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It is estimated that the [[food system]] is responsible for a quarter to a third of human-caused greenhouse gas emissions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How much of global greenhouse gas emissions come from food? |url=https://ourworldindata.org/greenhouse-gas-emissions-food |access-date=2023-05-15 |website=Our World in Data}}</ref> Major tenets of a low-carbon diet include eating a [[plant-based diet]], and in particular little or no [[beef]] and [[Dairy product|dairy]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=FAO - News Article: Key facts and findings |url=https://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/197623/icode/ |access-date=2023-05-15 |website=www.fao.org |language=en}}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=The current source does not support claims about low-carbon diets.|date=September 2023}}
It is estimated that the [[food system]] is responsible for a quarter to a third of human-caused greenhouse gas emissions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How much of global greenhouse gas emissions come from food? |url=https://ourworldindata.org/greenhouse-gas-emissions-food |access-date=2023-05-15 |website=Our World in Data}}</ref> Major tenets of a low-carbon diet include eating a [[plant-based diet]], and in particular little or no [[beef]] and [[Dairy product|dairy]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=FAO - News Article: Key facts and findings |url=https://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/197623/icode/ |access-date=2023-05-15 |website=www.fao.org |language=en}}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=The current source does not support claims about low-carbon diets.|date=September 2023}}


== Overall trends ==
== Overall trends worldwide ==


A 2014 study into the real-life diets of British people estimated their [[GHG footprint|greenhouse gas footprints]] in terms of kilograms of [[carbon dioxide equivalent]] per day:<ref name="scarborough-etal-2014">
A 2014 study into the real-life diets of British people estimated their [[GHG footprint|greenhouse gas footprints]] in terms of kilograms of [[carbon dioxide equivalent]] per day:<ref name="scarborough-etal-2014">
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== High-carbon and low-carbon food choices ==
== High-carbon and low-carbon food choices ==
[[File:Clune2016 food lca.svg|thumb|Greenhouse impact across food categories: results from a 2017 review of 389 [[life-cycle assessment]]s<ref name="Cune2017">{{cite journal|author1=Stephen Clune|author2=Enda Crossin|author3=Karli Verghese|title=Systematic review of greenhouse gas emissions for different fresh food categories|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|date=1 January 2017|volume=140|issue=2|pages=766–783|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.04.082|url=https://eprints.lancs.ac.uk/id/eprint/79432/4/1_s2.0_S0959652616303584_main.pdf}}</ref>]]
[[File:Clune2016 food lca.svg|thumb|Greenhouse impact across food categories: results from a 2017 review of 389 [[life-cycle assessment]]s<ref name="Cune2017">{{cite journal|author1=Stephen Clune|author2=Enda Crossin|author3=Karli Verghese|title=Systematic review of greenhouse gas emissions for different fresh food categories|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|date=1 January 2017|volume=140|issue=2|pages=766–783|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.04.082|url=https://eprints.lancs.ac.uk/id/eprint/79432/4/1_s2.0_S0959652616303584_main.pdf}}</ref>]]
Certain foods require more fossil fuel inputs than others. Animal-based foods like meat and dairy have a much higher carbon footprint than plant-based foods.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Ritchie |first=Hannah |date=2023 |title=Less meat is nearly always better than sustainable meat, to reduce your carbon footprint. |url=https://ourworldindata.org/less-meat-or-sustainable-meat?fbclid=IwAR2JCAShVUGOemBEdlF5EJ3km4jytN5lrLcXGBFrA4T67l5MEiWG8aI7vWU |journal=Our World in Data}}</ref> Therefore, it is possible to go on a low-carbon diet and reduce one’s [[carbon footprint]] by choosing foods that need less fossil fuel and therefore emit less carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. For example, Ritchie explains that "producing 100 grams of protein from peas emits just 0.4 kilograms of carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2eq). To get the same amount of protein from beef, emissions would be nearly 90 times higher, at 35 kgCO2eq." <ref name=":0" />
Certain foods require more fossil fuel inputs than others. Animal-based foods like meat and dairy have a much higher carbon footprint than plant-based foods.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Ritchie |first=Hannah |date=2023 |title=Less meat is nearly always better than sustainable meat, to reduce your carbon footprint. |url=https://ourworldindata.org/less-meat-or-sustainable-meat?fbclid=IwAR2JCAShVUGOemBEdlF5EJ3km4jytN5lrLcXGBFrA4T67l5MEiWG8aI7vWU |journal=Our World in Data}}</ref> Therefore, it is possible to go on a low-carbon diet and reduce one’s [[carbon footprint]] by choosing foods that need less fossil fuel and therefore emit less carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. Further research finds that even "the lowest-impact animal products typically exceed those of vegetable substitutes". <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Poore |first=J. |last2=Nemecek |first2=T. |date=2018 |title=Reducing food’s environmental impacts through producers and consumers. |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aaq0216 |journal=Science |volume=360 |issue=6392 |pages=987-992}}</ref> For example, Ritchie explains that "producing 100 grams of protein from peas emits just 0.4 kilograms of carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2eq). To get the same amount of protein from beef, emissions would be nearly 90 times higher, at 35 kgCO2eq." <ref name=":0" />


In June 2010, a report from [[United Nations Environment Programme]] declared that a global shift towards a [[Veganism|vegan]] diet was needed to save the world from hunger, fuel shortages and climate change.<ref>Felicity Carus [https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2010/jun/02/un-report-meat-free-diet UN urges global move to meat and dairy-free diet], ''[[The Guardian]]'', 2 June 2010
In June 2010, a report from [[United Nations Environment Programme]] declared that a global shift towards a [[Veganism|vegan]] diet was needed to save the world from hunger, fuel shortages and climate change.<ref>Felicity Carus [https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2010/jun/02/un-report-meat-free-diet UN urges global move to meat and dairy-free diet], ''[[The Guardian]]'', 2 June 2010


*Also see [http://www.unep.fr/shared/publications/pdf/dtix1262xpa-priorityproductsandmaterials_report.pdf "Assessing the Environmental Impacts of Consumption and Production"], [[United Nations Environment Programme]] (UNEP), Brussels, 2 June 2010.</ref> This will mean a huge shift in the diet of the average European, as 83% of their diets are made up of meat, dairy, and eggs.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sandström |first=V. |date=2018 |title=The role of trade in the greenhouse gas footprints of EU diets. |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211912418300361 |journal=Global Food Security |volume=19 |pages=48-55}}</ref>
*Also see [http://www.unep.fr/shared/publications/pdf/dtix1262xpa-priorityproductsandmaterials_report.pdf "Assessing the Environmental Impacts of Consumption and Production"], [[United Nations Environment Programme]] (UNEP), Brussels, 2 June 2010.</ref> This will mean a huge shift in the diet of the average European, as 83% of their diets are made up of meat, dairy, and eggs.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sandström |first=V. |date=2018 |title=The role of trade in the greenhouse gas footprints of EU diets. |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211912418300361 |journal=Global Food Security |volume=19 |pages=48-55}}</ref>


Cundiff and Harris write: "The American Dietetic Association (ADA) and [[Dietitians of Canada]] position paper officially recognizes that well-planned vegan and other [[vegetarian]] diets are appropriate for infancy and childhood."<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Cundiff | first1 = David K. | last2 = Harris | first2 = William | title = Case report of 5 siblings: malnutrition? Rickets? DiGeorge syndrome? Developmental delay? | journal = Nutrition Journal | volume = 5 | pages = 1 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16412249 | pmc = 1363354 | doi = 10.1186/1475-2891-5-1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title= Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: Vegetarian diets| journal = Journal of the American Dietetic Association|volume= 103|issue= 6|pages= 748–765|year= 2003|pmid= 12778049|doi= 10.1053/jada.2003.50142| author1 = American Dietetic Association}}</ref>
Cundiff and Harris write: "The American Dietetic Association (ADA) and [[Dietitians of Canada]] position paper officially recognizes that well-planned vegan and other [[vegetarian]] diets are appropriate for infancy and childhood."<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Cundiff | first1 = David K. | last2 = Harris | first2 = William | title = Case report of 5 siblings: malnutrition? Rickets? DiGeorge syndrome? Developmental delay? | journal = Nutrition Journal | volume = 5 | pages = 1 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16412249 | pmc = 1363354 | doi = 10.1186/1475-2891-5-1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title= Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: Vegetarian diets| journal = Journal of the American Dietetic Association|volume= 103|issue= 6|pages= 748–765|year= 2003|pmid= 12778049|doi= 10.1053/jada.2003.50142| author1 = American Dietetic Association}}</ref>

Revision as of 04:35, 16 October 2023

Vegetables are low-carbon compared to meats.

Not to be confused with Low-carbohydrate diet.

A low-carbon diet is any diet that results in lower greenhouse gas emissions.[1][2] Choosing a low carbon diet is one facet of developing sustainable diets which increase the long-term sustainability of humanity.

It is estimated that the food system is responsible for a quarter to a third of human-caused greenhouse gas emissions.[3] Major tenets of a low-carbon diet include eating a plant-based diet, and in particular little or no beef and dairy.[4][better source needed]

Overall trends worldwide

A 2014 study into the real-life diets of British people estimated their greenhouse gas footprints in terms of kilograms of carbon dioxide equivalent per day:[5]

  • 7.19 for high meat-eaters (≥100 g/day)
  • 5.63 for medium meat-eaters (50–99 g/day)
  • 4.67 for low meat-eaters (<50 g/day)
  • 3.91 for fish-eaters
  • 3.81 for vegetarians
  • 2.89 for vegans

Background on diet and greenhouse gas emissions

Global greenhouse gas emissions from food production.

In the U.S., the food system emits four of the greenhouse gases associated with climate change: carbon dioxide (CO2), methane, nitrous oxide and chlorofluorocarbons.[6] The burning of fossil fuels (such as oil and gasoline) to power vehicles that transport food for long distances by air, ship, truck and rail releases carbon dioxide, the primary gas responsible for global warming. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are emitted from mechanical refrigerating and freezing mechanisms – both staples in food shipment and storage.[7] Anthropogenic methane emission sources include agriculture (ruminants, manure management, wetland rice production), various other industries and landfills. Anthropogenic nitrous oxide sources include fertilizer, manure, crop residues and nitrogen-fixing crops production.[8] Methane and nitrous oxide are also emitted in large amounts from natural sources. The 100-year global warming potentials of methane and nitrous oxide are recently estimated at 25 and 298 carbon dioxide equivalents, respectively.[9]

Steinfeld et al. estimate that livestock production accounts for 18 percent of anthropogenic GHG emissions expressed as carbon dioxide equivalents.[10] Of this amount, 34 percent is carbon dioxide emission from deforestation, principally in Central and South America, that they assigned to livestock production. However, deforestation associated with livestock production is not an issue in many regions. In the US, the land area occupied by forest increased between 1990 and 2009[11] and a net increase in forest land area was also reported in Canada.[12]

Of emissions they attribute to livestock production, Steinfeld et al. estimate that globally, methane accounts for 30.2 percent. Like other greenhouse gases, methane contributes to global warming when its atmospheric concentration rises. Although methane emission from agriculture and other anthropogenic sources has contributed substantially to past warming, it is of much less significance for current and recent warming. This is because there has been relatively little increase in atmospheric methane concentration in recent years[13][14][15][16] The anomalous increase in methane concentration in 2007, discussed by Rigby et al., has since been attributed principally to anomalous methane flux from natural wetlands, mostly in the tropics, rather than to anthropogenic sources.[17]

Livestock sources (including enteric fermentation and manure) account for about 3.1 percent of US anthropogenic GHG emissions expressed as carbon dioxide equivalents.[8] This EPA estimate is based on methodologies agreed to by the Conference of Parties of the UNFCCC, with 100-year global warming potentials from the IPCC Second Assessment Report used in estimating GHG emissions as carbon dioxide equivalents.

A 2016 study published in Nature Climate Change concludes that climate taxes on meat and milk would simultaneously produce substantial cuts in greenhouse gas emissions and lead to healthier diets. Such taxes would need to be designed with care: exempting and subsidising some food groups, selectively compensating for income loss, and using part of the revenue for health promotion. The study analyzed surcharges of 40% on beef and 20% on milk and their effects on consumption, climate emissions, and distribution. An optimum plan would reduce emissions by 1 billion tonnes per year – similar in amount to those from aviation globally.[18][19]

High-carbon and low-carbon food choices

Greenhouse impact across food categories: results from a 2017 review of 389 life-cycle assessments[20]

Certain foods require more fossil fuel inputs than others. Animal-based foods like meat and dairy have a much higher carbon footprint than plant-based foods.[21] Therefore, it is possible to go on a low-carbon diet and reduce one’s carbon footprint by choosing foods that need less fossil fuel and therefore emit less carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. Further research finds that even "the lowest-impact animal products typically exceed those of vegetable substitutes". [22] For example, Ritchie explains that "producing 100 grams of protein from peas emits just 0.4 kilograms of carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2eq). To get the same amount of protein from beef, emissions would be nearly 90 times higher, at 35 kgCO2eq." [21]

In June 2010, a report from United Nations Environment Programme declared that a global shift towards a vegan diet was needed to save the world from hunger, fuel shortages and climate change.[23] This will mean a huge shift in the diet of the average European, as 83% of their diets are made up of meat, dairy, and eggs.[24]

Cundiff and Harris write: "The American Dietetic Association (ADA) and Dietitians of Canada position paper officially recognizes that well-planned vegan and other vegetarian diets are appropriate for infancy and childhood."[25][26]

China introduced new dietary guidelines in 2016 which aim to cut meat consumption by 50% and thereby reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 1 billion tonnes by 2030.[27]

Industrial versus pastured livestock

Insect food snack product. Insects could be an alternative protein source with a lower carbon footprint compared to animal-based protein.[28]

Beef and dairy cattle have extremely high levels of greenhouse gas emissions, due to methane emissions from enteric fermentation, and their very large land footprint. Feed is a significant contributor to emissions from animals raised in Confined Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs) or factory farms, as corn or soybeans must be fertilized, irrigated, processed into animal feed, packaged and then transported to the CAFO. In 2005, CAFOs accounted for 74% of the world's poultry production, 50% of pork, 43% of beef, and 68% of eggs, according to the Worldwatch Institute. Proportions are significantly higher in developed countries, but are growing rapidly in developing countries, where demand is also growing fast.[29] However, in the US, only about 11% of soybean acres and 14% of corn acres are irrigated; in contrast, about 66% of vegetable acres and 79% of orchard acres are irrigated.[30][31] Soybean meal for livestock feed is commonly produced after extraction of soybean oil (used for cooking, food products, biodiesel, etc.,[32][33] so that only a fraction of processing is assignable to feed. Such examples illustrate that issues relating to irrigation, fertilization and processing for meat production should also be of concern with regard to production of other foods.

In one study, grass-fed cattle were estimated to account for 40% less greenhouse emissions than CAFO cattle[34] However, comparative effects on emissions can vary. In a US study, lower GHG emissions were associated with feedlot-finished beef production than with beef production on pasture and hay.[35] Similarly, a study in New Zealand concluded that environmental emissions per kilogram of beef produced can be reduced by incorporating feedlot finishing in a beef production system.[36] Another factor to be considered is the role of a healthy pastoral ecosystem in carbon sequestration.

Because CAFO production is highly centralized, the transport of animals to slaughter and then to distant retail outlets is a further source of greenhouse gas emissions.

In livestock production, emissions are reduced by feeding human-inedible materials that might otherwise by wasted. Elferink et al. state that "Currently, 70% of the feedstock used in the Dutch feed industry originates from the food processing industry."[37] Among several US examples is the feeding of distillers grains remaining from biofuel production. For the marketing year 2009/2010, the amount of dried distillers grains used as livestock feed (and residual) in the US amounted to 25.0 million tonnes.[38]

Distance traveled and method of transit

See also: Food miles
Take a Bite Out Of Climate Change flashcards

Carbon emissions from transport account for 11% of the total carbon emissions of food, of which the transportation from producer to consumer accounts for 4%.[39] However, "food miles" are a misleading measure; in many cases food imported from the other side of the world may have a lower carbon footprint than a locally produced equivalent, due to differences in farming methods. "Local food" campaigns may be motivated by protectionism rather than genuine environmentalism.[40]

When looking at total greenhouse gases (not just carbon dioxide), 83% of emissions come from the actual production of the food because of the methane released by livestock and the nitrous oxide due to fertilizer.[39]

The word locavore describes a person attempting to eat a diet consisting of foods harvested from within a 100-mile radius. Some studies have criticized the emphasis on local food, claiming that it romanticizes local production, but does not produce very much environmental benefit. Transportation accounts for a relatively small portion of overall energy consumption in food production, and locally produced food may be much more energy intensive than food produced in a better area. Additionally the emphasis on "inefficient" local producers over more efficient ones further away may be damaging.[41]

Processing, packaging, and waste

Highly processed foods (such as granola bars, snack chips, dessert treats, etc.) come in individual packaging, demanding high energy inputs and resulting in packaging waste. Although, processed foods create lots of packaging waste, some studies suggest that there are pros: Food packaging is important for maintaining the freshness of food items throughout their transit journeys. Additionally, food packaging insures the safety of the food products by keeping them clean and sanitary. Lastly, consumers get important information about what ingredients the food was made with by reading the food packaging. [42]

Bottled water is another example of a highly packaged food product that is considered a single-use plastic because most people discard it after they're done drinking the water. It is estimated that Americans throw away 40 million plastic water bottles every day, and bottled water is often shipped trans-continentally. Carbonated water must be chilled and kept under pressure during storage and transport so as to keep the carbon dioxide dissolved. This factor contributes greater energy usage for products shipped longer distances.

A recent study by Siddiqui S. A., et al. (2023)[43] evaluated the quality of biodegradable packaging versus conventional plastic packaging for the meat packaging industry in the European Union. Conventional plastic packaging is known for being very flexible and able to stretch greatly during processing, shipping, and handling. With easily customizable production and relatively low cost, plastic packaging is picked most often over glass, cardboard, and other sustainable packaging materials. This study researched which types of biodegradable packaging are the most heat-resistant as well, as plastic has tested superior in this aspect in the past.  The future of sustainability with low-carbon production for food packaging rides on biodegradable packaging. Cellulose-based packaging was highly effective at controlling moisture within meat packages in the EU and was able to prevent oxygen from entering. Polyhydroxyalkanoates and polylactic acid (PLA) are examples of sustainable food packaging materials that are considered better than plastic, but could actually be harmful due to that fact that they may contain chemical additives.

See also

References

  1. ^ "Low-Carbon Diet | Cool California". coolcalifornia.arb.ca.gov. Retrieved 15 May 2023.
  2. ^ Scarborough, Peter; Clark, Michael; Cobiac, Linda; Papier, Keren; Knuppel, Anika; Lynch, John; Harrington, Richard; Key, Tim; Springmann, Marco (2023). "Vegans, vegetarians, fish-eaters and meat-eaters in the UK show discrepant environmental impacts". Nature Food. 4 (7): 565–574. doi:10.1038/s43016-023-00795-w.
  3. ^ "How much of global greenhouse gas emissions come from food?". Our World in Data. Retrieved 15 May 2023.
  4. ^ "FAO - News Article: Key facts and findings". www.fao.org. Retrieved 15 May 2023.
  5. ^ Scarborough, Peter; Appleby, Paul N.; Mizdrak, Anja; Briggs, Adam D.M.; Travis, Ruth C.; Bradbury, Kathryn E.; Key, Timothy J. (July 2014). "Dietary greenhouse gas emissions of meat-eaters, fish-eaters, vegetarians and vegans in the UK". Climatic Change. 125 (2): 179–192. Bibcode:2014ClCh..125..179S. doi:10.1007/s10584-014-1169-1. PMC 4372775. PMID 25834298.
  6. ^ STAT saying that those four are emitted
  7. ^ CFC STAT
  8. ^ a b EPA. 2011. Inventory of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions and sinks: 1990-2009. United States Environmental Protection Agency. EPA 430-R-11-005. 459 pp.
  9. ^ IPCC. 2007. Fourth Assessment Report. The Scientific Basis. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Sec. 2.10.2.
  10. ^ Steinfeld, H. et al. 2006, Livestock’s Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options. Livestock, Environment and Development, FAO.
  11. ^ US EPA. 2011. Inventory of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions and sinks: 1990-2009. United States Environmental Protection Agency. EPA 430-R-11-005. 459 pp.
  12. ^ Environment Canada. 2010. National Inventory Report 1990-2008. Greenhouse Gas Sources and Sinks in Canada. Part 1. 221 pp.
  13. ^ Dlugokencky, E. J.; et al. (1998). "Continuing decline in the growth rate of the atmospheric methane burden". Nature. 393 (6684): 447–450. Bibcode:1998Natur.393..447D. doi:10.1038/30934. S2CID 4390669.
  14. ^ Dlugokencky, E.J.; et al. (2011). "Global atmospheric methane: budget, changes and dangers". Phil. Trans. R. Soc. 369 (1943): 2058–2072. Bibcode:2011RSPTA.369.2058D. doi:10.1098/rsta.2010.0341. PMID 21502176.
  15. ^ IPCC. 2007. Fourth Assessment Report. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
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  18. ^ Carrington, Damian (7 November 2016). "Tax meat and dairy to cut emissions and save lives, study urges". The Guardian. London, United Kingdom. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 7 November 2016.
  19. ^ Springmann, Marco; Mason-D'Croz, Daniel; Robinson, Sherman; Wiebe, Keith; Godfray, H Charles J; Rayner, Mike; Scarborough, Peter (7 November 2016). "Mitigation potential and global health impacts from emissions pricing of food commodities". Nature Climate Change (1): 69. Bibcode:2017NatCC...7...69S. doi:10.1038/nclimate3155. ISSN 1758-678X. S2CID 88921469.
  20. ^ Stephen Clune; Enda Crossin; Karli Verghese (1 January 2017). "Systematic review of greenhouse gas emissions for different fresh food categories" (PDF). Journal of Cleaner Production. 140 (2): 766–783. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.04.082.
  21. ^ a b Ritchie, Hannah (2023). "Less meat is nearly always better than sustainable meat, to reduce your carbon footprint". Our World in Data.
  22. ^ Poore, J.; Nemecek, T. (2018). "Reducing food's environmental impacts through producers and consumers". Science. 360 (6392): 987–992.
  23. ^ Felicity Carus UN urges global move to meat and dairy-free diet, The Guardian, 2 June 2010
  24. ^ Sandström, V. (2018). "The role of trade in the greenhouse gas footprints of EU diets". Global Food Security. 19: 48–55.
  25. ^ Cundiff, David K.; Harris, William (2006). "Case report of 5 siblings: malnutrition? Rickets? DiGeorge syndrome? Developmental delay?". Nutrition Journal. 5: 1. doi:10.1186/1475-2891-5-1. PMC 1363354. PMID 16412249.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  26. ^ American Dietetic Association (2003). "Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: Vegetarian diets". Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 103 (6): 748–765. doi:10.1053/jada.2003.50142. PMID 12778049.
  27. ^ Milman, Oliver (20 June 2016). "China's plan to cut meat consumption by 50% cheered by climate campaigners". The Guardian. Retrieved 20 June 2016.
  28. ^ Vauterin, A.; Steiner, B.; Sillman, J.; Kahiluoto, H. (20 October 2021). "The potential of insect protein to reduce food-based carbon footprints in Europe: The case of broiler meat production". Journal of Cleaner Production. 320: 128799. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.128799. ISSN 0959-6526.
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  34. ^ Brian Halweil and Danielle Nierenberg, 2008, Meat and Seafood: The Global Diet’s Most Costly Ingredients, in The Worldwatch Institute's State of the World 2008, p. 65
  35. ^ Pelletier, N.; Pirog, R.; Rasmussen, R. (2010). "Comparative life cycle environmental impacts of three beef production strategies in the Upper Midwestern United States". Agric. Systems. 103 (6): 380–389. doi:10.1016/j.agsy.2010.03.009.
  36. ^ White, T. A.; Snow, V. A.; King, W. M. (2010). "Intensification of New Zealand beef farming systems". Agric. Systems. 103: 21–36. doi:10.1016/j.agsy.2009.08.003.
  37. ^ Elferink, E. V., S. Nonhebel and H. C. Moll. 2008. Feeding livestock food residue and the consequences for the environmental impact of meat. J. Cleaner Prod. 16: 1227-1233
  38. ^ Hoffman, L. and A. Baker. 2010. Market issues and prospects for U.S. distillers' grains supply, use, and price relationships. USDA FDS-10k-01).
  39. ^ a b Bijal Trevedi (11 September 2008). "What Is Your Dinner Doing to the Climate". New Scientist.
  40. ^ "Food politics: Voting with your trolley". The Economist. 7 December 2006. Retrieved 23 April 2012.
  41. ^ Hiroku Shimozu; Pierre Desrochers (24 October 2008). "Yes We Have No Bananas: A Critique of the 'Food Miles' Perspective". Mercatus Policy Series (8). SSRN 1315986.
  42. ^ Marsh, K.; Bugusu, B. (2007). "Food packaging—roles, materials, and environmental issues" (PDF). Journal of food science. 72 (3): R39–R55.
  43. ^ Siddiqui, S. A.; Sundarsingh, A.; Bahmid, N. A.; Nirmal, N.; Denayer, J. F.; Karimi, K. (2023). "A critical review on biodegradable food packaging for meat: Materials, sustainability, regulations, and perspectives in the EU". Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety.

Additional sources

External links

Banana index at The Economist

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