Javanese script

Not to be confused with Jawi script, Japanese script, or JavaScript.

Javanese Aksara Jawa Åksårå Jåwå ꦲꦏ꧀ꦱꦫꦗꦮ
Script type	Abugida
Time period	c. 15th–present
Direction	Left-to-right
Languages	Javanese, Sundanese, Madurese, Sasak, Indonesian, Kawi, Sanskrit
Related scripts
Parent systems	Egyptian Proto-Sinaitic Phoenician Aramaic Brahmi script Tamil Brahmi Pallava alphabet Kawi script Javanese
Sister systems	Balinese alphabet Batak alphabet Baybayin scripts Lontara alphabet Makasar Sundanese script Rencong alphabet Rejang alphabet
ISO 15924
ISO 15924	Java (361), ​Javanese
Unicode
Unicode alias	Javanese
Unicode range	U+A980–U+A9DF

The Javanese script (natively known as Aksara Jawa, Hanacaraka, Carakan, and Dentawyanjana) is one of Indonesia's traditional scripts developed on the island of Java. The script is primarily used to write the Javanese language, but in the course of its development has also been used to write several other regional languages such as Sundanese, Madurese, and Sasak; the lingua franca of the region, Malay; as well as the historical languages Kawi and Sanskrit. Javanese script was actively used by the Javanese people for writing day-to-day and literary texts from at least the mid-15th century CE until the mid-20th century CE, before its function was gradually supplanted by the Latin alphabet. Today the script is taught in DI Yogyakarta, Central Java, and the East Java Province as part of the local curriculum, but with very limited function in everyday use.

The Javanese script is an abugida writing system which consists of 20 to 33 basic letters, depending on the language being written. Like other Brahmic scripts, each letter (called an aksara) represents a syllable with the inherent vowel /a/ or /ɔ/ which can be changed with the placement of diacritics around the letter. Each letter has a conjunct form called pasangan, which nullifies the inherent vowel of the previous letter. Traditionally, the script is written without space between words (scriptio continua) but is interspersed with a group of decorative punctuation.

History

The Javanese script's evolutionary history can be traced fairly well due to the significant amount of inscriptional evidences left behind throughout allowed for epigraphical studies to be carried out. The oldest root of the Javanese script is the Tamil-Brahmi script which evolved into the Pallava script in Southern and Southeast Asia between the 6th and 8th centuries. Pallava script, in turn, evolved into the Kawi script which was actively used throughout Indonesia's Hindu-Buddhist period between the 8th and 15th centuries. In various parts of Indonesia, Kawi script would then evolve into Indonesia's various traditional scripts, one of them being Javanese script. The modern Javanese script seen today evolved from Kawi script between the 14th and 15th centuries, a period in which Java began to receive significant Islamic influence.

For around 500 years, from the 15th until the mid-20th century, Javanese script was actively used by the Javanese people for writing day-to-day and literary texts with a wide range of themes and content. Javanese script was used throughout the island at a time when there was no easy means of communication between remote areas and no impulse towards standardization. As a result, there is a huge variety in historical and local styles of Javanese writing throughout the ages. The ability of a person to read a bark-paper manuscript from the town of Demak written around 1700 is no guarantee that the same person would also be able to make sense of a palm-leaf manuscript written at the same time only 50 miles away on the slopes of Mount Merapi. The great differences between regional styles almost makes it seem that the "Javanese script" is in fact a family of scripts. Javanese writing traditions were especially cultivated in the Kraton environment in Javanese cultural centers, such as Yogyakarta and Surakarta. However, Javanese texts are known to be made and used by various layers of society with varying usage intensities between regions. In West Java, for example, Javanese script was mainly used by the Sundanese nobility (ménak) due to the political influence of the Mataram kingdom. However, most Sundanese people within the same time period more commonly used the Pegon script which was adapted from the Arabic alphabet. Javanese literature is almost always composed in metrical verses that are designed to be sung, thus Javanese texts are not only judged by their content and language but also by the merit of their melody and rhythm during recitation sessions. Javanese writing tradition also relied on periodic copying due to deterioration of writing materials in the tropical Javanese climate; as a result, many physical manuscripts that are available now are 18th or 19th century copies, though their contents can usually be traced to far older prototypes.

Media

Serat Yusuf in palm leaf (lontar) form, Tropenmuseum collection

Serat Yusuf in paper codex form, Museum Sonobudoyo collection

Javanese script has been written with numerous media that have shifted over time. Kawi script, which is ancestral to Javanese script, is often found on stone inscriptions and copper plates. Everyday writing in Kawi was done in palm leaf form locally known as lontar, which are processed leaves of the tal palm (Borassus flabellifer). Each lontar leaf has the shape of a slim rectangle 2.8 to 4 cm in width and varied length between 20 and 80 cm. Each leaf can only accommodate around 4 lines of writing, which are incised in horizontal orientation with a small knife and then blackened with soot to increase readability. This media has a long history of attested use all over South and Southeast Asia.

In the 13th century, paper began to be used in the Malay archipelago. This introduction is related to spread of Islam in the region, due to the Islamic writing tradition that is supported by the use of paper and codex manuscript. As Java began to receive significant Islamic influence in the 15th century, coinciding with the period in which the Kawi script began to transition into the modern Javanese script, paper became widespread in Java while the use of lontar only persisted in a few places. There are two kinds of paper that are commonly used in Javanese manuscript: locally produced paper called daluang, and imported paper. Daluang (also spelled dluwang) is a paper made from the beaten bark of the saéh tree (Broussonetia papyrifera). Visually, daluang can be easily differentiated from regular paper by its distinctive brown tint and fibrous appearance. A well made daluang has a smooth surface and is quite durable against manuscript damage commonly associated with tropical climates, especially insect damage. Meanwhile, a coarse daluang has a bumpy surface and tends to break easily. Daluang is commonly used in manuscripts produced by Javanese Kratons (palaces) and pesantren (Islamic boarding schools) between the 16th to 17th centuries.

Most imported paper in Indonesian manuscripts came from Europe. In the beginning, only a few scribes were able to use European paper due to its high cost—paper made with using European methods of the time could only be imported in limited number. In colonial administration, the use of European paper had to be supplemented with Javanese daluang and imported Chinese paper until at least the 19th century. As paper supply increased due to growing imports from Europe, scribes in palaces and urban settlements gradually opted to use European paper as the primary media for writing, while daluang paper was increasingly associated with pesantren and rural manuscripts. Alongside the increase of European paper supply, attempts to create Javanese printing type began, spearheaded by several European figures. With the establishment of printing technology in 1825, materials in Javanese script could be mass-produced and became increasingly common in various aspect of pre-independence Javanese life, from letters, books, and newspapers, to magazines, and even advertisements and paper currency.

Usage

Usage of the Javanese Script

Opening pages of Serat Jatipustaka copied in 1830, Denver Museum collection Opening page of Babad Tanah Jawi copied in 1862, Library of Congress collection A Javanese type sample from the Amsterdam type foundry, 1910 Cover of the Kajawèn magazine, issue 65, 16 August 1933 Kekancingan document issued by the Kraton of Yogyakarta in 1935, Dewantara Kirti Griya Museum collection Serat Babad Tuban published by Tan Khoen Swie in 1936

Details of Serat Selarasa manuscript copied in Surabaya, 1804. The two leftmost figures can be seen reciting a text.

For at least 500 years, from the 15th century until the mid 20th century, Javanese script was used by all layers of Javanese society for writing day-to-day and literary texts with a wide range of theme and content. Due to the significant influence of oral tradition, reading in pre-independence Javanese society is usually a performance; Javanese literature texts are almost always composed in metrical verses that are designed to be recited, thus Javanese texts are not only judged by their content and language, but also by the merit of their melody and rhythm during recitation sessions. Javanese poets are not expected to create new stories and characters; instead the role of the poet is to rewrite and recompose existing stories into forms that are suitable to local taste and prevailing trends. As a result, Javanese literary works such as the Cerita Panji do not have a single authoritative version referenced by all others, instead, the Cerita Panji is a loose collection of numerous tales with various versions bound together by the common thread of the Panji character. Literature genres with the longest attested history are Sanskrit epics such as the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, which have been recomposed since the Kawi period and which introduced hundreds of characters familiar in Javanese wayang stories today, including Arjuna, Srikandi, Ghatotkacha and many others. Since the introduction of Islam, characters of Middle-Eastern provenance such as Amir Hamzah and the Prophet Joseph have also been frequent subjects of writing. There are also local characters, usually set in Java's semi-legendary past, such as Prince Panji, Damar Wulan, and Calon Arang.

When studies of Javanese language and literature began to attract European attention in the 19th century, an initiative to create a Javanese movable type began to take place in order to mass-produce and quickly disseminate Javanese literary materials. One of the earliest attempts to create a movable Javanese type was by Paul van Vlissingen. His typeface was first put in use in the Bataviasche Courant newspaper's October 1825 issue. While lauded as a considerable technical achievement, many at the time felt that Vlissingen's design was a coarse copy of the fine Javanese hand used in literary texts, and so this early attempt was further developed by numerous other people to varying degrees of success as the study of Javanese developed over the years. In 1838, Taco Roorda completed his typeface, known as Tuladha Jejeg, that was based on the hand of Surakartan scribes with some European typographical elements mixed in. Roorda's font garnered positive feedback and soon became the main choice to print any Javanese text. From then, reading materials in printed Javanese using Roorda's typeface became widespread among the Javanese populace and were widely used in materials other than literature. The establishment of print technology enabled a printing industry which, for the next century, produced various materials in printed Javanese, from administrative papers and school books, to mass media such as the Kajawèn magazine which was entirely printed in Javanese in all of its article and columns. In the governmental context, one application of the Javanese script was the multilingual legal text on the Netherlands Indies gulden banknotes circulated by the Bank of Java.

Decline

As literacy and demand for reading materials increased in the beginning of the 20th century, Javanese publishers paradoxically began to decrease the amount of Javanese script publication due to a practical and economic consideration: printing any text in Javanese script at the time required twice the amount of paper compared to the same text rendered in the Latin alphabet, so that Javanese texts were more expensive and time-consuming to produce. In order to lower production costs and keep book prices affordable to the general populace, many publishers (such as the government-owned Balai Pustaka) gradually prioritized publication in the Latin alphabet. However, the Javanese population at the beginning of the 20th century maintained the use of Javanese script in various aspects of everyday life. It was, for example, considered more polite to write a letter using Javanese script, especially one addressed toward an elder or superior. Many publishers, including Balai Pustaka, continued to print books, newspapers, and magazines in Javanese script due to sufficient, albeit declining, demand. The use of Javanese script only started to drop significantly during the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies beginning in 1942. Some writers attribute this sudden decline to prohibitions issued by the Japanese government banning the use of native script in the public sphere, though no documentary evidence of such a ban has yet been found. Nevertheless, the use of Javanese script did decline significantly during the Japanese occupation and it never recovered its previous widespread use in post-independence Indonesia.

Contemporary use

In contemporary usage, Javanese script is still taught as part of the local curriculum in Yogyakarta, Central Java, and the East Java Province. Several local newspapers and magazines have columns written in Javanese script, and the script can frequently be seen on public signage. However, many contemporary attempts to revive Javanese script are symbolic rather than functional; there are no longer, for example, periodicals like Kajawèn magazine that publish significant content in Javanese script. Most Javanese people today know the existence of the script and recognize a few letters, but it is rare to find someone who can read and write it meaningfully. Therefore, as recently as 2019, it is not uncommon to see Javanese script signage in public places with numerous misspellings and basic mistakes. Several hurdles in revitalizing the use of Javanese script includes information technology equipment that does not support correct rendering of the Javanese script, lack of governing bodies with sufficient competence to consult on its usage, and lack of typographical explorations that may intrigue contemporary viewers. Nevertheless, attempts to revive the script are still being conducted by several communities and public figures who encouraged the use of Javanese script in the public sphere, especially with digital devices.

Letters

Javanese script contains around 45 letters, but not all of them are used equally. Over the course of its development, some letters became obsolete and some are only used in certain contexts. As such, it is common to divide the letters in several groups based on their function.

Consonants and basic syllables

A basic letter in the Javanese script is called an aksara which represents a syllable. The aksara wyanjana (ꦲꦏ꧀ꦱꦫ ꦮꦾꦚ꧀ꦗꦤ) are consonant letters with an inherent vowel, either /a/ or /ɔ/. As a Brahmi derived script, the Javanese script originally had 33 wyanjana letters to write the 33 consonants that are used in Sanskrit and Kawi.

Aksara wyanjana

	Unvoiced		Voiced		Semivowel	Sibilant	Fricative	Nasal
	Unaspirated	Aspirated	Unaspirated	Aspirated
Velar	ꦏ ka	ꦑ kha	ꦒ ga	ꦓ gha	ꦔ ṅa			ꦲ ha/a
Palatal	ꦕ ca	ꦖ cha	ꦗ ja	ꦙ jha	ꦚ ña	ꦪ ya	ꦯ śa
Retroflex	ꦛ ṭa	ꦜ ṭha	ꦝ ḍa	ꦞ ḍha	ꦟ ṇa	ꦫ ra	ꦰ ṣa
Dental	ꦠ ta	ꦡ tha	ꦢ da	ꦣ dha	ꦤ na	ꦭ la	ꦱ sa
Labial	ꦥ pa	ꦦ pha	ꦧ ba	ꦨ bha	ꦩ ma	ꦮ wa

The modern Javanese script only uses 20 consonants and 20 basic letters known as aksara nglegéna (ꦲꦏ꧀ꦱꦫ ꦔ꧀ꦭꦼꦒꦺꦤ). Modern Javanese script is commonly arranged in the hanacaraka sequence, a pangram whose name is derived from its first five letters, similar to the word "alphabet" which comes from the first two letters of the Greek alphabet, alpha, beta. This sequence has been used at least the 15th century, when the island of Java started to receive significant Islamic influence. There are numerous interpretations on the supposed philosophical and esoteric qualities of the hanacaraka sequence, and it is often linked to the myth of Aji Saka.

Hana cakara (modern sequence)

ꦲ ha	ꦤ na	ꦕ ca	ꦫ ra	ꦏ ka	Javanese: ꦲꦤꦕꦫꦏ, romanized: hana caraka, lit. 'There were (two) emissaries.'
ꦢ da	ꦠ ta	ꦱ sa	ꦮ wa	ꦭ la	Javanese: ꦢꦠꦱꦮꦭ, romanized: data sawala, lit. 'They began to fight.'
ꦥ pa	ꦣ dha	ꦗ ja	ꦪ ya	ꦚ ña	Javanese: ꦥꦝꦗꦪꦚ, romanized: padha jayanya, lit. 'Their valor was equal'
ꦩ ma	ꦒ ga	ꦧ ba	ꦡ tha	ꦔ ṅa	Javanese: ꦩꦒꦧꦛꦔ, romanized: maga bathanga, lit. 'They both fell dead.'

Vowels and vowel diacritics

Javanese script has 14 vowel letters (Javanese: ꦲꦏ꧀ꦱꦫ ꦱ꧀ꦮꦫ, romanized: aksara swara) inherited from Sanskrit.

Aksara swara

	Velar	Palatal	Labial	Retroflex	Dental	Velar-palatal	Velar-labial
Short	ꦄ a	ꦆ i	ꦈ u	ꦉ ṛ IPA: /rə/	ꦊ ḷ IPA: /lə/	ꦌ é IPA: /e/	ꦎ o
Long	ꦄꦴ ā	ꦇ ī	ꦈꦴ ū	ꦉꦴ ṝ	ꦋ ḹ	ꦍ ai IPA: /aj/	ꦎꦴ au IPA: /au/

Diacritics (sandhangan ꦱꦤ꧀ꦝꦔꦤ꧀) are dependent signs that are used to modify the inherent vowel of a letter. Similar to Javanese letters, Javanese diacritics may be divided into several groups based on their function.

Swara

Sandhangan swara (ꦱꦤ꧀ꦝꦁꦔꦤ꧀ꦱ꧀ꦮꦫ) are diacritics that are used to change the inherent /a/ into different vowels. Their forms are as follows:

Sandhangan Swara

Short						Long
-a	-i	-u	-é[1]	-o	-e[2]	-ā	-ī	-ū	-ai[3]	-au[4]	-eu[5][6]
-	ꦶ	ꦸ	ꦺ	ꦺꦴ	ꦼ	ꦴ	ꦷ	ꦹ	ꦻ	ꦻꦴ	ꦼꦴ
-	wulu	suku	taling	taling-tarung	pepet	tarung	wulu melik	suku mendut	dirga muré	dirga muré-tarung	pepet-tarung
ka	ki	ku	ké	ko	ke	kā	kī	kū	kai	kau	keu
ꦏ	ꦏꦶ	ꦏꦸ	ꦏꦺ	ꦏꦺꦴ	ꦏꦼ	ꦏꦴ	ꦏꦷ	ꦏꦹ	ꦏꦻ	ꦭꦻꦴ	ꦏꦼꦴ
Notes ^1 /e/ as e in the word "dress" ^2 /ə/ as a in the word "about" The following pronunciations are not used in modern Javanese: ^3 diphthong /aj/ ^4 diphthong /aw/ ^5 represents /ɨ/ in the Sundanese language ^6 romanized as ö in the Kawi language

Similar to swara letters, only short vowel diacritics are taught and used in contemporary Javanese, while long vowel diacritics are only used in Sanskrit and Kawi writing.

As with the wyanjana letters, the modern Javanese language does not use the whole inventory of vowels. Only short vowel letters are now commonly used and taught. In modern spelling, swara letters may be used to replace ⟨ꦲ⟩, which can be read as either /ha/ or /a/, and to disambiguate the pronunciation of unfamiliar terms and names.

Syllabic consonants

Pa cerek ⟨ꦉ⟩, pa cerek dirgha ⟨ꦉꦴ⟩, nga lelet ⟨ꦊ⟩, and nga lelet raswadi ⟨ꦋ⟩ are syllabic consonants that are primarily used in Sanskrit. When adapted to other languages, the function and pronunciation of these letters tend to vary. In modern Javanese language, pa cerek and nga lelet are mandatory shorthand for combination of ra + é ⟨ꦫ + ◌ ꦼ → ꦉ⟩ and la + é ⟨ꦭ + ◌ ꦼ → ꦊ⟩. Both letters are usually re-categorized into their own class called aksara gantèn in modern tables.

Murda and mahaprana

Some of the original letters that originally represented sounds not present in modern Javanese have been repurposed as honorific letters (Javanese: ꦲꦏ꧀ꦱꦫ ꦩꦸꦂꦢ, romanized: aksara murda) which are used for in writing the respected personal names of respected figures, be they legendary, such as ꦨꦶꦩ, Bima or real such as Javanese: ꦦꦑꦸꦨꦸꦮꦟ, romanized: Pakubuwana. Of the 20 basic letters, only nine have corresponding murda forms. Because of this, the use of murda is not identical to the capitalization of proper names. If the first syllable of a name does not have a murda form, the next syllable that does can be written as a murda. Highly respected names may be written completely in murda, or with as many murda as possible, but in essence, the use of murda is optional and may be inconsistent in traditional texts. For example, the name Gani can be spelled as ꦒꦤꦶ (without murda), ꦓꦤꦶ (with a murda on the first syllable), or ꦓꦟꦶ with every syllable as a murda.

Murda

ꦟ na

ꦖ ch

ꦬ ra

ꦑ ka

ꦡ ta

ꦯ sa

ꦦ pa

ꦘ nya

ꦓ gya

ꦨ ba

The remaining letters that are not classified as nglegéna or repurposed as murda are aksara mahaprana, letters that are used in Sanskrit and Kawi texts but obsolete in modern Javanese.

Mahaprana

ꦣ da

ꦰ sa

ꦞ dha

ꦙ ja

ꦜ tha

Rékan

The Javanese script includes a number of letters additional letters used to write sounds found in words found in words borrowed from foreign languages (Javanese: ꦲꦏ꧀ꦱꦫ ꦫꦺꦏꦤ꧀, romanized: aksara rékan. This type of letters were initially developed to write Arabic loanwords, later adapted to write Dutch loanwords, and in contemporary usage are also used to write Indonesian and English loanwords. Most rékan letters are formed by adding the cecak telu diacritic to the letters that are considered closest-sounding to the foreign sound in question. For example, ⟨ꦥ꦳⟩ (fa) is formed by adding a cecak telu diacritic ⟨◌꦳⟩ to ⟨ꦥ⟩ (pa). The combination of wyanjana letter and corresponding foreign sounds for each rékan may be different between sources.

Some aksara rékan

Javanese	ḥa ꦲ꦳	kha ꦏ꦳	qa ꦐ	dza ꦢ꦳	sya ꦱ꦳	fa/va ꦥ꦳	za ꦗ꦳	gha ꦒ꦳	ʾa ꦔ꦳
Arabic	ح	خ	ق	ذ	ش	ف	ز	غ	ع

Closed syllables

Closed syllables are written by adding diacritics (Javanese: ꦱꦤ꧀ꦝꦁꦔꦤ꧀ꦥꦚꦶꦒꦼꦒꦶꦁ ꦮꦤ꧀ꦢ, romanized: sandhangan panyigeging wanda).

Panyigeging vanda

panyangga ꦀ nasal	cecek ꦁ -ng	layar ꦂ -r	wignyan ꦃ -h	pangkon ꧀ virama
ꦏꦀ kam	ꦏꦁ kang	ꦏꦂa kar	ꦏꦃ kah	ꦏ꧀ k

Semivowels and their diacritics

Consonant clusters containing a semivowel are written by adding a diacritic (Javanese: ꦱꦤ꧀ꦝꦁꦔꦤ꧀ꦮꦾꦚ꧀ꦗꦤ, romanized: sandhangan wyanjana) to the base syllable.

Sandhangan wyanjana

keret ꦽ -re-	pèngkal ꦾ -y-	cakra ꦿ -r-	panjingan la ꧀ꦭ -l-	gembung ꧀ꦮ -w-
ꦏꦽ kre	ꦏꦾ kya	ꦏꦿ kra	ꦏ꧀ꦭ kla	ꦏ꧀ꦮ kwa

Conjunct

The inherent vowel of each basic letter can be suppressed with the use of the virama, natively known as pangkon. However, the pangkon is not normally used in the middle of a word or sentence. For closed syllables in such positions, a conjunct form called pasangan (ꦥꦱꦔꦤ꧀) is used instead. Every basic letter has a pasangan counterpart, and if a pasangan is attached to a basic letter, the inherent vowel of the attached letter is nullified. Their forms are as follows:

Aksara and Pasangan

		ha/a	na	ca	ra	ka	da	ta	sa	wa	la	pa	dha	ja	ya	nya	ma	ga	ba	tha	nga
Nglegena	Aksara	ꦲ	ꦤ	ꦕ	ꦫ	ꦏ	ꦢ	ꦠ	ꦱ	ꦮ	ꦭ	ꦥ	ꦝ	ꦗ	ꦪ	ꦚ	ꦩ	ꦒ	ꦧ	ꦛ	ꦔ
	Pasangan	꧀ꦲ	꧀ꦤ	꧀ꦕ	꧀ꦫ	꧀ꦏ	꧀ꦢ	꧀ꦠ	꧀ꦱ	꧀ꦮ	꧀ꦭ	꧀ꦥ	꧀ꦝ	꧀ꦗ	꧀ꦪ	꧀ꦚ	꧀ꦩ	꧀ꦒ	꧀ꦧ	꧀ꦛ	꧀ꦔ
Murda	Aksara		ꦟ	ꦖ	ꦬ	ꦑ		ꦡ	ꦯ			ꦦ				ꦘ		ꦓ	ꦨ
	Pasangan		꧀ꦟ	꧀ꦖ1	꧀ꦬ	꧀ꦑ		꧀ꦡ	꧀ꦯ			꧀ꦦ				꧀ꦘ		꧀ꦓ	꧀ꦨ
Mahaprana	Aksara						ꦣ		ꦰ				ꦞ	ꦙ						ꦜ
	Pasangan						꧀ꦣ		꧀ꦰ				꧀ꦞ	꧀ꦙ						꧀ꦜ
Notes ^1 often used as part of pepadan punctuation with no phonemic function ^2 the conjunct forms in this table are used for writing modern Javanese. Some letters have different conjunct forms when used for writing Sanskrit and Kawi

Examples of pasangan use, using characters from the Unicode Standard for Javanese script (which is used in this article), are as follows:

component										result	remark
	+		+		+		+		=		a + (ka + (pangkon + sa)) + ra → a + (ka + (pasangan sa)) + ra = a(ksa)ra
	+		+		+		+		=		ka + (na + (pangkon + tha) + -i) → ka + (na + (pasangan tha) + -i) = ka(nthi)

Note that the pasangan of a letter can be produced by typing the pangkon followed by the letter in its aksara/basic form. This appeals to the idea that a pangkon mutes the vowel of previous letter, and that adding a pasangan is phonetically equivalent to first muting the vowel of the previous letter and then adding a new letter.

Numerals

The Javanese script has its own numerals (angka ꦲꦁꦏ) that behave similarly to Arabic numerals. However, most Javanese numerals has the exact same glyph as several basic letters, for example the numeral 1 ꧑ and wyanjana letter ga ꦒ, or the numeral 8 ꧘ and murda letter pa ꦦ. To avoid confusion, numerals that are used in the middle of sentences must be enclosed within pada pangkat or pada lingsa punctuations. For example, tanggal 17 Juni (the date 17 June) is written ꦠꦁꦒꦭ꧀꧇꧑꧗꧇ꦗꦸꦤꦶ or ꦠꦁꦒꦭ꧀꧈꧑꧗꧈ꦗꦸꦤꦶ. Enclosing punctuation may be ignored if their use as numerals is understood by context, for example as page numbers in the corner of pages. Their forms are as follows:

Angka

0 ꧐

1 ꧑

2 ꧒

3 ꧓

4 ꧔

5 ꧕

6 ꧖

7 ꧗

8 ꧘

9 ꧙

Punctuation

Traditional Javanese texts are written with no spaces between words (scriptio continua) with several punctuation marks called pada (ꦥꦢ). Their form are as follows:

Pada

common punctuation								epistolary					correction
꧈ lingsa	꧉ lungsi	꧊ adeg	꧋ adeg-adeg	꧌...꧍ pisélèh	꧁...꧂ rerenggan	꧇ pangkat	ꧏ rangkap	꧃ andhap	꧄ madya	꧅ luhur	꧋꧆꧋ guru	꧉꧆꧉ pancak	꧞꧞꧞ tirta tumétès	꧟꧟꧟ isèn-isèn

In contemporary teaching, the most frequently used punctuations are pada adeg-adeg, pada lingsa, and pada lungsi, which are used to open paragraphs (similar to pillcrow), separating sentences (similar to comma), and ending sentences (similar to full stop). Pada adeg and pada pisélèh may be used to indicate insertion in the middle of sentences similar to parenthesis or quotation marks, while pada pangkat has a similar function to the colon. Pada rangkap is sometimes used as an iteration mark for reduplicated words (for example kata-kata ꦏꦠꦏꦠ → kata2 ꦏꦠꧏ).

Several punctuation marks do not have Latin equivalents and are often decorative in nature with numerous variant shapes, for example the rerenggan which is sometimes used to enclose titles. In epistolary usage, several punctuations are used in the beginning of letters and may also be used to indicate the social status of the letter writer; from the lowest pada andhap, to middle pada madya, and the highest pada luhur. Pada guru is sometimes used as a neutral option without social connotation, while pada pancak is used to end a letter. However this is a generalized function. In practice, similar to rerenggan these epistolary punctuation marks are often decorative and optional with various shape used in different regions and by different scribes.

When errors occurred during manuscript copying, several Kraton scribes used special correction marks instead of crossing out the erroneous parts: tirta tumétès normally found in Yogyakarta manuscripts, and isèn-isèn found in Surakarta manuscripts. These correction marks are directly applied following the erroneous part before the scribe continued writing. For example, if a scribe wanted to write pada luhur ꦥꦢꦭꦸꦲꦸꦂ but accidentally wrote pada hu ꦥꦢꦲꦸ before realizing the mistake, this word may be corrected into pada hu···luhur ꦥꦢꦲꦸ꧞꧞꧞ꦭꦸꦲꦸꦂ or ꦥꦢꦲꦸ꧟꧟꧟ꦭꦸꦲꦸꦂ.

Pepadan

Other than the regular punctuation, one of Javanese texts' distinctive characteristics is pepadan (ꦥꦼꦥꦢꦤ꧀), a series of highly ornate verse marks. Several of their form are as follows:

Pepadan

minor pada		major pada
꧅		꧅ ꦧ꧀ꦖ ꧅

The series of punctuation marks that forms pepadan have numerous names in traditional texts. Behrend (1996) divides pepadan into two general groups: the minor pada which consist of a single mark, and the major pada which are composed of several marks. Minor pada are used to indicate divisions of poetic stanzas, which usually came up every 32 or 48 syllables depending on the poetic metre. Major pada are used to demarcate a change of canto (which includes a change of the metre, rhythm, and mood of the recitation) occurring every 5 to 10 pages, though this may vary considerably depending on the structure of the text. Javanese guides often list three kinds of major pada: purwa pada ꧅ ꦧ꧀ꦖ ꧅ which is used in the beginning of the first canto, madya pada ꧅ ꦟ꧀ꦢꦿ ꧅ which is used in between different cantos, and wasana pada ꧅ ꦆ ꧅ which is used in the end of the final canto. But due to the large variety of shapes between manuscripts, these three punctuations are essentially treated as a single punctuation in most Javanese manuscripts.

Pepadan is one of the most prominent elements in a typical Javanese manuscript and are almost always written with high artistic skills, including calligraphy, coloring, and even gilding. In luxurious royal manuscripts, the shape of the pepadan may even contain visual puns that gave clues to the readers regarding the canto of the text; a pepadan with wings or bird figure resembling a crow (called dhandhang in Javanese) indicates the dhandhanggula metre, while pepadan with elements of a goldfish indicates the maskumambang metre (literally "gold floating on water"). One of the scribal centers with the most elaborate and ornate pepadan is the scriptorium of Pakualaman in Yogyakarta.

Sample texts

Below is an excerpt of Serat Katuranggan Kucing printed in 1871 with modern Javanese language and spelling.

Pada	Javanese		English
	Javanese script	Latin
7	꧅ꦭꦩꦸꦤ꧀ꦱꦶꦫꦔꦶꦔꦸꦏꦸꦕꦶꦁ꧈ ꦲꦮꦏ꧀ꦏꦺꦲꦶꦉꦁꦱꦢꦪ꧈ ꦭꦩ꧀ꦧꦸꦁꦏꦶꦮꦠꦺꦩ꧀ꦧꦺꦴꦁꦥꦸꦠꦶꦃ꧈ ꦊꦏ꧀ꦱꦤꦤ꧀ꦤꦶꦫꦥꦿꦪꦺꦴꦒ꧈ ꦲꦫꦤ꧀ꦮꦸꦭꦤ꧀ꦏꦿꦲꦶꦤꦤ꧀‍꧈ ꦠꦶꦤꦼꦏꦤꦤ꧀ꦱꦱꦼꦢꦾꦤ꧀ꦤꦶꦥꦸꦤ꧀‍꧈ ꦪꦺꦤ꧀ꦧꦸꦟ꧀ꦝꦼꦭ꧀ꦭꦁꦏꦸꦁꦲꦸꦠꦩ꧈	Lamun sira ngingu kucing, awaké ireng sadaya, lambung kiwa tèmbong putih, leksan nira prayoga, aran wulan krahinan, tinekanan sasedyan nira ipun, yèn buṇḍel langkung utama	A completely black cat with white tèmbong (spots) on its left belly is called wulan krahinan. It is a cat that would bring good fortune and accomplishment to all wishes. It is better if its tail is bundhel (short, rounded).
8	꧅ꦲꦗꦱꦶꦫꦔꦶꦔꦸꦏꦸꦕꦶꦁ꧈ ꦭꦸꦫꦶꦏ꧀ꦲꦶꦉꦁꦧꦸꦤ꧀ꦠꦸꦠ꧀ꦥꦚ꧀ꦗꦁ꧈ ꦥꦸꦤꦶꦏꦲꦮꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦭꦩꦠ꧀ꦠꦺ꧈ ꦱꦼꦏꦼꦭꦤ꧀ꦱꦿꦶꦁꦠꦸꦏꦂꦫꦤ꧀‍꧈ ꦲꦫꦤ꧀ꦝꦣꦁꦱꦸꦁꦏꦮ꧈ ꦥꦤ꧀ꦲꦢꦺꦴꦃꦫꦶꦗꦼꦏꦶꦤꦶꦥꦸꦤ꧀‍꧈ ꦪꦺꦤ꧀ꦧꦸꦟ꧀ꦝꦼꦭ꧀ꦤꦺꦴꦫꦔꦥꦲ꧈	Aja sira ngingu kucing, lurik ireng buntut panjang, punika awon lamaté, sekelan sring tukaran, aran ḍaḍang sungkawa, pan adoh rijeki nipun, yèn buṇḍel nora ngapa	A striped black cat with long tail should not be kept as pets. This cat is called dhadhang sungkawa. Your life would encounter frequent arguments and limited wealth. But if its tail is bundhel, then there is no problem.

Below is an excerpt of Kakawin Rāmāyaṇa printed in 1900 using Kawi language and spelling.

Pada	Javanese		English
	Javanese script	Latin
XVI 31	꧅ꦗꦲ꧀ꦤꦷꦪꦴꦲ꧀ꦤꦶꦁꦠꦭꦒꦏꦢꦶꦭꦔꦶꦠ꧀꧈ ꦩꦩ꧀ꦧꦁꦠꦁꦥꦴꦱ꧀ꦮꦸꦭꦤꦸꦥꦩꦤꦶꦏꦴ꧈ ꦮꦶꦤ꧀ꦠꦁꦠꦸꦭꦾꦁꦏꦸꦱꦸꦩꦪꦱꦸꦩꦮꦸꦫ꧀꧈ ꦭꦸꦩꦿꦴꦥ꧀ꦮꦺꦏꦁꦱꦫꦶꦏꦢꦶꦗꦭꦢ꧉	Jahnī yāhning talaga kadi langit, mambang tang pās wulan upamanikā, wintang tulya ng kusuma ya sumawur, lumrā pwekang sari kadi jalada.	The clear water of the lake reflects the sky, a turtle floats therein as if the moon, the stars are scattered blossoms, spreading their scents as if the clouds.

Comparison with Balinese

The closest relative to the Javanese script is the Balinese script. As direct descendants of the Kawi script, Javanese and Balinese still retain many similarities in terms of basic glyph shape for each letter. One noticeable difference between both scripts is in their orthography; Modern Balinese orthography is more conservative in nature than Modern Javanese counterpart.

• Modern Balinese orthography retains Sanskrit and Kawi conventions that are no longer used in modern Javanese. For example, the word désa (village) is written in Modern Javanese orthography as ꦢꦺꦱ. According to Balinese orthography, this may be deemed as coarse or incorrect because désa is a Sanskrit loanword (देश, deśa) that should have been spelled according to its original spelling: déśa ꦢꦺꦯ (Balinese: ᬤᬾᬰ), using sa murda instead of sa nglegéna. The Balinese language does not differentiate between the pronunciation of sa nglegéna and sa murda, but the original Sanskrit or Kawi spelling is retained whenever possible. One of the reason for this spelling practice is to differentiate homophones in writing, such as between the word pada (ꦥꦢ / ᬧᬤ, earth/ground), pāda (ꦥꦴꦢ / ᬧᬵᬤ, foot), and padha (ꦥꦣ / ᬧᬥ, same), as well as asta (ꦲꦱ꧀ꦠ / ᬳᬲ᭄ᬢ, is), astha (ꦲꦱ꧀ꦡ / ᬳᬲ᭄ᬣ, bone), and aṣṭa (ꦄꦰ꧀ꦛ / ᬅᬱ᭄ᬝ, eight).
• Modern Javanese orthography use aksara murda (ꦲꦏ꧀ꦱꦫꦩꦸꦂꦢ) which are used for honorific purposes in writing respected names, while Modern Balinese orthography does not have a such rule.

Glyph comparison between the two scripts can be seen below:

Basic Aksara (consonant)

	ka	kha	ga	gha	nga	ca	cha	ja	jha	nya	ṭa	ṭha	ḍa	ḍha	ṇa	ta	tha	da	dha	na	pa	pha	ba	bha	ma	ya	ra	la	wa	śa	ṣa	sa	ha/a
Javanese	ꦏ	ꦑ	ꦒ	ꦓ	ꦔ	ꦕ	ꦖ	ꦗ	ꦙ	ꦚ	ꦛ	ꦜ	ꦝ	ꦞ	ꦟ	ꦠ	ꦡ	ꦢ	ꦣ	ꦤ	ꦥ	ꦦ	ꦧ	ꦨ	ꦩ	ꦪ	ꦫ	ꦭ	ꦮ	ꦯ	ꦰ	ꦱ	ꦲ
Balinese	ᬓ	ᬔ	ᬕ	ᬖ	ᬗ	ᬘ	ᬙ	ᬚ	ᬛ	ᬜ	ᬝ	ᬞ	ᬟ	ᬠ	ᬡ	ᬢ	ᬣ	ᬤ	ᬥ	ᬦ	ᬧ	ᬨ	ᬩ	ᬪ	ᬫ	ᬬ	ᬭ	ᬮ	ᬯ	ᬰ	ᬱ	ᬲ	ᬳ

Basic Aksara (vowel)

	a	ā	i	ī	u	ū	ṛ	ṝ	ḷ	ḹ	é	ai	o	au
Javanese	ꦄ	ꦄꦴ	ꦆ	ꦇ	ꦈ	ꦈꦴ	ꦉ	ꦉꦴ	ꦊ	ꦋ	ꦌ	ꦍ	ꦎ	ꦎꦴ
Balinese	ᬅ	ᬆ	ᬇ	ᬈ	ᬉ	ᬊ	ᬋ	ᬌ	ᬍ	ᬎ	ᬏ	ᬐ	ᬑ	ᬒ

Diacritic

	-a	-ā	-i	-ī	-u	-ū	-ṛ	-ṝ	-é	-ai	-o	-au	-e	-eu	-m	-ng	-r	-h	pemati
Javanese	-	ꦴ	ꦶ	ꦷ	ꦸ	ꦹ	ꦽ	ꦽꦴ	ꦺ	ꦻ	ꦺꦴ	ꦻꦴ	ꦼ	ꦼꦴ	ꦀ	ꦁ	ꦂ	ꦃ	꧀
Balinese	-	ᬵ	ᬶ	ᬷ	ᬸ	ᬹ	ᬺ	ᬻ	ᬾ	ᬿ	ᭀ	ᭁ	ᭂ	ᭃ	ᬁ	ᬂ	ᬃ	ᬄ	᭄
	ka	kā	ki	kī	ku	kū	kṛ	kṝ	ké	kai	ko	kau	ke	keu	kam	kang	kar	kah	k
Javanese	ꦏ	ꦏꦴ	ꦏꦶ	ꦏꦷ	ꦏꦸ	ꦏꦹ	ꦏꦽ	ꦏꦽꦴ	ꦏꦺ	ꦏꦻ	ꦏꦺꦴ	ꦭꦻꦴ	ꦏꦼ	ꦏꦼꦴ	ꦏꦀ	ꦏꦁ	ꦏꦂ	ꦏꦃ	ꦏ꧀
Balinese	ᬓ	ᬓᬵ	ᬓᬶ	ᬓᬷ	ᬓᬸ	ᬓᬹ	ᬓᬺ	ᬓᬻ	ᬓᬾ	ᬓᬿ	ᬓᭀ	ᬓᭁ	ᬓᭂ	ᬓᭃ	ᬓᬁ	ᬓᬂ	ᬓᬃ	ᬓᬄ	ᬓ᭄

Numeral

	0	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9
Javanese	꧐	꧑	꧒	꧓	꧔	꧕	꧖	꧗	꧘	꧙
Balinese	᭐	᭑	᭒	᭓	᭔	᭕	᭖	᭗	᭘	᭙

Punctuation

Javanese	pada lingsa	pada lungsi	pada pangkat	pada adeg-adeg	pada luhur
	꧈	꧉	꧇	꧋	꧅
Balinese	carik siki	carik parérèn	carik pamungkah	panti	pamada
	᭞	᭟	᭝	᭚	᭛

Sentence example (Kawi language)

Javanese	꧅ꦗꦲ꧀ꦤꦷꦪꦴꦲ꧀ꦤꦶꦁꦠꦭꦒꦏꦢꦶꦭꦔꦶꦠ꧀꧈	ꦩꦩ꧀ꦧꦁꦠꦁꦥꦴꦱ꧀ꦮꦸꦭꦤꦸꦥꦩꦤꦶꦏꦴ꧈	ꦮꦶꦤ꧀ꦠꦁꦠꦸꦭꦾꦁꦏꦸꦱꦸꦩꦪꦱꦸꦩꦮꦸꦫ꧀꧈	ꦭꦸꦩꦿꦴꦥ꧀ꦮꦺꦏꦁꦱꦫꦶꦏꦢꦶꦗꦭꦢ꧉
Balinese	᭛ᬚᬳ᭄ᬦᬷᬬᬵᬳ᭄ᬦᬶᬂᬢᬮᬕᬓᬤᬶᬮᬗᬶᬢ᭄᭞	ᬫᬫ᭄ᬩᬂᬢᬂᬧᬵᬲ᭄ᬯᬸᬮᬦᬸᬧᬫᬦᬶᬓᬵ᭞	ᬯᬶᬦ᭄ᬢᬂᬢᬸᬮ᭄ᬬᬂᬓᬸᬲᬸᬫᬬᬲᬸᬫᬯᬳᬸᬭ᭄᭞	ᬮᬸᬫ᭄ᬭᬧ᭄ᬯᬾᬓᬂᬲᬭᬶᬓᬤᬶᬚᬮᬤ᭟
	Jahnī yāhning talaga kadi langit,	mambang tang pās wulan upamanikā,	wintang tulya ng kusuma ya sumawur,	lumrā pwékang sari kadi jalada.
	(Kakawin Rāmāyaṇa XVI.31)

Usage in another language

Sundanese Cacarakan

Cacarakan is one of Sundanese language writing system, which means "similar to Carakan". It was officially used from 16 to 20 centuries. However, there are several places which use cacarakan. There are several orthographic difference to modern Javanese orthography:

• Vowel [ɨ] <eu> is written as ꦼꦴ or ◌ꦼꦵ (paneuleung) in cacarakan (there is no a such vowel in Javanese).
• Free vowel in cacarakan is written with aksara sora (Javanese: aksara swara) instead of aspirated ha. For example, a is written as ꦄ in cacarakan, instead of ꦲ in carakan.
• Free vowel of [i] is written as ꦄꦶ in cacarakan. However, it is possible to write it as ꦆ as in carakan.
• Consonant [ɲ] <ny> is written as ꦤꦾ for free standing ngalagena, while ꧀ꦚ as diacritic pasangan. Carakan ꦚ is not used in Cacarakan.

Similar to Balinese wianjana, Cacarakan ngalagena or wianjana consists of 18 letters instead of 20 letters in Carakan nglegena or wianjana. The two letters are ꦝ <ḍa> and ꦛ <ṭa>. For more details in seeing these differences, below is shown a table of the Sundanese Cacarakan and Javanese Carakan Ngalagena or Consonant Letters.

Aksara Ngalagena

	ha	na	ca	ra	ka	da	dha	ta	sa	wa	la	pa	ḍa	ḍha	ja	jha	ya	nya	ma	ga	gha	ba	bha	tha	nga
Jawa	ꦲ	ꦤ	ꦕ	ꦫ	ꦏ	ꦢ	ꦣ	ꦠ	ꦱ	ꦮ	ꦭ	ꦥ	ꦝ	ꦞ	ꦗ	ꦙ	ꦪ	ꦚ	ꦩ	ꦒ	ꦓ	ꦧ	ꦨ	ꦛ	ꦔ
	ha	na	ca	ra	ka	da		ta	sa	wa	la	pa	ḍa/ḍha		ja		ya	nya	ma	ga		ba		tha	nga
Sunda	ꦲ	ꦤ	ꦕ	ꦫ	ꦏ	ꦣ		ꦠ	ꦱ	ꦮ	ꦛ	ꦥ			ꦗ		ꦪ	ꦤꦾ	ꦩ	ꦒ		ꦧ			ꦔ

From the table it can be seen that the letter /dha/ in Carakan (Javanese) is used to represent the sound "da" in Cacarakan (Sundanese). Whereas for produces the sound "nya", Cacarakan (Sundanese) uses a series of letters /a/ plus a pengkal (Carakan). Sundanese Cacarakan uses the same letter pairs as Carakan, with the same writing rules. It's just different at times giving sandhangan (Carakan) or rarangkén (Cacarakan) used modified rules to produce Sundanese vowel sounds.

Pasangan Ngalagena (consonant)

Latin	ka	ga	nga	ca	ja	nya	ta	da	na	pa	ba	ma	ya	ra	la	wa	sa	ha
Cacarakan	ꦏ	ꦒ	ꦔ	ꦕ	ꦗ	ꦤꦾ	ꦠ	ꦣ	ꦤ	ꦥ	ꦧ	ꦩ	ꦪ	ꦫ	ꦭ	ꦮ	ꦱ	ꦲ
Pasangan	꧀ꦏ	꧀ꦒ	꧀ꦔ	꧀ꦕ	꧀ꦗ	꧀ꦚ	꧀ꦠ	꧀ꦣ	꧀ꦤ	꧀ꦥ	꧀ꦧ	꧀ꦩ	꧀ꦪ	꧀ꦫ	꧀ꦭ	꧀ꦮ	꧀ꦱ	꧀ꦲ

Aksara Sora (vowel)

Latin	a	i	u	é	o	e	eu
Cacarakan	ꦄ	ꦄꦶ /ꦆ	ꦈ	ꦌ	ꦎ	ꦄꦼ	ꦄꦼꦴ/ꦄꦼꦵ
Pasangan	◌꧀ꦲ꦳	◌꧀ꦲ꦳ꦶ	◌꧀ꦲ꦳ꦸ	ꦺ꧀ꦲ꦳	◌꧀ꦲ꦳ꦴ	◌꧀ꦲ꦳ꦼ	◌꧀ꦲ꦳ꦼꦴ/◌꧀ꦲ꦳ꦼꦵ

In the Cacarakan swara/sora script the letter /i/ is written with a series of letters /a/ added with wulu (Carakan) or panghulu (Cacarakan). In the Javanese Carakan alphabet no special vowels are used for the sound /e/ (pepet), while in Cacarakan the letters /e/ pepet are written independently in a series the letter /a/ is added with pepet (Cacarakan) or pamepet (Cacarakan). Another vowel that appears is to describe the sound [ö] or the letter / eu / that quite dominant used in Sundanese. The letter /eu/ is written with a series of letters / a / added by tarung (Carakan) and pepet (Carakan) or simply called paneuleung in the term Sundanese Cacarakan.

Rarangkén (diacritic)

Latin	-a	-i	-u	-é	-o	-e	-eu	-ng	-h	-r	-y-	-r-	pamaéh (ø)
Cacarakan	-	ꦶ	ꦸ	ꦺ	ꦺꦴ	ꦼ	ꦼꦴ/◌ꦼꦵ	ꦁ	ꦃ	ꦂ	ꦾ	ꦿ	꧀
Latin	ka	ki	ku	ké	ko	ke	keu	kang	kah	kar	kya	kra	k
Cacarakan	ꦏ	ꦏꦶ	ꦏꦸ	ꦏꦺ	ꦏꦺꦴ	ꦏꦼ	ꦏꦼꦴ/ꦏꦼꦵ	ꦏꦁ	ꦏꦃ	ꦏꦂ	ꦏꦾ	ꦏꦿ	ꦏ꧀

Wilangan (numeral)

Arabic	0	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9
Cacarakan	꧐	꧑	꧒	꧓	꧔	꧕	꧖	꧗	꧘	꧙

Punctuation

Cacarakan	koma (comma)	titik (dot)	pipa (numbers divider)	adeg-adeg (a starter)
	꧈	꧉	꧇	꧋

Madurese Carakan

In Madurese language, Javanese script is called Carakan Madhurâ or Carakan Jhâbân (script derived from Javanese). If in Javanese language each character can represent the sound /a /or /ɔ /, then in Madurese language it represents the sound /a /or /ɤ /. The carakan Madhurâ form itself consists of aksara ghâjâng (aksara nglegena), aksara rajâ or murdâ (aksara murda), aksara sowara or swara (aksara swara), and aksara rèka'an (aksara rékan). There is also pangangghuy (sandhangan) which consists of pangangguy aksara (sandhangan swara), pangangghuy panyèghek (sandhangan panyigeging wanda), and pangangghuy panambâ (sandhangan wyanjana).

Comparison with Javanese

Broadly speaking, there is no significant difference with the Javanese. However, in the Madurese language there is no difference in the use of aspirate and tanaspirate consonants.

Aksara Ghâjâng (Aksara Nglegena)

	ha	na	ca	ra	ka	da	dha	ta	sa	wa	la	pa	ḍa	ḍha	ja	jha	ya	nya	ma	ga	gha	ba	bha	tha	nga
Jawa	ꦲ	ꦤ	ꦕ	ꦫ	ꦏ	ꦢ	ꦣ	ꦠ	ꦱ	ꦮ	ꦭ	ꦥ	ꦝ	ꦞ	ꦗ	ꦙ	ꦪ	ꦚ	ꦩ	ꦒ	ꦓ	ꦧ	ꦨ	ꦛ	ꦔ
	ha	na	ca	ra	ka	da/dha		ta	sa	wa	la	pa	ḍa/ḍha		ja/jha		ya	nya	ma	ga/gha		ba/bha		tha	nga
Madura	ꦲ	ꦤ	ꦕ	ꦫ	ꦏ	ꦢ		ꦠ	ꦱ	ꦮ	ꦛ	ꦥ	ꦝ		ꦗ		ꦪ	ꦚ	ꦩ	ꦒ		ꦧ		ꦛ	ꦔ

Aksara rèka'an in Madurese language as taught in schools has only five characters, while in Madoereesche Spraakkunst and Sorat tjarakan Madurah there are seven and nine respectively:

Aksara Rèka'an (Aksara Rékan)

	ha	kha	dza	fa/va	za	gha	'a	ta	sya	la
Javanese	ꦲ꦳	ꦏ꦳	ꦢ꦳	ꦥ꦳	ꦗ꦳	ꦒ꦳	ꦔ꦳	ꦠ꦳	ꦯ꦳	ꦭ꦳
Arabic	ح	خ	ذ	ف	ز	غ	ع	ط	ش	ل
Dutch	h	ch		f/v		g
Example	ꦲ꦳ꦺꦴꦏꦺꦴꦩ꧀	ꦲꦏ꦳ꦺꦫꦠ꧀	ꦢ꦳ꦶꦏ꧀ꦏꦺꦂ	ꦭꦥ꦳ꦭ꧀	ꦗ꦳ꦏꦠ꧀	ꦒ꦳ꦲꦶꦧ꧀	ꦔ꦳ꦏꦺꦫꦠ꧀	ꦠ꦳ꦫꦺꦏ꧀	ꦯ꦳ꦫꦠ꧀	ꦭ꦳ꦲꦶꦧ꧀
Transliteration	hokom	akhèrat	dzikkèr	lafal	zâkat	ghaib	'akèrat	tarèk	syarat	laib

Another difference is the use of wignyan which in Javanese functions as the -h suffix, while in Madurese it becomes the -' as shown in the following table:

Pangangghuy (Sandhangan)

Pangangghuy aksara					Pangangghuy panyèghek				Pangangghuy panambâ
i	è	o	u	e	-ng	-r	-'	pemati	-r-	-re	-y-	-l-	-w-
ꦶ	ꦺ	ꦺꦴ	ꦸ	ꦼ	ꦁ	ꦂ	ꦃ	꧀	ꦿ	ꦽ	ꦾ	꧀ꦭ	꧀ꦮ
cèthak	lèngè	lèngè-longo	soko	petpet	cekcek	lajâr	bisat	papatèn	pèḍer	perper	sokomaljâ	la rangkep	wa rangkep
pi	pè	po	pu	pe	pang	par	pa'	p	pra	pre	pya	pla	pwa
ꦥꦶ	ꦥꦺ	ꦥꦺꦴ	ꦥꦸ	ꦥꦼ	ꦥꦁ	ꦥꦂ	ꦥꦃ	ꦥ꧀	ꦥꦿ	ꦥꦿ	ꦥꦾ	ꦥ꧀ꦭ	ꦥ꧀ꦮ

Unicode

Main article: Javanese (Unicode block)

Javanese script was added to the Unicode Standard in October, 2009 with the release of version 5.2.

The Unicode block for Javanese is U+A980–U+A9DF. There are 91 code points for Javanese script: 53 letters, 19 punctuation marks, 10 numbers, and 9 vowels:

Javanese[1][2] Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

A

B

C

D

E

F

U+A98x

ꦀ

ꦁ

ꦂ

ꦃ

ꦄ

ꦅ

ꦆ

ꦇ

ꦈ

ꦉ

ꦊ

ꦋ

ꦌ

ꦍ

ꦎ

ꦏ

U+A99x

ꦐ

ꦑ

ꦒ

ꦓ

ꦔ

ꦕ

ꦖ

ꦗ

ꦘ

ꦙ

ꦚ

ꦛ

ꦜ

ꦝ

ꦞ

ꦟ

U+A9Ax

ꦠ

ꦡ

ꦢ

ꦣ

ꦤ

ꦥ

ꦦ

ꦧ

ꦨ

ꦩ

ꦪ

ꦫ

ꦬ

ꦭ

ꦮ

ꦯ

U+A9Bx

ꦰ

ꦱ

ꦲ

꦳

ꦴ

ꦵ

ꦶ

ꦷ

ꦸ

ꦹ

ꦺ

ꦻ

ꦼ

ꦽ

ꦾ

ꦿ

U+A9Cx

꧀

꧁

꧂

꧃

꧄

꧅

꧆

꧇

꧈

꧉

꧊

꧋

꧌

꧍

ꧏ

U+A9Dx

꧐

꧑

꧒

꧓

꧔

꧕

꧖

꧗

꧘

꧙

꧞

꧟

Notes 1.^ As of Unicode version 16.0 2.^ Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points

Gallery

A stone inscription from around 18th century in the Kyai Tumenggung Pusponegoro grave complex, Gresik A page from Serat Jaya Lengkara Wulang copied in 1803, British Library collection A page from Serat Damar Wulan copied in 1804, British Library collection Five Gulden/Rupiah scrip issued by Dutch East Indies in 1846, value spelled in Latin, Pégon, and Javanese script Bromartani newspaper, the first newspaper printed in Javanese language and script, circulating between 1855 and 1856 Title page of a book commemorating the ascension of Queen Wilhelmina, printed in Semarang in 1898 A page from Serat Bratayudha (an episode of Mahabharata) copied in 1902, Widya Budaya collection Opening pages of Serat Damar Wulan copied around the 18th century, British Library collection An advertisement for Droste's Cacao An advertisement for Osram light bulb 5 Gulden paper currency issued by the Bank of Java in 1937, with multilingual forgery warnings, including one in Javanese language and script Pakubuwana X inscription commemorating the construction of several gateways in Surakarta in 1938 A patrol car used by the Public Health Service (Dienst der Volksgezondheid) c. 1925 100 Gulden paper currency issued by the Bank of Java in 1946, the last Gulden series that contains Javanese script. Later reprinted in 1950 A street sign in Surakarta. The word jendral in the sign has been misspelled and should have used taling in accordance to how it is pronounced in Javanese, jèndral Contemporary merchandise with design elements containing Javanese script The Yogyakarta Sultanate coat of arms with the Hamengkubuwana royal monogram in Javanese script

See also

• Javanese language
• Javanese literature
• Tuladha Jejeg

References

Bibliography

• Arps, B (1999). "How a Javanese Gentleman put his Library in Order". Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde. 155 (3): 416–469. doi:10.1163/22134379-90003871. hdl:1887/15216.
• Behrend, T E (1993). "Manuscript Production in Nineteenth Century Java. Codicology and the Writing of Javanese Literary History". Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde. 149 (3): 407–437. doi:10.1163/22134379-90003115.
• Behrend, T E (1996). "Textual Gateways: the Javanese Manuscript Tradition". In Ann Kumar; John H. McGlynn (eds.). Illuminations: The Writing Traditions of Indonesia. Jakarta: Lontar Foundation. ISBN 0834803496.
• Everson, Michael (6 March 2008). "Proposal for encoding the Javanese script in the UCS" (PDF). Iso/Iec Jtc1/Sc2/Wg2 (N3319R3). Unicode.
• Kiliaan, H. N. (1897). Madoereesche Spraakkunst (in Dutch). Batavia: Landsdrukkerij.
• Molen, Willem van der (1993). Javaans Schrift (in Dutch). Vol. Semaian 8. Leiden: Rijksuniversiteit te Leiden. ISBN 90-73084-09-1. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
• Molen, Willem van der (2000). "Hoe Heft Zulks Kunnen Geschieden? Het Begin van de Javaanse Typografie". In Willem van der Molen (ed.). Woord en Schrift in de Oost. De betekenis van zending en missie voor de studie van taal en literatuur in Zuidoost-Azie (in Dutch). Vol. Semaian 19. Leiden: Vakgroep Talen en Culturen van Zuidoost-Azië en Oceanië, Rijksuniversiteit te Leiden. pp. 132–162. ISBN 9074956238.
• Moriyama, Mikihiro (June 1996). "Discovering the 'Language' and the 'Literature' of West Java: An Introduction to the Formation of Sundanese Writing in 19th Century West Java" (PDF). Southeast Asian Studies. 34 (1): 151–183.
• Robson, Stuart Owen (2011). "Javanese script as cultural artifact: Historical background". RIMA: Review of Indonesian and Malaysian Affairs. 45 (1–2): 9–36.
• Rochkyatmo, Amir (1 January 1996). Pelestarian dan Modernisasi Aksara Daerah: Perkembangan Metode dan Teknis Menulis Aksara Jawa (PDF) (in Indonesian). Direktorat Jenderal Kebudayaan.

Orthographical guides

• Koemisi Kasoesastran ing Sriwedari, Soerakarta (1926). Wawaton Panjeratipoen Temboeng Djawi mawi Sastra Djawi dalasan Angka. Kongres Sriwedari (in Javanese). Weltevreden: Landsdrukkerij. Also known as Wewaton Sriwedari and Paugeran Sriwedari.
• Darusuprapta (2002). Pedoman Penulisan Aksara Jawa (in Indonesian). Yogyakarta: Yayasan Pustaka Nusantara bekerja sama dengan Pemerintahan Provinsi Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta, Daerah Tingkat I Jawa Tengah, dan Daerah Tingkat I Jawa Tengah. ISBN 979-8628-00-4.

Sanskrit and Kawi

• Poerwadarminta, W J S (1930). Serat Mardi Kawi (in Javanese). Vol. 1. Solo: De Bliksem.
• Poerwadarminta, W J S (1931). Serat Mardi Kawi (in Javanese). Vol. 2. Solo: De Bliksem.
• Poerwadarminta, W J S (1931). Serat Mardi Kawi (in Javanese). Vol. 3. Solo: De Bliksem.

Sundanese

• Holle, K F (1862). Soendasch spel- en lees boek, met Soendasche letter. Batavia: Lands-drukkerij.

External links

Digital collection

• British Library manuscript collection
• National Library of Indonesia manuscript collection
• Yayasan Sastra Lestari manuscript collection
• Widyapustaka references collection Archived 14 December 2021 at the Wayback Machine

Digitized manuscripts

• A debt written on a piece of lontar (1708) British Library collection no. Sloane MS 1403E
• Babad Mataram and Babad ing Sangkala (1738) koleksi British Library no. MSS Jav 36
• A Malay-Javanese-Maduran language word list from early 19th century, British Library collection no. MSS Malay A 3
• An assortment of documents from the Kraton of Yogyakarta (1786–1812) British Library collection no. Add Ms 12341
• Papakem Pawukon from Bupati Sepuh Demak of Bogor (1814) British Library collection no. Or 15932
• Wejangan Hamengkubuwana I (1812) British Library collection no. Add MS 12337
• Raffles Paper - vol III (1816) a collection of Letters received by Raffles from the rules of the Malay archipelago, British Library collection no. Add MS 45273
• Serat Jaya Lengkara Wulang (1803) British Library collection no. MSS Jav 24
• Serat Selarasa (1804) British Library collection no. MSS Jav 28
• Usana Bali Archived 19 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine (1870) a Javanese copy of a Balinese lontar of the same title, National Library of Indonesia collection no. CS 152
• Dongèng-dongèng Pieuntengen (1867) a collection of Sundanese tales written in the Javanese script compiled by Muhammad Musa

Others

• Unicode proposal for the Javanese script
• Unicode documentation for the behavior of KERET diacritic
• Unicode documentation for the behavior of CAKRA diacritic
• Unicode documentation for the behavior of PENGKAL diacritic
• Unicode documentation for the behavior of TOLONG diacritic
• British Library Asian-African Studies blog, Javanese topic
• Javanese script transliterator by Benny Lin
• Hana - Javanese Script Transliterator by Dan
• Download Javanese fonts in Tuladha Jejeg Archived 27 October 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Aksara di Nusantara, or Google Noto