote:[16]

Turkomans settled in Islamic countries and showed great character. So much so that they rule most of these lands, becoming kings and sultans .... Those who live in deserts and steppes and lead a nomadic lifestyle in summer and winter, they are the strongest of people and the most persistent in battle and war.

It was during those years that "Turkoman" entered into the usage of the Western world through the Byzantines in the 12th century, since by that time Oghuz Turks were largely Muslim.[17] Later, the term "Oghuz" was successively superseded by the term "Turkmen" among Oghuz Turks themselves, thus becoming an endonym. This process was completed by the beginning of the 13th century.[18]

Towards the High Middle Ages, the eastern part of Anatolia became known as "Turkomania" in European texts and as "Turkmeneli" in Ottoman sources.[19][20] The center of the Turkmen settlement in the territory of modern-day Iraq became Kirkuk.[21][22][23][24] The Turkmens also included the Ive and Bayandur tribes, from which the ruling clans of the states of Qara Qoyunlu and Aq Qoyunlu emerged. After the fall of Aq Qoyunlu, the Turkmen tribes—partly under their own name, for example Afshars, Hajilu, Pornak, Deger, and Mavsellu—united in a Turkmen Qizilbash tribal confederation.[25]

Modern use

Turkmens in national costumes, Turkmenistan

In Anatolia in the late Middle Ages, the term "Turkmen" was gradually supplanted by the term "Ottomans". The Ottoman ruling class identified themselves as Ottomans until the 19th century.[26] In the late 19th century, as the Ottomans adopted European ideas of nationalism, they preferred to return to a more common term Turk instead of Turkmen, whereas previously Turk was used to exclusively refer to Anatolian peasants.[27]

The use of "Turkmen" as an ethnonym for the Turks living in Iranian Azerbaijan disappeared from common use after the 17th and 18th centuries. It continued to be used interchangeably with other ethnohistorical terms for the Turkic people of the area, including Turk, Tatar and Ajam, well into the early 20th century.[28][29][30][31] In the early 21st century, "Turkmen" remains as the self-name for the semi-nomadic tribes of the Terekime, a sub-ethnic group of the Azerbaijani people.[32]

Yörük girls of Balikesir in traditional dress

In the early 21st century, the ethnonyms "Turkoman" and "Turkmen" are still used by the Turkmens of Turkmenistan,[33] who have sizeable groups in Iran,[34][35] Afghanistan,[36] Russia,[37] Uzbekistan,[38] Tajikistan[39] and Pakistan,[40] as well as Iraqi and Syrian Turkmens, descendants of the Oghuz Turks who mostly adhere to an Anatolian Turkish heritage and identity.[41] Most Iraqi and Syrian Turkmens are descendants of Ottoman soldiers, traders, and civil servants who were taken into Iraq from Anatolia during the rule of the Ottoman Empire.[42] Turks of Israel[43] and Lebanon,[44] Turkish sub-ethnic groups of Yoruks[45][46] and Karapapaks (sub-ethnic group of Azerbaijanis)[47] are also referred to as Turkmens.[48][49]

"Turkoman", "Turkmen", "Turkman" and "Torkaman" were – and continue to be – used interchangeably.[50][51]

Culture

A waxwork illustrating a Seljuq man and woman in traditional costumes, Yakutiye Madrasah, Erzurum, Turkey.

Medieval Turkmen culture was mostly a continuation of Oghuz culture, where nomadic elements played a vital role. After adoption of Islam, Turkmens had to change a number of their traditional customs, such as stopping drinking wine, which was a common pastime in Oghuz culture. However, with Islam, polygyny entered Turkmen way of life, whereas previously the Oghuz were predominantly monogamous with Oghuz women playing an active role in family matters.[52]

By the time Turkmens settled in Asia Minor, their commitment to Islam replaced any national consciousness and changed their traditional values. Islam played a prominent role in the identity and cultural life of Turkmens. Besides, Oghuz Turks came to be known as Turkmens after they had overwhelmingly converted to Islam during the Samanid era in Central Asia. When Turkmens first entered the Iranian world from the steppes of upper Asia, they still held animist, totemist, shamanist and Zoroastrian beliefs, although a great majority of them were Muslims. These Turkmens preserved their own beliefs and rituals while accepting those of the new religion, Islam.[53]

The Green Mosque built during the Seljuq era (present-day Iznik, Turkey

By the 10th century A.D, Turkmens were predominantly Muslim, bound by a single religion and purpose. They later found themselves divided into Sunni and Shia branches of Islam.[54] However, they still managed to preserve elements of their nomadic culture even during the peak years of their sedentary states. Steppe influences were also apparent in Turkmen marriages. Tughril, a sultan of the Great Seljuq Empire, in accordance with an old Oghuz custom, married his late brother Chaghri's widow, a practice despised in Islam.[55]

Medieval Turkmens markedly contributed to the expansion of Islam with their extensive conquests of previously Christian lands, specifically those of Byzantine Anatolia and the Caucasus.[53]

Language

Main articles: Oghuz languages, Old Anatolian Turkish, and Ottoman Turkish
Territories where Oghuz languages are spoken today

Turkmens primarily spoke languages that belong or belonged to the Oghuz branch of Turkic languages, which included such languages and dialects as Seljuq, Old Anatolian Turkish, and old Ottoman Turkish.[56] The Book of Dede Korkut, a collection of epic stories of the Oghuz Turks, is a good example of the Turkic language spoken by the Medieval Turkmens. It is of a mixed character and depicts vivid characteristics of the period of transition from later Old Oghuz Turkic to early Modern Turkic of Iranian Azerbaijan. There are also orthographical, lexical and grammatical structures found in Eastern Turkic that was spoken by the Oghuz Turks initially inhabiting parts of Central Asia.[57]

The first known linguistic material labeled as Oghuz-Turkmen was provided by the medieval Turkic scholar Mahmud al-Kashgari in his 11th-century-work called "Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk" (Compendium of Turkic dialects). First, Kashgari attempted to present his own understanding of the term Turkmen: "Turkmen. They are Oghuz," "Oghuz. A tribe of the Turks; the Turkmen." The author also cited phonetic, lexical and grammatical features of the language of Oghuz-Turkmens, providing them under the term "Oghuz", "Oghuz-Turkmen", "Turkmen-Oghuz" or simply "Turkmen" interchangeably.[58] Kashgari also identified several dialects in the Oghuz-Turkmen language and presented a couple of examples displaying certain dialect differences.[59]

Old Anatolian language, introduced to Anatolia by Seljuk Turkmens[60][61] who migrated westward from Central Asia to Khorasan and further to Anatolia during the Seljuk expansion in the 11th century, was widely spoken by Turkmens of the area until the 15th century.[62] It is also one of the known ancient languages within the Oghuz group of Turkic languages, along with old Ottoman.[63] It displays certain characteristics peculiar to eastern Oghuz languages such as modern Turkmen and Khorasani Turkic languages,[64][65] rather than western Oghuz languages such as Turkish or Azerbaijani. Such Old Anatolian Turkic features as bol- "to be(come)", also present in modern Turkmen[66] and Khorasani Turkic,[67] is ol in modern Turkish.[68]

Literature

The cover of the Gonbad manuscript of "the Book of Dede Korkut"
Main articles: Azerbaijani literature, Turkish literature, and Turkmen literature

Famous Book of Dede Korkut is considered an Oghuz masterpiece.[69][70] Other prominent works of literature produced during the High Middle Ages also include the Oghuzname, Battalname, Danishmendname, Köroğlu epics, which are part of the literary history of Azerbaijanis, Turks of Turkey, and Turkmens.[71]

The Book of Dede Korkut is a collection of epics and stories bearing witness to the language, the way of life, religions, traditions and social norms of the Oghuz Turks.[72] Other notable literary works of the era include Târîh-i Âli Selçûk (History of the House of Seljuq) by Yazıcıoğlu Ali, Şikâyetnâme (Persian: شکايت نامه; "Complaint") by Fuzûlî, Dâstân-ı Leylî vü Mecnûn by Fuzûlî, Risâletü'n-Nushiyye by Yunus Emre, Mârifetnâme (Persian: معرفت‌نامه; "Book of Gnosis") by İbrahim Hakkı Erzurumi.[73]

List of notable Turkmen (Oghuz) dynasties

References

  1. ^ Qadirov, Sh; Abubakirova-Glazunova, N. "Turkmens". Big Russian Encyclopedia (in Russian).
  2. ^ Clark, Larry (1996). Turkmen Reference Grammar. Harrassowitz. p. 4. ISBN 9783447040198., Annanepesov, M. (1999). "The Turkmens". In Dani, Ahmad Hasan (ed.). History of civilizations of Central Asia. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 127. ISBN 9789231038761., Golden, Peter (1992). An introduction to the history of the Turkic peoples : ethnogenesis and state-formation in the medieval and early modern Eurasia and the Middle East. Harrassowitz. pp. 213–214..
  3. ^ Clark, Larry (1996). Turkmen Reference Grammar. Harrassowitz. pp. 4–5. ISBN 9783447040198.,Annanepesov, M. (1999). "The Turkmens". In Dani, Ahmad Hasan (ed.). History of civilizations of Central Asia. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 127. ISBN 9789231038761.,Golden, Peter (1992). An introduction to the history of the Turkic peoples : ethnogenesis and state-formation in the medieval and early modern Eurasia and the Middle East. Harrassowitz. pp. 213–214..
  4. ^ Al-Marwazī, Sharaf Al-Zämān Tāhir Marvazī on China, the Turks and India, Arabic text (circa A.D. 1120) (English translation and commentary by V. Minorsky) (London: The Royal Asiatic Society, 1942), p. 94
  5. ^ a b Abu al-Ghazi Bahadur, «Genealogy of the Turkmens» Commentary 132: Then the name "Turkmen" was assigned to one of the most powerful tribal associations - to the Oghuz people.
  6. ^ Clark, Larry (1998). Turkmen Reference Grammar. Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 14. ISBN 3-447-04019-X. One of those dialects appears to have been spoken by the Karluk Turkmen, who were identified by Kashgari as "A tribe of the Turks. They are nomads, not Oghuz, but they are also Turkmen."
  7. ^ Karamustafa, A. (2020). "Who were the Türkmen of Ottoman and Safavid lands? An overlooked early modern identity". Der Islam. 97 (2): 477. doi:10.1515/islam-2020-0030. S2CID 222317436.
  8. ^ Barthold, V.V (1966). Sochineniya (in Russian). Moscow: Nauka. p. 558. Whatever the former significance of the Oghuz people in the Eastern Asia, after the events of the 8th and 9th centuries, it focuses more and more on the West, on the border of the Pre-Asian cultural world, which was destined to be invaded by the Oghuz people in the 11th century, or, as they were called only in the west, by the Turkmen.
  9. ^ Yeremeyev, Dmitriy (1971). "Ethnogenesis of the Turks". Google Books (in Russian). Moscow: Nauka. At the end of the XI century, the Byzantine Chronicles mention for the first time Turkmens, who penetrated into Asia Minor. Anna Komnina calls them Turkomans.)
  10. ^ Doerfer, Gerhard (1987). "Turks in Iran (Turkish translation)": 431. It is very strange that the word "Turkmen" still leads to confusion; in Leningrad, I saw that Iraqi Oghuz literature was cataloged under the name "Turkmen"; in fact, the word Turkman simply means an Oghuz nomad. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  11. ^ Zeidan, Ada. "Seljuq". Encyclopedia Britannica.
  12. ^ "Gozz". Encyclopedia Iranica.
  13. ^ Golden, Peter (1996). Ronald Suny (ed.). The Turkic peoples and Caucasia, Transcaucasia, Nationalism and Social Change: Essays in the History of Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia. Michigan. pp. 45–67.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
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  15. ^ Golden 1996, pp. 45–67.
  16. ^ Hillenbrand, Carole (2007). Turkish Myth and Muslim Symbol. Edinburgh University Press. p. 148. ISBN 9780748625727.
  17. ^ Zachariadou, Elizabeth (1991). Alexander Kazhdan (ed.). "Turkomans". Oxford University Press. pp. 10–32.
  18. ^ Lewis, Geoffrey (1974). The Book of Dede Korkut. Penguin Books. p. 10.
  19. ^ Anderson, Liam; Stansfield, Gareth (2011). Crisis in Kirkuk: The Ethnopolitics of Conflict and Compromise. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 56–58.
  20. ^ Arel, Ayda (1982). Historical problems in the Ottoman housing tradition (in Turkish). Aegean university. p. 10.
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  22. ^ Oguzlu, Tarik (2004). "Endangered community:The Turkoman identity in Iraq". Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs. 24 (2). Routledge: 313. doi:10.1080/1360200042000296681. hdl:11693/49129. S2CID 56385519.
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  24. ^ Osman, Khalil (2015), Sectarianism in Iraq: The Making of State and Nation Since 1920, Routledge, p. 243, ISBN 978-1317674870
  25. ^ Encyclopaedia Iranika «AQ QOYUNLŪ»: "The surviving Āq Qoyunlū tribes and groups were absorbed, in some cases years later, into the Qizilbāš tribes; in this process, the Afšār retained their tribal identity while others, such as the Ḥāǰǰīlū, Döḡer, Mawṣellū, and Pornāk, were merged into a new tribe called Turkman".
  26. ^ Kushner, David S.. "Self-Perception and Identity in Contemporary Turkey." Journal of Contemporary History 32 (1997): p. 219
  27. ^ Kushner, David S.. "Self-Perception and Identity in Contemporary Turkey." Journal of Contemporary History 32 (1997): pp. 2020-221
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  31. ^ Yilmaz, Harun (2013). "The Soviet Union and the Construction of Azerbaijani National Identity in the 1930s". Iranian Studies. 46 (4): 513. doi:10.1080/00210862.2013.784521. S2CID 144322861. The official records of the Russian Empire and various published sources from the pre-1917 period also called them "Tatar" or "Caucasian Tatars," "Azerbaijani Tatars" and even "Persian Tatars" in order to differentiate them from the other "Tatars" of the empire and the Persian speakers of Iran.
  32. ^ Hajiyeva, Sakinat (1990). Terekemes of Daghestan (in Russian). Nauka (Science). pp. 3–7. ISBN 5-02-016761-4.
  33. ^ https://bigenc.ru/ethnology/text/4211260 "Big Russian Encyclopedia"
  34. ^ "Ethnologue". Retrieved 8 August 2018.
  35. ^ CIA World Factbook Iran
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  37. ^ 2002 Russian census
  38. ^ Alisher Ilhamov (2002). Ethnic Atlas of Uzbekistan. Open Society Institute: Tashkent.
  39. ^ 2002 Tajikistani census (2010)
  40. ^ "Afghans in Quetta: Settlements, Livelihoods, Support Net works and Cross-Border Linkages". Archived from the original on 2012-10-16. Retrieved 2020-09-15.
  41. ^ Triana, María (2017), Managing Diversity in Organizations: A Global Perspective, Taylor & Francis, p. 168, ISBN 978-1-317-42368-3, Turkmen, Iraqi citizens of Turkish origin, are the third largest ethnic group in Iraq after Arabs and Kurds and they are said to number about 3 million of Iraq's 34.7 million citizens according to the Iraqi Ministry of Planning.
  42. ^ International Crisis Group (2008), Turkey and the Iraqi Kurds: Conflict or Cooperation?, Middle East Report N°81, 13 November 2008: International Crisis Group, archived from the original on 12 January 2011, "Turkomans are descendents of Ottoman Empire-era soldiers, traders and civil servants... The 1957 census, Iraq’s last reliable count before the overthrow of the monarchy in 1958, put the country’s population at 6,300,000 and the Turkoman population at 567,000, about 9 per cent...Subsequent censuses, in 1967, 1977, 1987 and 1997, are all considered highly problematic, due to suspicions of regime manipulation".
  43. ^ Suwaed, Muhammad (2015), "Turkmen, Israeli", Historical Dictionary of the Bedouins, Rowman & Littlefield, p. 237, ISBN 978-1442254510
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  45. ^ Solak, İbrahim. XVI. Yüzyılda Maraş ve Çevresinde Dulkadirli Türkmenleri.
  46. ^ Yusuf Durul: Flat-woven rugs made by "Yürüks". Ak Yayınları, 1977, page 60.
  47. ^ Article "Terekimes» Archived 2018-01-09 at the Wayback Machine: "The term 'Terekem' is usually associated with the ethnonym 'Turkmen' ".
  48. ^ İbrahim Aksu, "An Onomastic Study of Turkish Family Names, Their Origins, and Related Matters." 2005 , page 50.
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  50. ^ Barkey, Henri (2005). Turkey and Iraq: The Perils (and Prospects) of Proximity. Purdue University. p. 7.
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  53. ^ a b Zarcone, Thierry; Hobart, Angela, eds. (2013). Shamanism and Islam. I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd. pp. 98–101. ISBN 978-1-84885-602-8.
  54. ^ Ward, Steven (2014). Immortal, A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press. p. 44. ISBN 978-1-62616-032-3. Selim was a devout Sunni who hated the Shia as much as Ismail despised the Sunni. He saw the Shia Turkman of Anatolia as a potential "fifth column"...
  55. ^ Peacock, Andrew (2015b). The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. pp. 6–8.
  56. ^ Robbeets, Martine (2020). The Oxford Guide to the Transeurasian Languages. Oxford University Press. pp. 393–394.
  57. ^ Atsiz, Mahsun (2020). "A Syntactic Analysis on Gonbad Manuscript of the Book of Dede Korkut". Korkut Ata Studies in Turcology. Istanbul University: 189. Another linguistic stratum, though restricted, can be determined as the orthographical, lexical and grammatical structures peculiar to Eastern Turkish. These Eastern Turkish features along with dialectal features evidently related to Turkish dialects of İran and Azerbaijan, distinguish Gonbad manuscript from Dresden and Vatikan manuscipts.
  58. ^ Clark 1998, p. 13.
  59. ^ Clark 1998, p. 14.
  60. ^ Schiewer, Gesine Lenore (2022). Language and Emotion. Volume 1. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. p. 284.
  61. ^ Koprulu, Mehmed Fuad (2006). Early Mystics in Turkish Literature. Routledge. p. 207.
  62. ^ Turkic-Iranian Contact Areas: Historical and Linguistic Aspects. 2006. p. 5. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |authors= ignored (help)
  63. ^ Robbeets 2020, p. 393.
  64. ^ Clark 1998, p. 15.
  65. ^ Brown, Keith (2010). Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. p. 1117. ISBN 0-080-87775-3.
  66. ^ Clark 1998, p. 513.
  67. ^ Ziyayeva, Zemine (2006). "Khorasan languages". Journal of Caucasian University. 18. Baku: 91–97.
  68. ^ Backus, Ad (2014). Colloquial Turkish. Routledge. p. 266.
  69. ^ Weber, Harry B. (1978). The Modern Encyclopedia of Russian and Soviet Literature, Vol.2. University of Michigan. pp. 13–15.
  70. ^ "Intangible Heritage: Nine elements inscribed on Representative List". UNESCO. 28 November 2018. Retrieved 2018-11-29.
  71. ^ Istoriya Vostoka (History of the East), Vol.2 (in Russian). Vostochnaya Literatura. 2002. ISBN 5-02-017711-3.
  72. ^ The Book of Dede Korkut. Translated by Lewis, Geoffrey. London: Penguin. 1974. p. 7. ISBN 0140442987.
  73. ^ "Turkish Language and Literature". Turkish Cultural Foundation.

Further reading

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Turkoman_(ethnonym)&oldid=1128926920"