Genghis Khan: Difference between revisions
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{{About|the person}} |
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ghengis khan was an evil man. he and his mongolian army cruised around on their flying helicopter like vehicles killing all who crossed them with their death rays. ghengis khan is also responsible for the death of John F Kennedy, Jimmi Hendrix, and lots of other cool people. |
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{{Infobox_Monarch|name=Genghis Khan |
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|title=Khagan of the Mongol Empire |
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|image=[[Image:YuanEmperorAlbumGenghisPortrait.jpg|170px]] |
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|caption= |
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|reign=1206–1227 |
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|coronation=spring<ref>"History of the World Conqueror",the author is Ala-al-Dn‘Aa-Malik Juwain</ref> 1206 in [[Kurultai|khurultai]] at the [[Onon River]], [[Mongolia]] |
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|othertitles=[[Khan (title)|Khan]], [[Khagan]]<br>[[Temple name]]: Taizu (太祖)<br>[[Posthumous name]]: Emperor Fatian Qiyun Shengwu<br>(法天啟運聖武皇帝) |
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|full name=[[Image:Cinggis qayan.png|right|24px]]Genghis Khan <br />([[birth name]]: Borjigin Temüjin)<br />[[Mongolian script]] '''ᠪᠣᠷᠵᠢᠭᠢᠨ ᠲᠡᠮᠦᠵᠢᠨ'''. |
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|successor=[[Ögedei Khan]] |
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|consort=[[Borte|Börte Ujin]]<br />[[Khulan (wife of Genghis Khan)|Khulan]]<br />[[Yisugen]]<br />[[Yisui]]<br />others |
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|issue=[[Jochi]]<br />[[Chagatai Khan|Chagatai]]<br />[[Ögedei Khan|Ögedei]]<br />[[Tolui]]<br />others |
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|royal house=[[Borjigin]] |
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|royal anthem = |
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|father=[[Yesugei Ba'atur|Yesükhei]] |
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|mother=[[Ho'elun]] |
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|date of birth={{circa}} 1162 |
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|place of birth=[[Khentii Mountains]], [[Mongolia]] |
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|date of death=1227 (aged 65) |
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|}} |
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'''Genghis Khan''' ({{pron-en|ˈdʒɛŋɡɪs ˈkɑːn}} or {{IPA-en|ˈɡɛŋɡɪs ˈkɑːn|}}<ref>[http://www.bartleby.com/61/38/G0083800.html ''The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition''] (2000).</ref>; [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]]: {{lang|khk-Cyrl|Чингис Хаан}} or '''ᠴᠢᠩᠭᠢᠰ ᠬᠠᠭᠠᠨ''', ''{{lang|khk-Latn|Chinggis Khaan}}'', or ''{{lang|mvf-Latn|Činggis Qaγan}}''), {{IPA-mn|tʃiŋɡɪs xaːŋ|IPA|GenghisKhan01.ogg}}; probably<ref name="birth">Rashid al-Din asserts that Genghis Khan lived to the age of 72, placing his year of birth at 1155. The ''Yuanshi'' (元史, ''History of the [[Yuan dynasty]]'' records his year of birth as 1165. According to Ratchnevsky, accepting a birth in 1155 would render Genghis Khan a father at the age of 30 and would imply that he personally commanded the expedition against the Tanguts at the age of 72. Also, according to the ''[[Altan Tobci]]'', Genghis Khan's sister, Temülin, was nine years younger than he; but the Secret History relates that Temülin was an infant during the attack by the Merkits, during which Genghis Khan would have been 18, had he been born in 1155. Zhao Hong reports in his travelogue that the Mongols he questioned did not know and had never known their ages.</ref> 1162–1227), born '''[[Borjigin|B.]] Temüjin''' ({{Audio|Temujin.ogg|pronunciation}}, was the founder, ''[[Khan (title)|Khan]]'' (ruler) and ''[[Khagan]]'' (emperor) of the [[Mongol Empire]], which became the [[World's largest empires|largest]] contiguous [[empire]] in history after his death. |
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He came to power by uniting many of the [[nomadic]] tribes of [[northeast Asia]]. After founding the [[Mongol Empire]] and being proclaimed "Genghis Khan", he started the [[Mongol invasions]] that would ultimately result in the conquest of most of Eurasia. These included raids or invasions of the [[Kara-Khitan Khanate]], [[Caucasus]], [[Mongol invasion of Khwarezmia|Khwarezmid Empire]], [[Western Xia]] and [[Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin]] dynasties. These campaigns were often accompanied by wholesale massacres of the civilian populations - especially in [[Mongol invasion of Khwarezmia|Khwarezmia]]. By the end of his life, the Mongol Empire occupied a substantial portion of [[Central Asia]] and [[China]]. |
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Before Genghis Khan died, he assigned [[Ögedei Khan]] as his successor and split his empire into [[khanate]]s among his sons and grandsons.<ref>John Joseph Saunders-The History of the Mongol Conquests</ref> He died in 1227 after defeating the Western Xia. He was buried in an [[Tomb of Genghis Khan|unmarked grave]] somewhere in Mongolia at an unknown location. His descendants went on to stretch the Mongol Empire across most of [[Eurasia]] by conquering and/or creating [[vassal]] states out of all of modern-day China, [[Korea]], the [[Caucasus]], Central Asian countries, and substantial portions of modern [[Eastern Europe]], [[Russia]] and the [[Middle East]]. Many of these invasions resulted in the large-scale slaughter of local populations, which have given Genghis Khan and his empire, a fearsome reputation in local histories. |
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Beyond his great military accomplishments, Genghis Khan also advanced the Mongol Empire in other ways. He decreed the adoption of the [[Old Uyghur alphabet|Uyghur]] script as the Mongol Empire's writing system. He also promoted religious tolerance in the Mongol Empire, and created a unified empire from the nomadic tribes of northeast Asia. Present-day Mongolians regard him highly as the founding father of [[Mongolia]].<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2010-01-26|url=http://www.accd.edu/sac/history/keller/mongols/empsub1.html|title=Genghis Khan |publisher=[[North Georgia College and State University]]}}</ref> |
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==Early life== |
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===Lineage=== |
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{{Main|Family tree of Genghis Khan}} |
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Temüjin was related on his father's side to [[Khabul Khan]], [[Ambaghai]] and [[Qutula Khan]] who had headed the [[Khamag Mongol|Mongol confederation]]. When the Chinese [[Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin Dynasty]] switched support from the Mongols to the [[Tatar]]s in 1161, they destroyed Khabul Khan.<ref>{{cite book|first=Paul|last=Ratchnevsky|title=Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy|publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing]]|year=1991|isbn= 0-631-16785-4|pages=9–10}}</ref> Genghis's father, [[Yesugei|Yesügei]] (leader of the [[Borjigin]] and nephew to Ambaghai and Qutula Khan), emerged as the head of the ruling clan of the Mongols, but this position was contested by the rival [[Tayichiud|Tayichi’ud]] clan, who descended directly from [[Ambaghai]]. When the Tatars grew too powerful after 1161, the Jin switched their support from the Tatars to the [[Kerait]]s. |
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===Birth=== |
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[[Image:onon.jpg|thumb|The [[Onon River]], [[Mongolia]] in autumn, a region where Borjigin Temüjin was born and grew up.]] |
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Because of the lack of contemporary written records, there is very little factual information about the early life of Temüjin. The few sources that provide insight into this period often conflict. |
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Temüjin was born in 1162<ref name="birth"/> in a Mongol tribe near [[Burkhan Khaldun]] mountain and the [[Onon River|Onon]] and [[Kherlen River]]s in modern-day [[Mongolia]], not far from the current capital [[Ulan Bator|Ulaanbaatar]]. [[The Secret History of the Mongols]] reports that Temüjin was born with a blood clot grasped in his fist, a traditional sign that he was destined to become a great leader. He was the third-oldest son of his father [[Yesugei|Yesükhei]], a minor tribal chief of the [[List of medieval Mongolian tribes and clans|Kiyad]] and an ally of [[Wang Khan|Ong Khan]] of the [[Kerait]] tribe,<ref>{{cite book|author=Morgan, David|title=The Mongols (Peoples of Europe)|year=1990|page=58}}</ref> and the oldest son of his mother [[Hoelun]]. According to the Secret History, Temüjin was named after a [[Tatars|Tatar]] chieftain whom his father had just captured. The name also suggests that they may have been descended from a family of blacksmiths (see section [[Genghis Khan#Name and title|Name and title]] below). |
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Yesükhei's clan was called [[Borjigin]] (Боржигин), and Hoelun was from the [[Olkhunut]], the sub-lineage of the [[Onggirat]] tribe.<ref>Guida Myrl Jackson-Laufer, Guida M. Jackson-Encyclopedia of traditional epics,p. 527</ref><ref>Paul Kahn, Francis Woodman Cleaves-The secret history of the Mongols, p.192</ref> Like other tribes, they were [[nomad]]s. Because his father was a chieftain, as were his predecessors, Temüjin was of a noble background. This higher social standing made it easier to solicit help from and eventually consolidate the other Mongol tribes.{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}} |
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No accurate portraits of Genghis exist today, and any surviving depictions are considered to be artistic interpretations. Persian historian [[Rashid-al-Din Hamadani|Rashid-al-Din]] recorded in his "''[[Jami' al-tawarikh|Chronicles]]''" that the legendary "glittering" ancestor of Genghis was tall, long-bearded, red-haired, and green-eyed. Rashid al-Din also described the first meeting of Genghis and [[Kublai Khan]], when Genghis was shocked to find that Kublai had not inherited his red hair.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-05-20|url=http://www.republicanchina.org/Mongols.html|title= THE MONGOLS — PART I |publisher=Republican China}}</ref> Also according to al-Din Genghis's Borjigid clan, had a legend involving their origins: it began as the result of an affair between Alan-ko and a stranger to her land, a glittering man who happened to have red hair and bluish-green eyes. Modern historian [[Paul Ratchnevsky]] has suggested in his Genghis biography that the "glittering man" may have been from the [[Kyrgyz]] people, who historically displayed these same characteristics. Controversies aside, the closest depiction generally accepted by most historians is the portrait currently in the National Palace Museum in Taipei, Taiwan (see picture above).{{Citation needed|date=June 2010}} |
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===Early life and family=== |
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Temüjin had three brothers named Khasar (or [[Jöchi Khasar|Qasar]]), Khajiun, and [[Temüge]], and one sister named Temülen (or Temülin), as well as two half-brothers named [[Bekhter]] and [[Belgutei]]. Like many of the nomads of Mongolia, Temüjin's early life was difficult. His father [[arranged marriage|arranged a marriage]] for him, and at nine years old, he was delivered by his father to the family of his future wife [[Börte]], who was a member of the tribe [[Onggirat]]. Temujin was to live there in service to Dei Sechen, the head of the new household, until he reached the [[child marriage|marriageable age]] of 12. While heading home, his father ran into the neighbouring [[Tatars]], who had long been enemies of the Mongols, and he was subsequently poisoned by the food they offered. Upon learning this, Temüjin returned home to claim his father's position as chieftain of the tribe; however, his father's tribe refused to be led by a boy so young. They abandoned [[Hoelun]] and her children, leaving them without protection. |
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[[File:Djengiz Khân et Toghril Ong Khan.jpeg|thumb|300px|Genghis Khan and [[Ong Khan]]. Illustration from a 15th century [[Jami' al-tawarikh]] manuscript]] |
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For the next several years, Hoelun and her children lived in poverty, surviving primarily on wild fruits and ox carcasses, [[marmot]]s, and other [[small game]] hunted by Temüjin and his brothers. It was during one hunting excursion that 10-year-old Temüjin killed his half-brother, [[Bekhter]], during a fight which resulted from a dispute over hunting spoils.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-05-20|url=http://www.csuchico.edu/~cheinz/syllabi/fall99/kong/Index1.htm|title=The Emperors of Emperors |publisher=[[California State University]]}}</ref> This incident cemented his position as head of the household. |
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In another incident in 1182 he was captured in a raid and held prisoner by his father's former allies, the [[Tayichi'ud]]. The Tayichi'ud enslaved Temüjin (reportedly with a [[cangue]]), but with the help of a sympathetic watcher, the father of [[Chilaun]] (who would later become a general of Genghis Khan), he was able to escape from the [[Yurt|ger]] in the middle of the night by hiding in a river crevice.{{citation needed|date=September 2010}} It was around this time that [[Jelme]] and Bo'orchu, two of Genghis Khan's future generals, joined forces with him. Temüjin's reputation also became widespread after his escape from the Tayichi'ud. |
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At this time, none of the tribal confederations of Mongolia were united politically, and arranged marriages were often used to solidify temporary alliances. Temujin grew up observing the tough political climate of Mongolia, which includes tribal warfare, thievery, raids, corruption and continuing acts of revenge carried out between the various confederations, all compounded by interference from foreign forces such as the Chinese dynasties to the south. Temüjin's mother Ho'elun taught him many lessons about the unstable political climate of Mongolia, especially the need for [[military alliance|alliance]]s. |
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As previously arranged by his father, Temüjin married [[Börte]] of the [[Olkut'hun]] tribe when he was around 16 in order to cement alliances between their respective tribes. Börte had four sons, [[Jochi]] (1185–1226), [[Chagatai Khan|Chagatai]] (1187—1241), [[Ögedei Khan|Ögedei]] (1189—1241), and [[Tolui]] (1190–1232). Genghis Khan also had many other children with his other wives, but they were excluded from the succession, and records of daughters are nonexistent. Soon after Börte's marriage to Temüjin, she was kidnapped by the [[Merkit]]s, and reportedly given away as a wife. Temüjin rescued her with the help of his friend and future rival, [[Jamuka]], and his protector, [[Ong Khan]] of the [[Kerait]] tribe. She gave birth to a son, [[Jochi]], nine months later, clouding the issue of his parentage. Despite speculation over Jochi, Börte would be his only empress, though Temüjin did follow tradition by taking several [[Morganatic marriage|morganatic]] wives.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-05-20|url=http://www.biography.com/search/article.do?id=9308634|title=Genghis Khan Biography (1162/7)|publisher=[[The Biography Channel]]}}</ref> |
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===Religion=== |
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Genghis Khan's religion is widely speculated to be [[Shamanism]] or [[Tengriism]], which was very likely among nomadic [[Mongol]]-[[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] tribes of Central Asia. But he was very tolerant religiously, and interested to learn philosophical and moral lessons from other religions. To do so, he consulted [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] monks, [[Christianity|Christian]] missionaries, [[Islam|Muslim]] merchants, and the [[Taoism|Taoist]] monk [[Qiu Chuji]]. |
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==Uniting the confederations== |
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[[Image:Asia 1200ad.jpg|thumb|300px|Asia in 1200 AD]] |
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The [[Central Asia]]n plateau (north of [[China]]) around the time of Temüjin (the early 13th century) was divided into several tribes or [[confederation]]s, among them [[Naimans]], [[Merkit]]s, [[Uyghur people|Uyghurs]], [[Tatars]], [[Mongols]], and [[Keraits]], that were all prominent in their own right and often unfriendly toward each other as evidenced by random raids, revenges, and plundering. |
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Temüjin began his slow ascent to power by offering himself as an ally (or, according to others sources, a [[vassal]]) to his father's ''anda'' (sworn brother or [[blood brother]]) [[Wang Khan|Toghrul]], who was Khan of the [[Kerait]], and is better known by the Chinese title Ong Khan (or "[[Wang Khan]]"), which the [[Jin Dynasty (1115-1234)|Jin Empire]] granted him in 1197. This relationship was first reinforced when Börte was captured by the Merkits; it was Toghrul to whom Temüjin turned for support. In response, Toghrul offered his vassal 20,000 of his Kerait warriors and suggested that he also involve his childhood friend Jamuka, who had himself become Khan (ruler) of his own tribe, the Jadaran.<ref>{{cite book|author=Grousset, Rene|title=Conqueror of the World: The Life of Chingis-khan|location=[[New York]]|publisher=[[Viking Press]]|year=1944}}</ref> Although the campaign was successful and led to the recapture of Börte and utter defeat of the Merkits, it also paved the way for the split between the childhood friends, Temüjin and Jamuka. Temüjin had become [[blood brother]] (''anda'') with [[Jamukha|Jamuka]] earlier, and they had vowed to remain eternally faithful. |
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The main opponents of the Mongol confederation (traditionally the "Mongols") around 1200 were the [[Naimans]] to the west, the Merkits to the north, [[Tanguts]] to the south, and the [[Jin]] and [[Tatars]] to the east. By 1190, Temüjin, his followers, and their advisors, had united the smaller Mongol confederation only. In his rule and his conquest of rival tribes, Temüjin broke with Mongol tradition in a few crucial ways. He delegated authority based on merit and loyalty, rather than family ties. As an incentive for absolute obedience and following his rule of law, the [[Yassa]] code, Temüjin promised civilians and soldiers wealth from future possible war spoils. As he defeated rival tribes, he did not drive away enemy soldiers and abandon the rest. Instead, he took the conquered tribe under his protection and integrated its members into his own tribe. He would even have his mother adopt orphans from the conquered tribe, bringing them into his family. These political innovations inspired great loyalty among the conquered people, making Temüjin stronger with each victory.<ref>{{cite book|author=Weatherford, Jack|title=Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World|page=44|publisher=Three Rivers Press|year=2004|isbn=0-609-80964-4|chapter=[http://www.cse.iitk.ac.in/~amit/books/weatherford-2004-genghis-khan-making.html 2: Tale of Three Rivers]}}</ref> |
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[[Image:Genghis Khan's enthronement in 1206.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Genghis Khan proclaimed Khagan of all Mongols. Illustration from a 15th century [[Jami' al-tawarikh]] manuscript]] |
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Toghrul's (Wang Khan) son [[Senggum]] was jealous of Temüjin's growing power, and his affinity with his father. He allegedly planned to assassinate Temüjin. Toghrul, though allegedly saved on multiple occasions by Temüjin, gave in to his son<ref name="resurrection">{{cite book|author=Man, John|title=Genghis Khan: Life, Death and Resurrection|location=[[London]]; [[New York]]|publisher=[[Bantam Press]]|year=2004|isbn= 0-593-05044-4}}</ref> and became uncooperative with Temüjin. Temüjin learned of Senggum's intentions and eventually defeated him and his loyalists. One of the later ruptures between Toghrul and Temüjin was Toghrul's refusal to give his daughter in marriage to [[Jochi]], the eldest son of Temüjin, a sign of disrespect in the Mongolian culture. This act led to the split between both factions, and was a prelude to war. Toghrul allied himself with [[Jamuka]], who already opposed Temüjin's forces; however the internal dispute between Toghrul and Jamuka, plus the desertion of a number of their allies to Temüjin, led to Toghrul's defeat. Jamuka escaped during the conflict. This defeat was a catalyst for the fall and eventual dissolution of the [[Kerait]] tribe. |
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[[Image:Genghiskhantraditional.svg|thumb|upright|60px|Genghis Khan in traditional Mongolian writing]] |
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The next direct threat to Temüjin was the [[Naimans]] (Naiman Mongols), with whom Jamuka and his followers took [[refuge]]. The Naimans did not surrender, although enough sectors again voluntarily sided with Temüjin. In 1201, a [[kurultai]] elected [[Jamuka]] as [[Khan (title)|Gur Khan]], "universal ruler", a title used by the rulers of the [[Kara-Khitan Khanate]]. Jamuka's assumption of this title was the final breach with Temüjin, and Jamuka formed a coalition of tribes to oppose him. Before the conflict, however, several generals abandoned Jamuka, including [[Subutai]], Jelme's well-known younger brother. After several battles, Jamuka was finally turned over to Temüjin by his own men in 1206. |
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According to the ''Secret History'', Temüjin again offered his friendship to Jamuka, asking him to return to his side. Temüjin had killed the men who betrayed Jamuka, stating that he did not want disloyal men in his army. Jamuka refused the offer of friendship and reunion, saying that there can only be one Sun in the sky, and he asked for a noble death. The custom is to die without spilling blood, which is granted by breaking the back. Jamuka requested this form of death, despite the fact that in the past Jamuka had been known to have boiled his opponent's generals alive. The rest of the [[Merkit]] clan that sided with the [[Naimans]] were defeated by [[Subutai]], who is now a member of Temüjin's personal guard and would later become one of the successful [[commander]]s of Genghis Khan. The Naimans' defeat left Genghis Khan as the sole ruler of the Mongol plains, which means all the prominent confederations fell and/or united under Temüjin's Mongol confederation. |
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Accounts of Genghis Khan's life are marked by claims of a series of betrayals and conspiracies. These include rifts with his early allies such as Jamuka (who also wanted to be a ruler of Mongol tribes) and Wang Khan (his and his father's ally), his son Jochi, and problems with the most important [[Shaman]] who was allegedly trying to break him up with brother Qasar who was serving Genghis Khan loyally. His [[military strategy|military strategies]] showed a deep interest in gathering good [[intelligence (information gathering)|intelligence]] and understanding the [[motivation]]s of his rivals as exemplified by his extensive spy network and [[Yam (route)|Yam]] route systems. He seemed to be a quick student, adopting new technologies and ideas that he encountered, such as [[siege warfare]] from the [[Military history of China (pre-1911)|Chinese]]. |
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As a result by 1206 Temüjin had managed to unite or subdue the [[Merkit]]s, [[Naimans]], [[Mongols]], [[Keraits]], [[Tatars]], [[Uyghur people|Uyghurs]] and disparate other smaller tribes under his rule. It was a monumental feat for the "Mongols" (as they became known collectively). At a ''[[Kurultai]]'', a council of Mongol chiefs, he was acknowledged as "[[Khan (title)|Khan]]" of the consolidated tribes and took the new [[#Name and title|title]] "Genghis Khan". The title [[Khagan]] was not conferred on Genghis until after his death, when his son and successor, Ögedei took the title for himself and extended it posthumously to his father (as he was also to be posthumously declared the founder of the [[Yuan Dynasty]]). This unification of all confederations by Genghis Khan established peace between previously warring tribes and a single political and military force under Genghis Khan. |
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{{See also|Mongols before Genghis Khan|Mongols}} |
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==Military campaigns== |
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{{See also|Mongol invasions}} |
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[[Image:Gengis Khan empire-en.svg|300px|thumb|All significant conquests and movements of Genghis Khan and his generals during his lifetime]] |
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===Western Xia Dynasty=== |
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During the 1206 political rise of Genghis Khan, the [[Mongol Empire]] created by Genghis Khan and his allies shared its western borders with the [[Tangut]]s' [[Western Xia|Western Xia Dynasty]]. To its east and south was the [[Jin Dynasty, 1115–1234|Jin Dynasty]], founded by the [[Manchu]]rian [[Jurchen people|Jurchens]], who ruled northern [[China]] as well as being the traditional overlord of the Mongolian tribes for centuries. |
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Genghis Khan organized his people, army, and his state to first prepare for war with Western Xia, or Xi Xia, which was closer to the Mongolian lands. He correctly believed that the more powerful Jin Dynasty's young ruler would not come to the aid of Xi Xia. When the Tanguts requested help from the Jin Dynasty, they were flatly refused.<ref name="resurrection" /> Despite initial difficulties in capturing its well-defended cities, Genghis Khan forced the surrender of Western Xia by 1209. |
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===Jin Dynasty=== |
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{{Main|Mongol-Jin War}} |
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In 1211, after the conquest of Western Xia, Genghis Khan planned again to conquer the [[Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin Dynasty]]. The commander of the Jin Dynasty army made a tactical mistake in not attacking the Mongols at the first opportunity. Instead, the Jin commander sent a messenger, Ming-Tan, to the Mongol side, who promptly defected and told the Mongols that the Jin army was waiting on the other side of the pass. At this engagement fought at Badger Pass the Mongols massacred thousands of Jin troops. <!--Decades later, when the [[Tao]]ist sage [[Ch'ang Ch'un]] was passing through this pass to meet Genghis Khan, he was stunned to still see the bones of so many people scattered in the pass. On his way back, he camped close to this pass for three days and prayed for the departed souls. --> In 1215 Genghis besieged, captured, and sacked the Jin capital of Yanjing (later known as [[Beijing]]). This forced the Emperor [[Emperor Xuanzong of Jin|Xuanzong]] to move his [[Capital (political)|capital]] south to [[Kaifeng]], abandoning the northern half of his kingdom to the Mongols. |
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===Kara-Khitan Khanate=== |
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{{Main|Kara-Khitan Khanate}} |
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[[Image:Premongol.png|thumb|300px|Location of Kara-Khitan Khanate]] |
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[[Kuchlug]], the deposed [[Khan (title)|Khan]] of the [[Naimans|Naiman]] [[confederation]] that Temüjin defeated and folded into the Mongol nation, fled west and usurped the [[khanate]] of [[Kara-Khitan Khanate|Kara-Khitan]] (also known as '''Kara Kitay'''). Genghis Khan decided to conquer the Kara-Khitan khanate and defeat [[Kuchlug]], possibly to take him out of power. By this time the Mongol army was exhausted from ten years of continuous campaigning in China against the [[Western Xia]] and [[Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin Dynasty]]. Therefore Genghis sent only two [[tumen]] (20,000 soldiers) against Kuchlug, under his younger general, [[Jebe]], known as "The Arrow". |
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With such a small force, the invading Mongols were forced to change strategies and resort to inciting internal revolt among Kuchlug's supporters, leaving the Khara-Khitan khanate more vulnerable to Mongol conquest. As a result, Kuchlug's army was defeated west of [[Kashgar]]. Kuchlug fled again, but was soon hunted down by Jebe's army and executed. By 1218, as a result of defeat of Kara-Khitan khanate, the Mongol Empire and its control extended as far west as [[Lake Balkhash]], which bordered the [[Khwarezmia]] (Khwarezmid Empire), a [[Islam|Muslim]] state that reached the [[Caspian Sea]] to the west and [[Persian Gulf]] and the [[Arabian Sea]] to the south. |
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===Khwarezmian Empire=== |
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{{Main|Mongol invasion of Khwarezmia}} |
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[[Image:Khwarezmid Empire 1190-1220.png|thumb|[[Khwarezmid Empire]] (1190–1220)]] |
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[[File:During the battle of Indus.jpg|thumb|Genghis Khan watches in amazement as the [[Khwarezm]]i [[Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu|Jalal ad-Din]] prepares to ford the [[Indus]].]] |
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In the early 13th century, the [[Khwarezmid Empire#Khwarezmian Dynasty|Khwarezmian Dynasty]] was governed by [[Shah]] [[Muhammad II of Khwarezm|Ala ad-Din Muhammad]]. Genghis Khan saw the potential advantage in Khwarezmia as a commercial trading partner using the [[Silk Road]], and he initially sent a 500-man [[camel train|caravan]] to establish official trade ties with the empire. However, [[Inalchuq]], the governor of the Khwarezmian city of [[Otrar]], attacked the caravan that came from Mongolia, claiming that the caravan contained [[Espionage|spies]] and therefore was a conspiracy against Khwarezmia. The situation became further complicated because the governor later refused to make repayments for the looting of the caravan and handing over the perpetrators. Genghis Khan then sent again a second group of three ambassadors (two Mongols and a Muslim) to meet the Shah himself instead of the governor Inalchuq. The [[Shah]] had all the men shaved and the Muslim [[decapitation|beheaded]] and sent his head back with the two remaining ambassadors. This was seen as an affront and insult to Genghis Khan. Outraged Genghis Khan planned one of his largest invasion campaigns by organizing together around 200,000 soldiers (20 [[tumen]]s), his most capable generals and some of his sons. He left a commander and number of troops in China, designated his successors to be his family members and likely appointed [[Ogedei]] to be his immediate successor and then went out to Khwarezmia. |
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The Mongol army under Genghis Khan, generals and his sons crossed the [[Tian Shan|Tien Shan]] mountains by entering the area controlled by the [[Khwarezmian Empire]]. After compiling intelligence from many sources Genghis Khan carefully prepared his army, which was divided into three groups. His son [[Jochi]] led the first division into the northeast of Khwarezmia. The second division under [[Jebe]] marched secretly to the southeast part of Khwarzemia to form, with the first division, a [[Pincer movement|pincer attack]] on [[Samarkand]]. The third division under Genghis Khan and [[Tolui]] marched to the northwest and attacked Khwarzemia from that direction. |
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The Shah's army was split by diverse internal disquisitions and by the Shah's decision to divide his army into small groups concentrated in various cities. This fragmentation was decisive in Khwarezmia's defeats, as it allowed the Mongols, although exhausted from the long journey, to immediately set about defeating small fractions of the Khwarzemi forces instead of facing a unified defense. The Mongol army quickly seized the town of [[Otrar]], relying on superior strategy and tactics. Genghis Khan ordered the wholesale massacre of many of the civilians, enslaved the rest of the population and executed Inalchuq by pouring molten [[silver]] into his ears and eyes, as retribution for his actions. Near the end of the battle the Shah fled rather than surrender. Genghis Khan charged [[Subutai]] and Jebe with hunting him down, giving them two years and 20,000 men. The Shah died under mysterious circumstances on a small island within his empire. |
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The Mongols' conquest, even by their own standards, was brutal. After the capital [[Samarkand]] fell, the capital was moved to [[Bukhara]] by the remaining men, and Genghis Khan dedicated two of his generals and their forces to completely destroying the remnants of the Khwarezmid Empire, including not only royal buildings, but entire towns, populations and even vast swaths of farmland. According to stories, Genghis Khan even went so far as to divert a river through the Khwarezmid emperor's birthplace, erasing it from the map. |
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The Mongols attacked [[Samarkand]] using prisoners as body shields. After several days only a few remaining soldiers, die-hard supporters of the [[Shah]], held out in the citadel. After the fortress fell, Genghis supposedly reneged on his surrender terms and executed every soldier that had taken arms against him at [[Samarkand]]. The people of Samarkand were ordered to evacuate and assemble in a plain outside the city, where they were killed and pyramids of severed heads raised as a symbol of victory.<ref>[https://faculty.washington.edu/modelski/CAWC.htm Central Asian world cities]</ref> |
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The city of Bukhara was not heavily fortified, with a moat and a single wall, and the citadel typical of Khwarezmi cities. The city leaders opened the gates to the Mongols, though a unit of Turkish defenders held the city's citadel for another twelve days. Survivors from the citadel were executed, artisans and craftsmen were sent back to Mongolia, young men who had not fought were drafted into the Mongolian army and the rest of the population was sent into slavery. As the Mongol soldiers looted the city, a fire broke out, razing most of the city to the ground.<ref name="Morgan">{{cite book |
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|last=Morgan |
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|first=David |
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|authorlink=David Morgan (historian) |
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|title=The Mongols. The Peoples of Europe |
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|year=1986 |
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|publisher=Blackwell Publishing |
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|isbn=0-631-17563-6 |
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}}</ref> Genghis Khan had the city's surviving population assemble in the main mosque of the town, where he declared that he was the flail of God, sent to punish them for their sins. |
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Meanwhile, the wealthy trading city of [[Konya-Urgench|Urgench]] was still in the hands of Khwarezmian forces. The assault on Urgench proved to be the most difficult battle of the Mongol invasion and the city fell only after the defenders put up a stout defense, fighting block for block. Mongolian casualties were higher than normal, due to the unaccustomed difficulty of adapting Mongolian tactics to city fighting. |
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As usual, the artisans were sent back to Mongolia, young women and children were given to the Mongol soldiers as slaves, and the rest of the population was massacred. The Persian scholar [[Ata al-Mulk Juvayni|Juvayni]] states that 50,000 Mongol soldiers were given the task of executing twenty-four Urgench citizens each, which would mean that 1.2 million people were killed. While this is almost certainly an exaggeration, the sacking of Urgench is considered one of the [[List of wars and disasters by death toll#Individual battles and sieges|bloodiest massacres in human history]]. |
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In the meantime, Genghis Khan selected his third son [[Ögedei Khan|Ögedei]] as his successor before his army set out, and specified that subsequent Khans should be his direct descendants. Genghis Khan also left [[Muqali]], one of his most trusted generals, as the supreme commander of all Mongol forces in Jin China while he was out battling the Khwarezmid Empire to the west. |
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===Georgia and Volga Bulgaria=== |
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{{Main|Mongol invasions of Georgia|Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria}} |
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After the defeat of the Khwarezmian Empire in 1220, Genghis Khan gathered his forces in [[Iran|Persia]] and [[Armenia]] to return to the Mongolian steppes. Under the suggestion of [[Subutai]], the Mongol army was split into two component forces. Genghis Khan led the main army on a raid through [[Afghanistan]] and northern [[India]] towards Mongolia, while another 20,000 (two [[tumen]]) contingent marched through the [[Caucasus]] and into [[Russia]] under generals [[Jebe]] and Subutai. They pushed deep into [[Armenia]] and [[Azerbaijan]]. The Mongols destroyed the kingdom of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], sacked the [[Republic of Genoa|Genoese]] trade-fortress of [[Caffa]] in [[Crimea]] and overwintered near the [[Black Sea]]. Heading home, Subutai's forces attacked the [[Kipchak]]s and were intercepted by the allied but poorly coordinated 80,000 [[Kievan Rus']] troops led by [[Mstislav the Bold]] of [[Halych]] and [[Mstislav III of Kiev]] who went out to stop the Mongols' actions in the area. [[Subutai]] sent emissaries to the [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] [[prince]]s calling for a separate peace, but the emissaries were executed. At the [[Battle of Kalka River]] in 1223, Subutai's forces defeated the larger Kievan force, while losing the [[battle of Samara Bend]] against the neighboring Volga Bulgars.<ref>{{cite book|last=De Hartog|first=Leo|title=Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World|year=1988|publisher=[[I.B. Tauris]]|location=[[London]], [[United Kingdom|UK]]|pages=122–123}}</ref> The Russian princes then sued for peace. [[Subutai]] agreed but was in no mood to pardon the princes. As was customary in Mongol society for nobility, the Russian princes were given a bloodless death. Subutai had a large wooden platform constructed on which he ate his meals along with his other generals. Six Russian princes, including [[Mstislav III of Kiev]], were put under this platform and crushed to death. |
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The Mongols learned from captives of the abundant green pastures beyond the Bulgar territory, allowing for the planning for conquest of [[Hungary]] and Europe. Genghis Khan recalled Subutai back to Mongolia soon afterwards, and Jebe died on the road back to Samarkand. Subutai and Jebe's famous cavalry expedition, in which they encircled the entire Caspian Sea defeating all armies in their path, except for that of the Volga Bulgars, remains unparalleled to this day, and word of the Mongol triumphs began to trickle to other nations, particularly Europe. These two campaigns are generally regarded as reconnaissance campaigns that tried to get the feel of the political and cultural elements of the regions. In 1225 both divisions returned to Mongolia. These invasions ultimately added [[Transoxiana]] and [[Iran|Persia]] to an already formidable empire while destroying any resistance along the way. Later under Genghis Khan's grandson [[Batu Khan|Batu]] and the [[Golden Horde]], the Mongols returned to conquer Volga Bulgaria and the Kievan Rus in 1237, concluding the campaign in 1240. |
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===Western Xia and Jin Dynasty=== |
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{{Main|Mongol invasion of China}} |
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[[Image:China 11b.jpg|thumb|[[Western Xia|Western Xia Dynasty]], [[Jinn Dynasty|Jin Dynasty]], [[Song Dynasty]] and [[Kingdom of Dali]] in 1142.]] |
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The [[vassal]] emperor of the Tanguts ([[Western Xia]]) had earlier refused to take part in the war against the Khwarezmid Empire after Genghis Khan and the main army marched towards Kharezmian Empire. Plus Western Xia and the defeated [[Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin Dynasty]] formed a coalition to resist the Mongols, counting on the campaign against the Khwarezmians to drain the Mongols' ability to respond effectively. |
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In 1226, immediately after returning from the west, Genghis Khan began a retaliatory attack on the [[Tangut]]s. His armies quickly took [[Heisui]], [[Ganzhou]] and Suzhou (not the Suzhou in Jiangsu province), and in the autumn he took [[Xiliang]]-fu. One of the Tangut generals challenged the Mongols to a battle near [[Helanshan]], but was soundly defeated. In November, Genghis laid [[siege]] to the Tangut city [[Lingzhou]], and crossed the [[Yellow River]], defeating the Tangut relief army. According to legend, it was here that Genghis Khan reportedly saw a line of five stars arranged in the sky, and interpreted it as an omen of his victory. |
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In 1227, Genghis Khan's army attacked and destroyed the Tangut capital of Ning Hia, and continued to advance, seizing [[Lintiao]]-fu, [[Xining]] province, [[Xindu]]-fu, and [[Deshun]] province in quick succession in the Spring. At Deshun, the Tangut general Ma Jianlong put up a fierce resistance for several days and personally led charges against the invaders outside the city gate. Ma Jianlong later died from wounds received from arrows in battle. Genghis Khan, after conquering Deshun, went to [[Liupanshan]] ([[Qingshui]] County, [[Gansu]] Province) to escape the severe summer. The new Tangut emperor quickly surrendered to the Mongols, and the rest of the Tanguts officially surrendered soon after. Not happy with their betrayal and resistance, Genghis Khan ordered the entire imperial family to be executed, effectively ending the Tangut lineage. |
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==Succession== |
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[[Image:Genghis Khan and three of his four sons.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Genghis Khan and three of his four sons{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}}. Illustration from a 15th century [[Jami' al-tawarikh]] manuscript]] |
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The succession topic of Genghis Khan was already significant during the later years of Genghis Khan's reign since he was already reaching his older years. Also the long running paternity discussion about Genghis' oldest son Jochi was already a relatively hot topic behind the scenes, which particularly was contentious because of the seniority of Jochi among the brothers. According to traditional historical accounts, the issue over Jochi's paternity was voiced most strongly by Chagatai. In [[The Secret History of the Mongols]], just before the invasion of the [[Khwarezmid Empire]] by Genghis Khan, Chagatai declares before his father and brothers that he would never accept Jochi as Genghis Khan's successor. In response to this tension<ref>{{harvnb|Ratchnevsky|1991|p=126}}</ref> and possibly for other reasons, it was Ögedei who was appointed as successor. |
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[[File:Mongol Great Khans coin minted at Balk Afghanistan AH 618 AD 1221.jpg|thumb|Mongol "Great Khans" coin, minted at [[Balkh|Balk, Afghanistan]], AH 618, 1221 CE.]] |
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===Jochi=== |
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Jochi died in 1226, during his father's lifetime. Some scholars, notably Ratchnevsky, have commented on the possibility that Jochi was secretly poisoned by an order from Genghis Khan. Rashid al-Din reports that the great Khan sent for his sons in the spring of 1223, and while his brothers heeded the order, Jochi remained in [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]]. Juzjani suggests that the disagreement arose from a quarrel between Jochi and his brothers in the siege of [[Urgench]]. Jochi had attempted to protect Urgench from destruction, as it belonged to territory allocated to him as a fief. He concludes his story with the clearly apocryphal statement by Jochi: "Genghis Khan is mad to have massacred so many people and laid waste so many lands. I would be doing a service if I killed my father when he is hunting, made an alliance with Sultan Muhammad, brought this land to life and gave assistance and support to the Muslims." Juzjani claims that it was in response to hearing of these plans that Genghis Khan ordered his son secretly poisoned; however, as Sultan Muhammad was already dead in 1223, the accuracy of this story is questionable.<ref>{{harvnb|Ratchnevsky|1991|pp=136–7}}</ref> |
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Genghis Khan was aware of this friction between his sons (particularly between Chagatai and Jochi) and worried of possible conflict between them if he died and therefore he decided to explicitly divide his empire among his sons and make all of them Khan in their own right and by appointing one of his sons as his successor. Chagatai was considered unstable due to his temper and rash behavior because of his statements he made that he would not follow Jochi if he were to become his father's successor. [[Tolui]], Genghis Khan's youngest son was definitely not to be his successor because he was the youngest and in the Mongol culture, youngest sons were not given a huge responsibility due to their age. If Jochi was to become successor, it was likely that Chagatai would engage in warfare with him and collapse the empire. Therefore Genghis Khan decided to give the throne to Ogedei. Ogedei was seen by Genghis Khan as dependable in character and relatively stable and down to earth and would be a neutral candidate and might defuse the situation between his brothers. |
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==Death and burial== |
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{{Main|Tomb of Genghis Khan}} |
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[[Image:Genghis khan empire at his death.png|thumb|Mongol Empire in 1227 at Genghis Khan's death]] |
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In 1227, after defeating the Tangut people, Genghis Khan died (according to ''The Secret History of the Mongols''). The reason for his death is uncertain and speculations abound. Some historians maintain that he fell off his horse during a horseback pursuit from the land of present day Egypt due to battle wounds and physical fatigue, ultimately dying of his injuries.<ref>{{cite book|author= Haenisch, Erich|title=Die Geheime Geschichte der Mongolen|location=[[Leipzig]]|year= 1948|pages=133, 136}}</ref> Others contend that he was felled by a protracted illness such as pneumonia. The [[Galician-Volhynian Chronicle]] alleges he was killed by the [[Tangut]]s in battle. Later Mongol chronicles connect Genghis' death with a Tangut princess taken as war booty. One chronicle from the early 17th century even relates that the princess hid a small pair of pliers inside her vagina, and hurt the Great Khan so badly that he died. Some Mongol authors have doubted this version and suspected it to be an invention by the rival [[Oirad]]s.<ref>{{cite book|author= Heissig, Walther|title=Die Mongolen. Ein Volk sucht seine Geschichte|location=[[Düsseldorf]]|year= 1964|page=124}}</ref> |
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Genghis Khan asked to be buried without markings, according to the customs of his tribe. After he died, his body was returned to [[Mongolia]] and presumably to his birthplace in [[Khentii Province|Khentii Aimag]], where many assume he is buried somewhere close to the [[Onon River]] and the [[Burkhan Khaldun]] mountain (part of the Kentii mountain range). According to legend, the funeral escort killed anyone and anything across their path to conceal where he was finally buried. The [[Genghis Khan Mausoleum]], constructed many years after his death, is his memorial, but not his burial site. |
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On October 6, 2004, a joint Japanese-Mongolian archaeological dig uncovered what is believed to be Genghis Khan's palace in rural Mongolia, which raises the possibility of actually locating the ruler's long-lost burial site.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-05-20|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/3723218.stm|title=Palace of Genghis Khan unearthed|publisher=[[BBC]]|date=2004-10-07}}</ref> Folklore says that a river was diverted over his grave to make it impossible to find (the same manner of burial as the Sumerian King [[Gilgamesh]] of Uruk and [[Atilla the Hun]]). Other tales state that his grave was stampeded over by many horses, and that trees were then planted over the site, and the permafrost also did its part in hiding the burial site. |
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Genghis Khan left behind an army of more than 129,000 men; 28,000 were given to his various brothers and his sons. Tolui, his youngest son, inherited more than 100,000 men. This force contained the bulk of the elite Mongolian [[cavalry]]. By tradition, the youngest son inherits his father's property. [[Jochi]], [[Chagatai Khan|Chagatai]], [[Ögedei Khan]], and Kulan's son Gelejian received armies of 4,000 men each. His mother and the descendants of his three brothers received 3,000 men each. |
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==Mongol Empire== |
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{{Main|Mongol Empire}} |
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===Politics and economics=== |
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[[Image:Mongol Empire map.gif|thumb|300px|[[Mongol Empire]]]] |
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{{Main|Organization of the Mongol Empire under Genghis Khan}} |
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The [[Mongol Empire]] was governed by a [[civilian]] and [[military]] [[code]], called the [[Yassa]], created by Genghis Khan. |
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The Mongol Empire did not emphasize the importance of [[ethnicity]] and [[Race (classification of human beings)|race]] in the administrative realm, instead adopting an approach grounded in [[meritocracy]]. The exception was the role of Genghis Khan and his family. The Mongol Empire was one of the most ethnically and culturally diverse empires in history, as befitted its size. Many of the empire's nomadic inhabitants considered themselves ''Mongols'' in military and civilian life, including [[Turkic people|Turks]], [[Mongols]], and others and included many diverse [[Khan (title)|Khans]] of various ethnicities as part of the Mongol Empire such as [[Muhammad Khan (Ilkhan)|Muhammad Khan]]. |
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There were [[tax]] exemptions for religious figures and, to some extent, teachers and [[Physician|doctor]]s. The Mongol Empire practiced [[religious tolerance]] to a large degree because Mongol tradition had long held that religion was a very personal concept, and not subject to law or interference.{{Citation needed|date=July 2008}} Sometime before the rise of Genghis Khan, Ong Khan, his mentor and eventual rival, had converted to [[Nestorian Christianity]]. Various Mongol tribes were Buddhist, Muslim, shamanist or Christian. Religious tolerance was thus a well established concept on the Asian steppe. |
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Modern Mongolian historians say that towards the end of his life, Genghis Khan attempted to create a [[civilian|civil state]] under the Great Yassa that would have established the legal equality of all individuals, including [[women's rights|women]].<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-05-20|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/05/09/news/mongol.php|title=Mongolia sees Genghis Khan's good side|work=[[International Herald Tribune]]|date=2005-05-10|author=Pocha, Jehangir S.}}</ref> However, there is no contemporary evidence of this, or of the lifting of discriminatory policies towards sedentary peoples such as the Chinese. Women played a relatively important role in Mongol Empire and in family, for example [[Töregene Khatun]] was briefly in charge of the Mongol Empire when next male [[Khagan]] was being chosen. Modern scholars refer to the alleged policy of encouraging trade and communication as the [[Pax Mongolica]] ([[Mongol]] Peace). |
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Genghis Khan realised that he needed people who could govern cities and states conquered by him. He also realised that such administrators could not be found among his Mongol people because they were nomads and thus had no experience governing cities. For this purpose Genghis Khan invited a [[Khitan people|Khitan]] prince, [[Yelü Chucai|Chu'Tsai]], who worked for the Jin and had been captured by the Mongol army after the Jin Dynasty were defeated. Jin had captured power by displacing Khitan. Genghis told Chu'Tsai, who was a lineal descendant of Khitan rulers, that he had avenged Chu'Tsai's forefathers. Chu'Tsai responded that his father served the Jin Dynasty honestly and so did he; he did not consider his own father his enemy, so the question of revenge did not apply. Genghis Khan was very impressed by this reply. Chu'Tsai administered parts of the Mongol Empire and became a confidant of the successive Mongol Khans. |
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===Military=== |
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{{Main|Mongol military tactics and organization}} |
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[[Image:MongolCavalry crop.jpg|thumb|Reenactment of Mongol military movement.]] |
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Genghis Khan put absolute trust in his generals, such as Muqali, Jebe and [[Subutai]], and regarded them as close advisors, often extending them the same privileges and trust normally reserved for close family members. He allowed them to make decisions on their own when they embarked on campaigns far from the Mongol Empire capital [[Karakorum]]. Genghis Khan expected unwavering loyalty from his generals, and granted them a great deal of autonomy in making command decisions. Muqali, a trusted general, was given command of the Mongol forces against the Jin Dynasty while Genghis Khan was fighting in [[Central Asia]], and [[Subutai]] and [[Jebe]] were allowed to pursue the Great Raid into the Caucausus and [[Kievan Rus]], an idea they had presented to the Khagan on their own initiative. The Mongol military was also successful in [[siege warfare]], cutting off resources for cities and towns by diverting certain rivers, taking enemy prisoners and driving them in front of the army, <!--Ratchnevsky, Grousset, Hartog, Morgan, will add ref--> and adopting new ideas, techniques and tools from the people they conquered, particularly in employing Muslim and Chinese siege engines and engineers to aid the Mongol cavalry in capturing cities. Another standard [[military tactics|tactic]] of the Mongol military was the commonly practiced [[Withdrawal (military)|feigned retreat]] to break enemy formations and to lure small enemy groups away from the larger group and defended position for [[ambush]] and [[counterattack]]. |
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Another important aspect of the military [[organization]] of Genghis Khan was the [[transport|communications]] and [[supply]] route or ''[[Yam (route)|Yam]]'', adapted from previous Chinese models. Genghis Khan dedicated special attention to this in order to speed up the gathering of [[military intelligence]] and official communications. To this end, Yam waystations were established all over the empire. |
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===Khanates=== |
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Before his death, Genghis Khan divided his [[Mongol Empire|empire]] among his sons [[Ögedei Khan|Ögedei]], [[Chagatai Khan|Chagatai]], [[Tolui]], and [[Jochi]] (Jochi's death several months before Genghis Khan meant that his lands were instead split between his sons, [[Batu Khan|Batu]] and [[Orda Khan|Orda]]) into several Khanates designed as sub-territories: their [[Khan (title)|Khans]] were expected to follow the [[Great Khan]], who was, initially, Ögedei. |
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[[Image:Harhorin.jpg|thumb|300px|Modern day location of capital [[Kharakhorum]]]] |
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Following are the [[Khanate]]s the way Genghis Khan assigned them: |
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* '''[[Yuan Dynasty|Empire of the Great Khan]]''': [[Ögedei Khan]], as ''Great Khan'', took most of [[Eastern Asia]], including [[China]]; this territory later to comprise the [[Yuan Dynasty]] under [[Kubilai Khan]]. |
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* '''[[Mongol]] homeland''' (present day [[Mongolia]], including [[Karakorum]]): [[Tolui|Tolui Khan]], being the youngest son, received a small territory near the Mongol homeland, following Mongol custom. |
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* '''[[Chagatai Khan]]ate''': [[Chagatai Khan]], Genghis Khan's second son, was given Central Asia and northern [[Iran]]. |
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* '''[[Blue Horde]]''' to [[Batu Khan]], and '''[[White Horde]]''' to [[Orda Khan]], both were later combined into the [[Kipchak Khanate]], or [[Golden Horde|Khanate of the Golden Horde]], under [[Toqtamysh]]. Genghis Khan's eldest son, Jochi, had received most of the distant [[Russia]] and [[Ruthenia]]. Because Jochi died before Genghis Khan, his territory was further split up between his sons. [[Batu Khan]] launched an invasion of Russia, and later [[Hungary]] and [[Poland]], and crushed several armies before being summoned back by the news of Ögedei's death. |
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{{See also|List of Mongol Khans}} |
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===After Genghis Khan=== |
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[[Image:Ogadai Khan.jpg|thumb|Genghis Khan's son and successor, [[Ögedei Khan|Ögedei Khaghan]]]] |
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Contrary to popular belief, Genghis Khan did not conquer all of the areas of the Mongol Empire. At the time of his death, the Mongol Empire stretched from the [[Caspian Sea]] to the [[Sea of Japan]]. The empire's expansion continued for a generation or more after Genghis's death in 1227. Under Genghis's successor [[Ögedei Khan]] the speed of expansion reached its peak. Mongol armies pushed into Persia, finished off the Xi Xia and the remnants of the Khwarezmids, and came into conflict with the imperial [[Song Dynasty]] of China, starting a war that would last until 1279 and that would conclude with the Mongols gaining control of all of China. They also pushed further into Russia and eastern Europe. |
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==Perceptions== |
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Like other notable conquerors, Genghis Khan is portrayed differently by those he conquered and those who conquered with him. Negative views of Genghis Khan are very persistent within histories written by many different cultures, from various different geographical regions. They often cite the cruelties and destruction brought upon by Mongol armies, not to mention the systematic slaughter of civilians in the conquered regions; other authors cite positive aspects of Genghis Khan's conquests as well. |
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===Positive=== |
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[[Image:GhingisHan-rev.jpg|thumb|upright|Genghis Khan on the reverse of a [[Kazakhstan]] 100 [[Tenge]] coin]] |
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Genghis Khan is credited with bringing the [[Silk Road]] under one cohesive political environment. This allowed increased [[communication]] and trade between the [[Western world|West]], [[Middle East]] and Asia, thus expanding the horizons of all three cultural areas. Some historians have noted that Genghis Khan instituted certain levels of [[meritocracy]] in his rule, was tolerant of different religions and explained his policies clearly to all his soldiers.<ref>Clive Foss, ''The Tyrants'', page 57, Quercus, London, 2007.</ref> In [[Turkey]], Genghis Khan is looked on as a great military leader, and it is popular for male children to carry his title as name.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ismi Didikle|url=http://www.ismididikle.com/isim_533_cengiz.htm|accessdate=2008-05-05|publisher=Ismi Didikle|language=[[Turkish language|Turkish]]}}</ref> |
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====In Mongolia==== |
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Traditionally Genghis Khan had been revered for centuries among the Mongols, and also among certain other ethnic groups such as the [[Turkic people|Turks]], largely because of his association with Mongol statehood, political and military organization, and his historic victories in war. He eventually evolved into a larger-than-life figure chiefly among the Mongols and is still considered the symbol of [[Mongolian culture]]. |
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[[Image:Genghis Khan Equestrian Statue.JPG|thumb|left|upright|[[Equestrian statue]] of Genghis Khan, the largest (40 metres tall) in the world, near [[Ulaanbaatar]], Mongolia.]] |
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During the communist period, Genghis Khan was often described as reactionary, and positive statements about him were generally avoided.<ref>[http://www.chriskaplonski.com/downloads/Disappearing.pdf Christopher Kaplonski: ''The case of the disappearing Chinggis Khaan].</ref> In 1962, the erection of a monument at his birthplace and a conference held in commemoration of his 800th birthday led to criticism from the [[Soviet Union]], and resulted in the dismissal of Tömör-Ochir, a secretary of the ruling [[Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party]] [[Central Committee]]. |
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In the early 1990s, when [[democracy]] was established in Mongolia, the memory of Genghis Khan with the Mongolian traditional national identity has had a powerful revival partly because of his perception during the [[Mongolian People's Republic]] period. Genghis Khan became one of the central figures of the national identity. He is looked upon positively by Mongolians for his role in uniting various warring tribes. For example, it is not uncommon for Mongolians to refer to Mongolia as "Genghis Khan's Mongolia", to themselves as "Genghis Khan's children", and to Genghis Khan as the "father of the Mongols" especially among the younger generation. However, there is a chasm in the perception of his brutality, Mongolians maintain that the historical records written by non-Mongolians are unfairly biased against Genghis Khan, and that his butchery is exaggerated, while his positive role is underrated.<ref>{{cite web|last=Griffiths |first=Daniel |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6252741.stm?lsf |title=Asia-Pacific | Post-communist Mongolia's struggle. |publisher=BBC News |date=2007-01-11 |accessdate=2009-08-03}}</ref> |
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[[Image:M1000f.jpg|thumb|right|Genghis Khan on the Mongolian 1,000 [[Mongolian tögrög|tögrög]] banknote]] |
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Genghis Khan's name and likeness are endorsed on products, streets, buildings, and other places. His face can be found on everyday commodities, from liquors to the largest denominations of 500, 1,000, 5,000 and 10,000 [[Mongolian tögrög]] (₮). Mongolia's main [[international airport]] has been renamed [[Chinggis Khaan International Airport]], and major Genghis Khan statues have been erected before the parliament<ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,202695,00.html Once Shunned, Genghis Khan Conquers Mongolia Again].</ref> and near Ulaanbaatar. There have been repeated discussions about regulating the use of his name and image to avoid trivialization.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/5412410.stm |title=Business | Genghis Khan may get protection. |publisher=BBC News |date=2006-10-06 |accessdate=2009-08-03}}</ref> |
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[[Image:Genghis Khan statue UB MGL.JPG|thumb|left|Statue of Genghis Khan in front of the Mongolian government building in [[Sükhbaatar Square]], [[Ulaanbaatar]]]] |
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[[Image:Chinggis Khan hillside portrait.JPG|thumb|right|Portrait on a hillside in Ulaanbaatar, 2006]] |
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Genghis Khan is now regarded as one of Mongolia's prominent leaders.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1967201.stm |title=ASIA-PACIFIC | Mongolia glorifies Genghis Khan. |publisher=BBC News |date=2002-05-03 |accessdate=2009-08-03}}</ref> He is responsible for the emergence of the Mongols as a political and ethnic identity because there was no unified identity between the various tribes that had cultural similarity. He reinforced many Mongol traditions and provided stability and unity during a time of almost [[endemic warfare]] between various tribes. He is also given credit for the introduction of the traditional [[Mongolian script]] and the creation of the [[Yassa|Ikh Zasag]], the first written Mongolian law.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Yasa of Chingis Khan|url=http://www.coldsiberia.org/webdoc9.htm|accessdate=2010-02-16}}</ref> In summary, Mongolians see him as the fundamental figure in the founding of the [[Mongol Empire]], and therefore the basis for [[Mongolia]] as a [[country]]. |
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{{Clear}} |
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===Mixed=== |
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====In China==== |
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[[Image:GenghisKhanMonument.jpg|thumb|Genghis Khan Monument in [[Hohhot]]]] |
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There are conflicting views of Genghis Khan in the [[People's Republic of China]] with some viewing him positively in the [[Inner Mongolia]] section where there is a monument and buildings about him and where there are considerable [[Mongols]] in the area with a population of around 5 million, almost twice the population of [[Mongolia]]. While Genghis Khan never conquered all of China, his grandson [[Kublai Khan]] completed that conquest,<ref>[http://www.travelotica.com/travelguide/156/china/kublai-khan-6215.htm Inner Mongolia Travel Guide].</ref> and established the [[Yuan Dynasty]] that is often credited with re-uniting China. There has also been much artwork and literature praising Genghis as a great military leader and political genius. The years of the Mongol-established Yuan Dynasty left an indelible imprint on Chinese political and social structures for subsequent generations with literature during the Jin Dynasty relatively fewer. In general the legacy of Genghis Khan and his successors, who completed the conquest of China after 65 years of struggle, remains a mixed topic, even to this day. |
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===Negative=== |
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{{Main|Destruction under the Mongol Empire}} |
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[[Image:Bagdad1258.jpg|thumb|Invasions like [[Battle of Baghdad (1258)|the Battle of Baghdad]] by his grandson are treated as brutal and are seen negatively in Iraq. This illustration is from a 15th century [[Jami' al-tawarikh]] manuscript.]] |
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In the [[Middle East]] and [[Iran]], he is almost universally looked on as a destructive and [[genocide|genocidal]] warlord who caused enormous damage and destruction to the population of these areas.<ref>[http://www.payvand.com/news/03/jun/1074.html "The Legacy of Genghis Khan" at Los Angeles County Museum of Art--again].</ref> Similarly, in [[Afghanistan]] (along with other non-Turkic Muslim countries) he is generally viewed unfavorably though some groups display ambivalence as it is believed that the [[Hazara people|Hazara]] of Afghanistan are descendants of a large Mongol garrison stationed therein.<ref>{{cite journal |year= 2003|month= |title=The Genetic Legacy of the Mongols |journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=717–721 |id= |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract&artid=1180246 |accessdate=2007-12-28 | author = Zerjal, et el. | doi = 10.1086/367774 |pmid= 12592608 |last2= Xue |first2= Y |last3= Bertorelle |first3= G |last4= Wells |first4= RS |last5= Bao |first5= W |last6= Zhu |first6= S |last7= Qamar |first7= R |last8= Ayub |first8= Q |last9= Mohyuddin |first9= A |pmc= 1180246|archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070929123340/http%3A//www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi%3Ftool%3Dpmcentrez%26rendertype%3Dabstract%26artid%3D1180246 |archivedate = September 29, 2007|deadurl=yes}}</ref><ref>Genetics: Analysis Of Genes And Genomes By Daniel L. Hartl, Elizabeth W. Jones, p. 309.</ref> |
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The invasions of [[Baghdad]], [[Samarkand]], [[Köneürgenç|Urgench]], [[Kiev]], [[Vladimir]] among others caused mass murders, such as when portions of southern [[Khuzestan]] were completely destroyed. His descendant, [[Hulagu Khan]] destroyed much of Iran's northern part and sacked [[Baghdad]] although his forces were initially defeated by the [[Mamluk]]s of [[Egypt]]. Trade along the [[Silk Road]] never recovered to its former state. |
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According to the works of the Persian historian [[Rashid-al-Din Hamadani]], the Mongols killed more than 700,000 people in [[Merv]] and more than a million in [[Nishapur]]. The total population of [[Persia]] may have dropped from 2,500,000 to 250,000 as a result of mass extermination and famine. |
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Although the famous [[Mughal Emperor]]s were descendants of Genghis Khan and [[Tamerlane]], they distanced themselves from the Mongol atrocities against the Khwarizim Shahs, [[Turk]]s, [[Persian people|Persian]]s, the citizens of [[Baghdad]] and [[Damascus]] and historical figures such as [[Attar of Nishapur]]. |
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Among the [[Iranian peoples]], he is regarded along with [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]] and [[Tamerlane]] as one of the most despised conquerors of Iran.<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20071214061743/http://www.iranchamber.com/podium/history/040702_tale_of_book_iran.php Phoenix From the Ashes: A Tale of the Book in Iran].</ref><ref>[http://www.unesco.org/dialogue/en/Regard1debates.htm Civilizations: How we see others, how others see us].</ref> The Mongol violence and depredations killed up to three quarters of the population of the Iranian Plateau, possibly 10 to 15 million people. Some historians have estimated that Iran's population did not again reach its pre-Mongol levels until the mid-20th century.<ref>{{Cite book |
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| last = R. Ward |
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| first = Steven |
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| title = [http://books.google.com/books?id=8eUTLaaVOOQC&pg=PA39&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false Immortal: a military history of Iran and its armed forces] |
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| publisher = Georgetown University Press |
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| date = 2009 |
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| page = 39 |
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| isbn = 1589012585}} |
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</ref> In much of [[Russia]], [[Middle East]], [[Korea]], China, [[Ukraine]], [[Poland]] and [[Hungary]], Genghis Khan and his [[regime]] are credited with considerable damage, destruction and loss of population. |
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==Descent== |
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{{Main|Descent from Genghis Khan}} |
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Zerjal et al. [2003]<ref>{{cite journal |year= 2003|month= |title=The Genetic Legacy of the Mongols |journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=717–721 |id= |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract&artid=1180246 |accessdate=2007-12-28| author = Zerjal, et el. | doi = 10.1086/367774 |pmid= 12592608 |last2= Xue |first2= Y |last3= Bertorelle |first3= G |last4= Wells |first4= RS |last5= Bao |first5= W |last6= Zhu |first6= S |last7= Qamar |first7= R |last8= Ayub |first8= Q |last9= Mohyuddin |first9= A |pmc= 1180246|archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070929123340/http%3A//www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi%3Ftool%3Dpmcentrez%26rendertype%3Dabstract%26artid%3D1180246 |archivedate = September 29, 2007|deadurl=yes}}</ref> |
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identified a [[List of genetic results derived from historical figures|Y-chromosomal lineage]] present in about 8% of the men in a large region of Asia (about 0.5% of the men in the world). The paper suggests that the pattern of variation within the lineage is consistent with a hypothesis that it originated in Mongolia about 1,000 years ago. Because the rate of such a spread would be too rapid to have occurred by [[genetic drift]], the authors propose that the lineage is carried by likely male-line descendants of Genghis Khan, and that it has spread through social selection. In addition to most of the Mongol nobility up to the 20th century, the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] emperor [[Babur]]'s mother was a descendant. [[Timur]] (also known as Tamerlane), the 14th century military leader, claimed descent from Genghis Khan. |
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==Depictions in modern culture== |
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[[Image:GhinggisKhanMausoleum.jpg|thumb|The [[Genghis Khan Mausoleum]] in [[Ordos City|Ordos]]]] |
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There have been several films, novels and other adaptation works on the [[Mongols|Mongolian]] ruler. |
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===Films=== |
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*''[[The Conqueror (film)|The Conqueror]]'', released in 1956 and starring [[John Wayne]] as Temüjin and [[Susan Hayward]] as Börte. |
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*''[[Genghis Khan (1965 film)|Genghis Khan]]'', released in 1965 and starring [[Omar Sharif]]. |
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*''[[Genghis Khan (1992 film)]]'' starring [[Richard Tyson]], [[Charlton Heston]] and [[Pat Morita]]. |
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*''[[Genghis Khan - A Proud Son Of Heaven (1998 film)]]'', made in Mongolian, with English subtitles. |
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*''[[Genghis Khan: To the Ends of the Earth and Sea]]'', also known as "The Descendant of Gray Wolf", a [[Japan]]ese-[[Mongolian language|Mongolian]] film released in 2007 about the life of Genghis Khan. |
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*''[[Mongol (film)|Mongol]]'', a film by [[Sergei Bodrov]] released in 2007. ([[Academy Award]] nominee for Best Foreign Language Film.) [[Image:Mongol poster.jpg|thumb|150px|Poster for the film ''Mongol'']] |
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* "By the Will of Genghis Khan", a Russian film released in 2009. |
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===TV series=== |
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{| class="wikitable" width=50% |
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|- |
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!width=5%|Year |
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!width=15%|Production |
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!width=10%|Lead actor |
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!width=20%|Additional information |
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|- |
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|1987 || [[Television Broadcasts Limited|TVB]] ([[Hong Kong]]) || [[Alex Man]] || see ''[[Genghis Khan (TVB)]]'' |
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|- |
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|1987 || [[Asia Television Limited|ATV]] (Hong Kong) || [[Tony Liu]] || 20 episodes |
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|- |
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|2004 || [[People's Republic of China|China]] and [[Mongolia]] || Ba Sen || see ''[[Genghis Khan (2004 TV series)]]'' |
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|} |
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===Novels=== |
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*''The Conqueror'' series of novels by [[Conn Iggulden]] |
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*"You Can't, But Genghis Khan" from the Time Warp Trio book series |
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===Short stories=== |
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*''The Private Life of Genghis Khan'' by [[Douglas Adams]] and [[Graham Chapman]] |
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===Pop music=== |
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* [[West Germany|West German]] pop band [[Dschinghis Khan]] took its name from Genghis Khan. They participated in the [[Eurovision]] contest of 1979 with [[Dschinghis Khan (song)|a song of the same name]]. |
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* English [[Heavy metal music|Heavy Metal]] band [[Iron Maiden]] titled an instrumental track ''Genghis Khan'' on their 1981 album [[Killers (Iron Maiden album)|Killers]]. |
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* The band [[Protest The Hero]]'s song ''bloodmeat'' references Genghis Khan and the Khanate, and re-tells the tale of a small un-militiarised, and unequiped town fighting off a large, elite enemy, which may also be a reference to Genghis Khan. |
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==Name and title== |
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There are many theories about the origins of Temüjin's title. Since people of the Mongol nation later associated the name with ''ching'' ([[Mongolian language|Mongolian]] for strength), such confusion is obvious, though it does not follow etymology. |
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[[Image:GhinggisKhanMausoleumGate.jpg|right|thumb|The gate of Genghis Khan Mausoleum]] |
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One theory suggests the name stems from a palatalised version of the Mongolian and [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] word ''tenggis'', meaning "ocean", "oceanic" or "wide-spreading". ([[Lake Baikal]] and [[ocean]] were called ''tenggis'' by the Mongols. However, it seems that if they had meant to call Genghis ''tenggis'' they could have said (and written) "Tenggis Khan", which they did not. Zhèng (Chinese: 正) meaning "right", "just", or "true", would have received the Mongolian adjectival modifier ''-s'', creating "Jenggis", which in medieval romanization would be written "Genghis". It is likely that the 13th century Mongolian pronunciation would have closely matched "Chinggis".<ref>{{cite book |last=Lister |first=R. P. |title=Genghis Khan |year=2000 [c1969] |publisher=Cooper Square Press |location=Lanham, Maryland |isbn=0-8154-1052-2}}</ref> |
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The English spelling "Genghis" is of unclear origin. [[Jack Weatherford|Weatherford]] claims it to derive from a spelling used in original Persian reports.Even at this time some Iranians pronounce his name as "Ghengiss". However, review of historical Persian sources does not confirm this.<ref>{{cite web |
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| url = http://worldhistoryconnected.press.uiuc.edu/2.2/br_may.html |
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| title = Book Review |
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| author = Timothy May |
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| publisher = North Georgia College and State University |
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| accessdate = 2008-02-20}}</ref> |
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According to [[the Secret History of the Mongols]], Temüjin was named after a powerful warrior of the Tatar tribe that his father Yesügei had taken prisoner. The name "Temüjin" is believed to derive from the word ''temür'', meaning iron (modern Mongolian: {{lang|mn|төмөр}}, ''tömör''). The name would imply skill as a blacksmith. |
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More likely, as no evidence has survived to indicate that Genghis Khan had any exceptional training or reputation as a blacksmith, the name indicated an implied lineage in a family once known as blacksmiths. The latter interpretation is supported by the names of Genghis Khan's siblings, Temülin and Temüge, which are derived from the same root word. |
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[[File:GenghisKhanMonumentInHulunbuir.jpg|thumb|Monument in [[Hulunbuir]]]] |
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===Name and spelling variations===<!-- This section is linked from [[Genghis Khan]] --> |
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Genghis Khan's name is spelled in variety of ways in different languages such as {{zh|c=成吉思汗|p=Chéngjísī Hán}}, [[Turkic languages|Turkic]]: ''Cengiz Han'', ''Chengez Khan'', ''Chinggis Khan'', ''Chinggis Xaan'', ''Chingis Khan'', ''Jenghis Khan'', ''Chinggis Qan'', ''Djingis Kahn'', [[Russian languages|Russian]]: Чингисхан (''Čingiskhan'') or Чингиз-хан (''Čingiz-khan''), etc. Temüjin is written in [[Chinese language|Chinese]] as {{zh|s=铁木真|t=鐵木眞|p=Tiěmùzhēn}}. |
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When [[Kublai Khan]] established the [[Yuan Dynasty]] in 1271, he had his grandfather Genghis Khan placed on the official record as the founder of the dynasty or Taizu ({{zh|太祖|Tàizǔ}}). Thus, Genghis Khan is also referred to as Yuan Taizu ({{zh|元太祖|Yuán Tàizǔ}}) in [[Chinese historiography]]. |
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==Timeline== |
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[[Image:GhinggisKhanStatue.jpg|thumb|The statue before his mausoleum]] |
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* Probably 1155, 1162, or 1167: Temüjin was born in the [[Khentii mountains]]. |
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* At the age of nine, Temüjin's father [[Yesükhei]] was poisoned by [[Tatars]], leaving him and his family destitute. |
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* c. 1184: Temüjin's wife [[Börte]] was kidnapped by [[Merkit]]s; he called on blood brother [[Jamuka]] and [[Wang Khan]] for aid, and they rescued her. |
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* c. 1185: First son [[Jochi]] was born; leading to doubt about his paternity later among Genghis' children, because he was born shortly after [[Börte]]'s rescue from the Merkits. |
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* 1190: Temüjin united the Mongol tribes, became leader, and devised code of law [[Yassa]]. |
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* 1201: Victory over [[Jamuka]]'s [[Jadaran]]s. |
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* 1202: Adopted as Wang Khan's heir after successful campaigns against [[Tatars]]. |
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* 1203: Victory over Wang Khan's [[Keraits]]. Wang Khan himself is killed by accident by allied Naimans. |
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* 1204: Victory over [[Naimans]] (all these confederations are united and become the Mongols). |
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* 1206: Jamuka was killed. Temüjin was given the title ''Genghis Khan'' by his followers in a [[Kurultai]] (around 40 years of age). |
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* 1207–1210: Genghis led operations against the [[Western Xia]], which comprises much of northwestern China and parts of Tibet. Western Xia ruler submitted to Genghis Khan. During this period, the [[Uyghurs]] also submitted peacefully to the Mongols and became valued administrators throughout the empire. |
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* 1211: After the kurultai, Genghis led his armies against the [[Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin Dynasty]] ruling northern China. |
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* 1215: [[Beijing]] fell; Genghis Khan turned to west and the Khara-Kitan Khanate. |
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* 1219–1222: Conquered [[Khwarezmid Empire]]. |
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* 1226: Started the campaign against the Western Xia for forming coalition against the Mongols, the second battle with the Western Xia. |
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* 1227: Genghis Khan died after conquering the Tangut people. Cause of death is uncertain, although legend states that he was thrown off his horse in the battle and contracted a deadly fever soon after. |
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==Notes== |
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{{Reflist|2}} |
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==References== |
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* {{cite book |last=Ratchnevsky |first=Paul |others= tr. & ed. Thomas Nivison Haining |title=Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy [Čingis-Khan: sein Leben und Wirken] |year=1992, c1991 |publisher= B. Blackwell |location=Oxford, UK; Cambridge, Mass., USA |isbn=ISBN 0-631-16785-4}} |
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==Further reading== |
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* {{cite book |last=Brent |first=Peter |title=The Mongol Empire: Genghis Khan: His Triumph and His Legacy |year=1976 |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicholson |location=London |isbn=029777137X }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Bretschneider |first=Emilii |title=Mediæval Researches from Eastern Asiatic Sources; Fragments Towards the Knowledge of the Geography & History of Central & Western Asia |series=Trübner's Oriental Series |year=1888, repr. 2001 | location=London | publisher=Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co (repr. Munshirm Manoharlal Pub Pvt Ltd) |isbn=81-215-1003-1}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Cable |first=Mildred |coauthors=Francesca French |title=The Gobi Desert |year=1943 |publisher=Landsborough Publications |location=London}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Charney |first=Israel W. (ed.) |title=Genocide: A Critical Bibliographic Review |year=1994 |publisher=Facts on File Publications |location=New York}}<!-- Volume number?--> |
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* {{cite book |last=De Hartog |first=Leo |title=Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World|year=1988 |publisher=I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd. |location=London}} |
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* {{fr}} {{cite book |last=Farale |first=Dominique |title=De Gengis Khan à [[Kubilai Khan|Qoubilaï Khan]] : la grande chevauchée [[Mongols|mongole]] |series=Campagnes & stratégies |year=2002 |publisher=Economica |location=Paris |isbn=2-7178-4537-2}} |
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* {{fr}} {{cite book |last=Farale |first=Dominique |title=La Russie et les Turco-Mongols : 15 siècles de guerre |year=2007 |publisher=Economica |location=Paris |isbn=978-2-7178-5429-9}} |
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* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Genghis Khan |encyclopedia=Funk & Wagnalls New Encyclopedia |publisher=World Almanac Education Group |year=2005 |url=http://web.archive.org/web/20060113174030/http://www.historychannel.com/thcsearch/thc_resourcedetail.do?encyc_id=210250 |accessdate=2008-05-22}} Via the [[Internet Archive]]'s copy of the [[History Channel]] Web site. |
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* {{cite web |last=Smitha |first=Frank E | title=Genghis Khan and the Mongols |work=Macrohistory and World Report | url=http://www.fsmitha.com/h3/h11mon.htm | accessdate=2005-06-30}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Kahn |first=Paul (adaptor) |title=Secret History of the Mongols: The Origin of Chingis Khan (expanded edition): An Adaptation of the Yüan chʾao pi shih, Based Primarily on the English Translation by Francis Woodman Cleaves |series=Asian Culture Series |year=1998 |publisher=Cheng & Tsui Co. |location=Boston |isbn=0-88727-299-1}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Kennedy |first=Hugh |title=Mongols, Huns & Vikings'' |year=2002 |publisher=Cassell |location=London |isbn=ISBN 0-304-35292-6}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Kradin |first=Nikolay |authorlink=Nikolay Kradin |coauthors=Tatiana Skrynnikova |title=Imperiia Chingis-khana (Chinggis Khan Empire) |year=2006 |publisher=Vostochnaia literatura |location=Moscow |isbn=5-02-018521-3}} {{ru icon}} (summary in English) |
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* {{cite journal |last=Kradin |first=Nikolay |authorlink=Nikolay Kradin |coauthors=Tatiana Skrynnikova |title=Why do we call Chinggis Khan's Polity 'an Empire' |journal=Ab Imperio |volume=7 |issue=1 |year=2006 |pages =89–118 |id=5-89423-110-8}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Lamb |first=Harold |authorlink=Harold Lamb |title=Genghis Khan: The Emperor of All Men |year=1927 |publisher=R. M. McBride & company |location=New York |unused_data=a}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Lister |first=R. P. |title=Genghis Khan |year=2000 [c1969] |publisher=Cooper Square Press |location=Lanham, Maryland |isbn=0-8154-1052-2}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Man |first=John |authorlink=John Man (author) |title=Genghis Khan: Life, Death and Resurrection |year=2004 |publisher=Bantam Press |location=London; New York |isbn=ISBN 0-593-05044-4}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Man |first=John |authorlink=John Man (author) |title=Gobi: Tracking the Desert |year=1997, 1998, 1999 |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson; Yale University Press |location=London; New Haven, Conn |isbn=0-7538-0161-2}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Martin |first=Henry Desmond |title=The Rise of Chingis Khan and his Conquest of North China |year=1950 |publisher=Johns Hopkins Press |location=Baltimore}} |
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* {{cite web |last=May |first=Timothy |title=Mongol Arms |year=2001 |work=Explorations in Empire: Pre-Modern Imperialism Tutorial: The Mongols |publisher=San Antonio College History Department |url=http://www.accd.edu/sac/history/keller/Mongols/empsub2.html | accessdate=2008-05-22}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Morgan |first=David |authorlink=David Morgan (historian) |title=The Mongols |series=The Peoples of Europe |year=1986 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |isbn=0-631-17563-6}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Saunders |first=J.J. | title=History of the Mongol Conquests'' |year=1972, repr. 2001 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |location=Philadelphia |isbn=0812217667}} |
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* Stevens, Keith. {{PDFlink|[http://web.archive.org/web/20080625210646/http://ideas.union.edu/articles/files/22_Stevens_Heirs_to_Discord.pdf "Heirs to Discord: The Supratribal Aspirations of Jamuka, Toghrul, and Temüjin"]|72.1 KB}} Retrieved 22 May 2008. |
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* {{cite book |last=Stewart |first=Stanley |title=In the Empire of Genghis Khan: A Journey among Nomads |year=2001 |publisher=Harper Collins |location=London |isbn=ISBN 0-00-653027-3}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Turnbull |first=Stephen |title=Genghis Khan & the Mongol Conquests 1190-1400 |year=2003 |publisher=Osprey Publishing|location=Oxford |isbn=1-84176-523-6}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Valentino |first=Benjamin A. |title=Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the Twentieth Century |year=2004 |publisher=Cornell University Press |location=Ithaca, N.Y. |isbn=0801439655}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Weatherford |first=Jack |title=[[Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World]] [http://www.cse.iitk.ac.in/~amit/books/weatherford-2004-genghis-khan-making.html (review)] |year=2004 |publisher=Crown |location=New York |isbn=0-609-61062-7}} |
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* {{cite journal | author=Zerjal, Xue, Bertorelle, Wells, Bao, Zhu, Qamar, Ayub, Mohyuddin, Fu, Li, Yuldasheva, Ruzibakiev, Xu, Shu, Du, Yang, Hurles, Robinson, Gerelsaikhan, Dashnyam, Mehdi, Tyler-Smith | title= The Genetic Legacy of the Mongols | journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics | year=2003 | volume= 72| issue=72 | pages= 717–721; | url=http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/AJHG/journal/issues/v72n3/024530/024530.web.pdf | doi = 10.1086/367774 | format={{Dead link|date=February 2009}} – <sup>[http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?hl=en&lr=&q=intitle%3AThe+Genetic+Legacy+of+the+Mongols&as_publication=The+American+Journal+of+Human+Genetics&as_ylo=2003&as_yhi=2003&btnG=Search Scholar search]</sup> | pmid=12592608 | pmc=1180246}} |
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===Primary sources=== |
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* {{cite book |last=Juvaynī |first=Alā al-Dīn Atā Malik, 1226–1283 |title=Genghis Khan: The History of the World-Conqueror [Tarīkh-i jahāngushā] |others=tr. John Andrew Boyle |year=1997 |publisher=University of Washington Press |location=Seattle |isbn=0-295-97654-3}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Rashid al-Din Tabib |authorlink=Rashid-al-Din Hamadani |title=A Compendium of Chronicles: Rashid al-Din's Illustrated History of the World [[Jami' al-Tawarikh]] |series=The Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art, Vol. XXVII |others=Sheila S. Blair (ed.) |year=1995 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=0-19-727627-X}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Rashid al-Din Tabib |authorlink=Rashid-al-Din Hamadani |title=The Successors of Genghis Khan (extracts from Jami’ Al-Tawarikh) |series=[[UNESCO Collection of Representative Works]]: Persian heritage series |others=tr. from the Persian by John Andrew Boyle |year=1971 |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |url=http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=109217551 |isbn=0-231-03351-6}} |
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* {{cite book |title=The Secret History of the Mongols: A Mongolian Epic Chronicle of the Thirteenth Century [Yuan chao bi shi] |series=Brill's Inner Asian Library vol. 7 |others=tr. [[Igor de Rachewiltz]] |year=2004 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden; Boston |isbn=90-04-13159-0}} |
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==External links== |
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{{Sister project links}} |
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*[http://www.epinions.com/content_399273397892 Book Review of Genghis Khan by Leo De Hartog] |
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*[http://www.fsmitha.com/h3/h11mon.htm Genghis Khan and the Mongols] |
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*Welcome to [http://www.coldsiberia.org/ The Realm of the Mongols] |
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*Parts of this biography were taken from the [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/mntoc.html Area Handbook series at the Library of Congress] |
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*[http://koreanhistoryproject.org/Ket/Idx/KETIndex0504.htm Coverage of Temüjin's Earlier Years] |
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*[http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat0.htm#Mongol Estimates of Mongol warfare casualties] |
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*[http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/genghis/ Genghis Khan on the Web] (directory of some 250 resources) |
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*[http://www.accd.edu/sac/history/keller/Mongols/empsub2.html Mongol Arms] |
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*[http://www.leader-values.com/Content/detail.asp?ContentDetailID=799 Genghis Khan's leadership approach - LeaderValues] |
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*[[BBC Radio 4]] programme ''[[In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)|In Our Time]]'', topic was [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20070201.shtml Genghis Khan] February 2007 |
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*[http://nobsnews.blogspot.com/1994/01/inspirations-of-historians.html#rashid-ad-din-juwayni ‘Ala’ al-Din ‘Ata Malik Juvayni] A History of the World-Conqueror Ghengis Genghis Khan, [[Ata al-Mulk Juvayni]] and [[Rashid-al-Din Hamadani]] |
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{{s-hou|[[Borjigin|House of Borjigin]] (1206–1635)||c. 1162||1227}} |
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{{s-ttl|title=''[[Khagan]]'' of the [[Mongol Empire]]|years=1206–1227}} |
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{{s-ttl|title=[[Khamag Mongol|Khagan of Khamag Mongol]]|years=1189-1206}} |
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{{s-aft|after=The Mongol Empire established}} |
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{{s-end}} |
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{{Khagans of Mongol Empire}} |
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{{Persondata |
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|NAME=Genghis Khan |
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|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Temüjin |
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|SHORT DESCRIPTION=Founder of the [[Mongol Empire]] |
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|DATE OF BIRTH=c. 1162 |
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|PLACE OF BIRTH=in [[Khentii Province]] in [[Mongolia]] |
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|DATE OF DEATH= 1227 |
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|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Western Xia]] |
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}} |
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Revision as of 19:45, 15 November 2010
Genghis Khan | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Khagan of the Mongol Empire | |||||
![]() | |||||
Reign | 1206–1227 | ||||
Coronation | spring[1] 1206 in khurultai at the Onon River, Mongolia | ||||
Successor | Ögedei Khan | ||||
Issue | Jochi Chagatai Ögedei Tolui others | ||||
| |||||
House | Borjigin | ||||
Father | Yesükhei | ||||
Mother | Ho'elun |
Genghis Khan (Template:Pron-en or /ˈɡɛŋɡɪs ˈkɑːn/[2]; Mongolian: Чингис Хаан or ᠴᠢᠩᠭᠢᠰ ᠬᠠᠭᠠᠨ, Chinggis Khaan, or Činggis Qaγan), IPA: [tʃiŋɡɪs xaːŋ] ; probably[3] 1162–1227), born B. Temüjin ( , was the founder, Khan (ruler) and Khagan (emperor) of the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous empire in history after his death.
He came to power by uniting many of the nomadic tribes of northeast Asia. After founding the Mongol Empire and being proclaimed "Genghis Khan", he started the Mongol invasions that would ultimately result in the conquest of most of Eurasia. These included raids or invasions of the Kara-Khitan Khanate, Caucasus, Khwarezmid Empire, Western Xia and Jin dynasties. These campaigns were often accompanied by wholesale massacres of the civilian populations - especially in Khwarezmia. By the end of his life, the Mongol Empire occupied a substantial portion of Central Asia and China.
Before Genghis Khan died, he assigned Ögedei Khan as his successor and split his empire into khanates among his sons and grandsons.[4] He died in 1227 after defeating the Western Xia. He was buried in an unmarked grave somewhere in Mongolia at an unknown location. His descendants went on to stretch the Mongol Empire across most of Eurasia by conquering and/or creating vassal states out of all of modern-day China, Korea, the Caucasus, Central Asian countries, and substantial portions of modern Eastern Europe, Russia and the Middle East. Many of these invasions resulted in the large-scale slaughter of local populations, which have given Genghis Khan and his empire, a fearsome reputation in local histories.
Beyond his great military accomplishments, Genghis Khan also advanced the Mongol Empire in other ways. He decreed the adoption of the Uyghur script as the Mongol Empire's writing system. He also promoted religious tolerance in the Mongol Empire, and created a unified empire from the nomadic tribes of northeast Asia. Present-day Mongolians regard him highly as the founding father of Mongolia.[5]
Early life
Lineage
Temüjin was related on his father's side to Khabul Khan, Ambaghai and Qutula Khan who had headed the Mongol confederation. When the Chinese Jin Dynasty switched support from the Mongols to the Tatars in 1161, they destroyed Khabul Khan.[6] Genghis's father, Yesügei (leader of the Borjigin and nephew to Ambaghai and Qutula Khan), emerged as the head of the ruling clan of the Mongols, but this position was contested by the rival Tayichi’ud clan, who descended directly from Ambaghai. When the Tatars grew too powerful after 1161, the Jin switched their support from the Tatars to the Keraits.
Birth
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Onon.jpg/220px-Onon.jpg)
Because of the lack of contemporary written records, there is very little factual information about the early life of Temüjin. The few sources that provide insight into this period often conflict.
Temüjin was born in 1162[3] in a Mongol tribe near Burkhan Khaldun mountain and the Onon and Kherlen Rivers in modern-day Mongolia, not far from the current capital Ulaanbaatar. The Secret History of the Mongols reports that Temüjin was born with a blood clot grasped in his fist, a traditional sign that he was destined to become a great leader. He was the third-oldest son of his father Yesükhei, a minor tribal chief of the Kiyad and an ally of Ong Khan of the Kerait tribe,[7] and the oldest son of his mother Hoelun. According to the Secret History, Temüjin was named after a Tatar chieftain whom his father had just captured. The name also suggests that they may have been descended from a family of blacksmiths (see section Name and title below).
Yesükhei's clan was called Borjigin (Боржигин), and Hoelun was from the Olkhunut, the sub-lineage of the Onggirat tribe.[8][9] Like other tribes, they were nomads. Because his father was a chieftain, as were his predecessors, Temüjin was of a noble background. This higher social standing made it easier to solicit help from and eventually consolidate the other Mongol tribes.[citation needed]
No accurate portraits of Genghis exist today, and any surviving depictions are considered to be artistic interpretations. Persian historian Rashid-al-Din recorded in his "Chronicles" that the legendary "glittering" ancestor of Genghis was tall, long-bearded, red-haired, and green-eyed. Rashid al-Din also described the first meeting of Genghis and Kublai Khan, when Genghis was shocked to find that Kublai had not inherited his red hair.[10] Also according to al-Din Genghis's Borjigid clan, had a legend involving their origins: it began as the result of an affair between Alan-ko and a stranger to her land, a glittering man who happened to have red hair and bluish-green eyes. Modern historian Paul Ratchnevsky has suggested in his Genghis biography that the "glittering man" may have been from the Kyrgyz people, who historically displayed these same characteristics. Controversies aside, the closest depiction generally accepted by most historians is the portrait currently in the National Palace Museum in Taipei, Taiwan (see picture above).[citation needed]
Early life and family
Temüjin had three brothers named Khasar (or Qasar), Khajiun, and Temüge, and one sister named Temülen (or Temülin), as well as two half-brothers named Bekhter and Belgutei. Like many of the nomads of Mongolia, Temüjin's early life was difficult. His father arranged a marriage for him, and at nine years old, he was delivered by his father to the family of his future wife Börte, who was a member of the tribe Onggirat. Temujin was to live there in service to Dei Sechen, the head of the new household, until he reached the marriageable age of 12. While heading home, his father ran into the neighbouring Tatars, who had long been enemies of the Mongols, and he was subsequently poisoned by the food they offered. Upon learning this, Temüjin returned home to claim his father's position as chieftain of the tribe; however, his father's tribe refused to be led by a boy so young. They abandoned Hoelun and her children, leaving them without protection.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Djengiz_Kh%C3%A2n_et_Toghril_Ong_Khan.jpeg/300px-Djengiz_Kh%C3%A2n_et_Toghril_Ong_Khan.jpeg)
For the next several years, Hoelun and her children lived in poverty, surviving primarily on wild fruits and ox carcasses, marmots, and other small game hunted by Temüjin and his brothers. It was during one hunting excursion that 10-year-old Temüjin killed his half-brother, Bekhter, during a fight which resulted from a dispute over hunting spoils.[11] This incident cemented his position as head of the household.
In another incident in 1182 he was captured in a raid and held prisoner by his father's former allies, the Tayichi'ud. The Tayichi'ud enslaved Temüjin (reportedly with a cangue), but with the help of a sympathetic watcher, the father of Chilaun (who would later become a general of Genghis Khan), he was able to escape from the ger in the middle of the night by hiding in a river crevice.[citation needed] It was around this time that Jelme and Bo'orchu, two of Genghis Khan's future generals, joined forces with him. Temüjin's reputation also became widespread after his escape from the Tayichi'ud.
At this time, none of the tribal confederations of Mongolia were united politically, and arranged marriages were often used to solidify temporary alliances. Temujin grew up observing the tough political climate of Mongolia, which includes tribal warfare, thievery, raids, corruption and continuing acts of revenge carried out between the various confederations, all compounded by interference from foreign forces such as the Chinese dynasties to the south. Temüjin's mother Ho'elun taught him many lessons about the unstable political climate of Mongolia, especially the need for alliances.
As previously arranged by his father, Temüjin married Börte of the Olkut'hun tribe when he was around 16 in order to cement alliances between their respective tribes. Börte had four sons, Jochi (1185–1226), Chagatai (1187—1241), Ögedei (1189—1241), and Tolui (1190–1232). Genghis Khan also had many other children with his other wives, but they were excluded from the succession, and records of daughters are nonexistent. Soon after Börte's marriage to Temüjin, she was kidnapped by the Merkits, and reportedly given away as a wife. Temüjin rescued her with the help of his friend and future rival, Jamuka, and his protector, Ong Khan of the Kerait tribe. She gave birth to a son, Jochi, nine months later, clouding the issue of his parentage. Despite speculation over Jochi, Börte would be his only empress, though Temüjin did follow tradition by taking several morganatic wives.[12]
Religion
Genghis Khan's religion is widely speculated to be Shamanism or Tengriism, which was very likely among nomadic Mongol-Turkic tribes of Central Asia. But he was very tolerant religiously, and interested to learn philosophical and moral lessons from other religions. To do so, he consulted Buddhist monks, Christian missionaries, Muslim merchants, and the Taoist monk Qiu Chuji.
Uniting the confederations
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Asia_1200ad.jpg/300px-Asia_1200ad.jpg)
The Central Asian plateau (north of China) around the time of Temüjin (the early 13th century) was divided into several tribes or confederations, among them Naimans, Merkits, Uyghurs, Tatars, Mongols, and Keraits, that were all prominent in their own right and often unfriendly toward each other as evidenced by random raids, revenges, and plundering.
Temüjin began his slow ascent to power by offering himself as an ally (or, according to others sources, a vassal) to his father's anda (sworn brother or blood brother) Toghrul, who was Khan of the Kerait, and is better known by the Chinese title Ong Khan (or "Wang Khan"), which the Jin Empire granted him in 1197. This relationship was first reinforced when Börte was captured by the Merkits; it was Toghrul to whom Temüjin turned for support. In response, Toghrul offered his vassal 20,000 of his Kerait warriors and suggested that he also involve his childhood friend Jamuka, who had himself become Khan (ruler) of his own tribe, the Jadaran.[13] Although the campaign was successful and led to the recapture of Börte and utter defeat of the Merkits, it also paved the way for the split between the childhood friends, Temüjin and Jamuka. Temüjin had become blood brother (anda) with Jamuka earlier, and they had vowed to remain eternally faithful.
The main opponents of the Mongol confederation (traditionally the "Mongols") around 1200 were the Naimans to the west, the Merkits to the north, Tanguts to the south, and the Jin and Tatars to the east. By 1190, Temüjin, his followers, and their advisors, had united the smaller Mongol confederation only. In his rule and his conquest of rival tribes, Temüjin broke with Mongol tradition in a few crucial ways. He delegated authority based on merit and loyalty, rather than family ties. As an incentive for absolute obedience and following his rule of law, the Yassa code, Temüjin promised civilians and soldiers wealth from future possible war spoils. As he defeated rival tribes, he did not drive away enemy soldiers and abandon the rest. Instead, he took the conquered tribe under his protection and integrated its members into his own tribe. He would even have his mother adopt orphans from the conquered tribe, bringing them into his family. These political innovations inspired great loyalty among the conquered people, making Temüjin stronger with each victory.[14]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Genghis_Khan%27s_enthronement_in_1206.jpg/200px-Genghis_Khan%27s_enthronement_in_1206.jpg)
Toghrul's (Wang Khan) son Senggum was jealous of Temüjin's growing power, and his affinity with his father. He allegedly planned to assassinate Temüjin. Toghrul, though allegedly saved on multiple occasions by Temüjin, gave in to his son[15] and became uncooperative with Temüjin. Temüjin learned of Senggum's intentions and eventually defeated him and his loyalists. One of the later ruptures between Toghrul and Temüjin was Toghrul's refusal to give his daughter in marriage to Jochi, the eldest son of Temüjin, a sign of disrespect in the Mongolian culture. This act led to the split between both factions, and was a prelude to war. Toghrul allied himself with Jamuka, who already opposed Temüjin's forces; however the internal dispute between Toghrul and Jamuka, plus the desertion of a number of their allies to Temüjin, led to Toghrul's defeat. Jamuka escaped during the conflict. This defeat was a catalyst for the fall and eventual dissolution of the Kerait tribe.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Genghiskhantraditional.svg/60px-Genghiskhantraditional.svg.png)
The next direct threat to Temüjin was the Naimans (Naiman Mongols), with whom Jamuka and his followers took refuge. The Naimans did not surrender, although enough sectors again voluntarily sided with Temüjin. In 1201, a kurultai elected Jamuka as Gur Khan, "universal ruler", a title used by the rulers of the Kara-Khitan Khanate. Jamuka's assumption of this title was the final breach with Temüjin, and Jamuka formed a coalition of tribes to oppose him. Before the conflict, however, several generals abandoned Jamuka, including Subutai, Jelme's well-known younger brother. After several battles, Jamuka was finally turned over to Temüjin by his own men in 1206.
According to the Secret History, Temüjin again offered his friendship to Jamuka, asking him to return to his side. Temüjin had killed the men who betrayed Jamuka, stating that he did not want disloyal men in his army. Jamuka refused the offer of friendship and reunion, saying that there can only be one Sun in the sky, and he asked for a noble death. The custom is to die without spilling blood, which is granted by breaking the back. Jamuka requested this form of death, despite the fact that in the past Jamuka had been known to have boiled his opponent's generals alive. The rest of the Merkit clan that sided with the Naimans were defeated by Subutai, who is now a member of Temüjin's personal guard and would later become one of the successful commanders of Genghis Khan. The Naimans' defeat left Genghis Khan as the sole ruler of the Mongol plains, which means all the prominent confederations fell and/or united under Temüjin's Mongol confederation.
Accounts of Genghis Khan's life are marked by claims of a series of betrayals and conspiracies. These include rifts with his early allies such as Jamuka (who also wanted to be a ruler of Mongol tribes) and Wang Khan (his and his father's ally), his son Jochi, and problems with the most important Shaman who was allegedly trying to break him up with brother Qasar who was serving Genghis Khan loyally. His military strategies showed a deep interest in gathering good intelligence and understanding the motivations of his rivals as exemplified by his extensive spy network and Yam route systems. He seemed to be a quick student, adopting new technologies and ideas that he encountered, such as siege warfare from the Chinese.
As a result by 1206 Temüjin had managed to unite or subdue the Merkits, Naimans, Mongols, Keraits, Tatars, Uyghurs and disparate other smaller tribes under his rule. It was a monumental feat for the "Mongols" (as they became known collectively). At a Kurultai, a council of Mongol chiefs, he was acknowledged as "Khan" of the consolidated tribes and took the new title "Genghis Khan". The title Khagan was not conferred on Genghis until after his death, when his son and successor, Ögedei took the title for himself and extended it posthumously to his father (as he was also to be posthumously declared the founder of the Yuan Dynasty). This unification of all confederations by Genghis Khan established peace between previously warring tribes and a single political and military force under Genghis Khan.
Military campaigns
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Genghis_Khan_empire-en.svg/300px-Genghis_Khan_empire-en.svg.png)
Western Xia Dynasty
During the 1206 political rise of Genghis Khan, the Mongol Empire created by Genghis Khan and his allies shared its western borders with the Tanguts' Western Xia Dynasty. To its east and south was the Jin Dynasty, founded by the Manchurian Jurchens, who ruled northern China as well as being the traditional overlord of the Mongolian tribes for centuries.
Genghis Khan organized his people, army, and his state to first prepare for war with Western Xia, or Xi Xia, which was closer to the Mongolian lands. He correctly believed that the more powerful Jin Dynasty's young ruler would not come to the aid of Xi Xia. When the Tanguts requested help from the Jin Dynasty, they were flatly refused.[15] Despite initial difficulties in capturing its well-defended cities, Genghis Khan forced the surrender of Western Xia by 1209.
Jin Dynasty
In 1211, after the conquest of Western Xia, Genghis Khan planned again to conquer the Jin Dynasty. The commander of the Jin Dynasty army made a tactical mistake in not attacking the Mongols at the first opportunity. Instead, the Jin commander sent a messenger, Ming-Tan, to the Mongol side, who promptly defected and told the Mongols that the Jin army was waiting on the other side of the pass. At this engagement fought at Badger Pass the Mongols massacred thousands of Jin troops. In 1215 Genghis besieged, captured, and sacked the Jin capital of Yanjing (later known as Beijing). This forced the Emperor Xuanzong to move his capital south to Kaifeng, abandoning the northern half of his kingdom to the Mongols.
Kara-Khitan Khanate
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Premongol.png/300px-Premongol.png)
Kuchlug, the deposed Khan of the Naiman confederation that Temüjin defeated and folded into the Mongol nation, fled west and usurped the khanate of Kara-Khitan (also known as Kara Kitay). Genghis Khan decided to conquer the Kara-Khitan khanate and defeat Kuchlug, possibly to take him out of power. By this time the Mongol army was exhausted from ten years of continuous campaigning in China against the Western Xia and Jin Dynasty. Therefore Genghis sent only two tumen (20,000 soldiers) against Kuchlug, under his younger general, Jebe, known as "The Arrow".
With such a small force, the invading Mongols were forced to change strategies and resort to inciting internal revolt among Kuchlug's supporters, leaving the Khara-Khitan khanate more vulnerable to Mongol conquest. As a result, Kuchlug's army was defeated west of Kashgar. Kuchlug fled again, but was soon hunted down by Jebe's army and executed. By 1218, as a result of defeat of Kara-Khitan khanate, the Mongol Empire and its control extended as far west as Lake Balkhash, which bordered the Khwarezmia (Khwarezmid Empire), a Muslim state that reached the Caspian Sea to the west and Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea to the south.
Khwarezmian Empire
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Khwarezmid_Empire_1190-1220.png/220px-Khwarezmid_Empire_1190-1220.png)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/During_the_battle_of_Indus.jpg/220px-During_the_battle_of_Indus.jpg)
In the early 13th century, the Khwarezmian Dynasty was governed by Shah Ala ad-Din Muhammad. Genghis Khan saw the potential advantage in Khwarezmia as a commercial trading partner using the Silk Road, and he initially sent a 500-man caravan to establish official trade ties with the empire. However, Inalchuq, the governor of the Khwarezmian city of Otrar, attacked the caravan that came from Mongolia, claiming that the caravan contained spies and therefore was a conspiracy against Khwarezmia. The situation became further complicated because the governor later refused to make repayments for the looting of the caravan and handing over the perpetrators. Genghis Khan then sent again a second group of three ambassadors (two Mongols and a Muslim) to meet the Shah himself instead of the governor Inalchuq. The Shah had all the men shaved and the Muslim beheaded and sent his head back with the two remaining ambassadors. This was seen as an affront and insult to Genghis Khan. Outraged Genghis Khan planned one of his largest invasion campaigns by organizing together around 200,000 soldiers (20 tumens), his most capable generals and some of his sons. He left a commander and number of troops in China, designated his successors to be his family members and likely appointed Ogedei to be his immediate successor and then went out to Khwarezmia.
The Mongol army under Genghis Khan, generals and his sons crossed the Tien Shan mountains by entering the area controlled by the Khwarezmian Empire. After compiling intelligence from many sources Genghis Khan carefully prepared his army, which was divided into three groups. His son Jochi led the first division into the northeast of Khwarezmia. The second division under Jebe marched secretly to the southeast part of Khwarzemia to form, with the first division, a pincer attack on Samarkand. The third division under Genghis Khan and Tolui marched to the northwest and attacked Khwarzemia from that direction.
The Shah's army was split by diverse internal disquisitions and by the Shah's decision to divide his army into small groups concentrated in various cities. This fragmentation was decisive in Khwarezmia's defeats, as it allowed the Mongols, although exhausted from the long journey, to immediately set about defeating small fractions of the Khwarzemi forces instead of facing a unified defense. The Mongol army quickly seized the town of Otrar, relying on superior strategy and tactics. Genghis Khan ordered the wholesale massacre of many of the civilians, enslaved the rest of the population and executed Inalchuq by pouring molten silver into his ears and eyes, as retribution for his actions. Near the end of the battle the Shah fled rather than surrender. Genghis Khan charged Subutai and Jebe with hunting him down, giving them two years and 20,000 men. The Shah died under mysterious circumstances on a small island within his empire.
The Mongols' conquest, even by their own standards, was brutal. After the capital Samarkand fell, the capital was moved to Bukhara by the remaining men, and Genghis Khan dedicated two of his generals and their forces to completely destroying the remnants of the Khwarezmid Empire, including not only royal buildings, but entire towns, populations and even vast swaths of farmland. According to stories, Genghis Khan even went so far as to divert a river through the Khwarezmid emperor's birthplace, erasing it from the map.
The Mongols attacked Samarkand using prisoners as body shields. After several days only a few remaining soldiers, die-hard supporters of the Shah, held out in the citadel. After the fortress fell, Genghis supposedly reneged on his surrender terms and executed every soldier that had taken arms against him at Samarkand. The people of Samarkand were ordered to evacuate and assemble in a plain outside the city, where they were killed and pyramids of severed heads raised as a symbol of victory.[16]
The city of Bukhara was not heavily fortified, with a moat and a single wall, and the citadel typical of Khwarezmi cities. The city leaders opened the gates to the Mongols, though a unit of Turkish defenders held the city's citadel for another twelve days. Survivors from the citadel were executed, artisans and craftsmen were sent back to Mongolia, young men who had not fought were drafted into the Mongolian army and the rest of the population was sent into slavery. As the Mongol soldiers looted the city, a fire broke out, razing most of the city to the ground.[17] Genghis Khan had the city's surviving population assemble in the main mosque of the town, where he declared that he was the flail of God, sent to punish them for their sins.
Meanwhile, the wealthy trading city of Urgench was still in the hands of Khwarezmian forces. The assault on Urgench proved to be the most difficult battle of the Mongol invasion and the city fell only after the defenders put up a stout defense, fighting block for block. Mongolian casualties were higher than normal, due to the unaccustomed difficulty of adapting Mongolian tactics to city fighting.
As usual, the artisans were sent back to Mongolia, young women and children were given to the Mongol soldiers as slaves, and the rest of the population was massacred. The Persian scholar Juvayni states that 50,000 Mongol soldiers were given the task of executing twenty-four Urgench citizens each, which would mean that 1.2 million people were killed. While this is almost certainly an exaggeration, the sacking of Urgench is considered one of the bloodiest massacres in human history.
In the meantime, Genghis Khan selected his third son Ögedei as his successor before his army set out, and specified that subsequent Khans should be his direct descendants. Genghis Khan also left Muqali, one of his most trusted generals, as the supreme commander of all Mongol forces in Jin China while he was out battling the Khwarezmid Empire to the west.
Georgia and Volga Bulgaria
After the defeat of the Khwarezmian Empire in 1220, Genghis Khan gathered his forces in Persia and Armenia to return to the Mongolian steppes. Under the suggestion of Subutai, the Mongol army was split into two component forces. Genghis Khan led the main army on a raid through Afghanistan and northern India towards Mongolia, while another 20,000 (two tumen) contingent marched through the Caucasus and into Russia under generals Jebe and Subutai. They pushed deep into Armenia and Azerbaijan. The Mongols destroyed the kingdom of Georgia, sacked the Genoese trade-fortress of Caffa in Crimea and overwintered near the Black Sea. Heading home, Subutai's forces attacked the Kipchaks and were intercepted by the allied but poorly coordinated 80,000 Kievan Rus' troops led by Mstislav the Bold of Halych and Mstislav III of Kiev who went out to stop the Mongols' actions in the area. Subutai sent emissaries to the Slavic princes calling for a separate peace, but the emissaries were executed. At the Battle of Kalka River in 1223, Subutai's forces defeated the larger Kievan force, while losing the battle of Samara Bend against the neighboring Volga Bulgars.[18] The Russian princes then sued for peace. Subutai agreed but was in no mood to pardon the princes. As was customary in Mongol society for nobility, the Russian princes were given a bloodless death. Subutai had a large wooden platform constructed on which he ate his meals along with his other generals. Six Russian princes, including Mstislav III of Kiev, were put under this platform and crushed to death.
The Mongols learned from captives of the abundant green pastures beyond the Bulgar territory, allowing for the planning for conquest of Hungary and Europe. Genghis Khan recalled Subutai back to Mongolia soon afterwards, and Jebe died on the road back to Samarkand. Subutai and Jebe's famous cavalry expedition, in which they encircled the entire Caspian Sea defeating all armies in their path, except for that of the Volga Bulgars, remains unparalleled to this day, and word of the Mongol triumphs began to trickle to other nations, particularly Europe. These two campaigns are generally regarded as reconnaissance campaigns that tried to get the feel of the political and cultural elements of the regions. In 1225 both divisions returned to Mongolia. These invasions ultimately added Transoxiana and Persia to an already formidable empire while destroying any resistance along the way. Later under Genghis Khan's grandson Batu and the Golden Horde, the Mongols returned to conquer Volga Bulgaria and the Kievan Rus in 1237, concluding the campaign in 1240.
Western Xia and Jin Dynasty
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Map_of_China_1142.jpg/220px-Map_of_China_1142.jpg)
The vassal emperor of the Tanguts (Western Xia) had earlier refused to take part in the war against the Khwarezmid Empire after Genghis Khan and the main army marched towards Kharezmian Empire. Plus Western Xia and the defeated Jin Dynasty formed a coalition to resist the Mongols, counting on the campaign against the Khwarezmians to drain the Mongols' ability to respond effectively.
In 1226, immediately after returning from the west, Genghis Khan began a retaliatory attack on the Tanguts. His armies quickly took Heisui, Ganzhou and Suzhou (not the Suzhou in Jiangsu province), and in the autumn he took Xiliang-fu. One of the Tangut generals challenged the Mongols to a battle near Helanshan, but was soundly defeated. In November, Genghis laid siege to the Tangut city Lingzhou, and crossed the Yellow River, defeating the Tangut relief army. According to legend, it was here that Genghis Khan reportedly saw a line of five stars arranged in the sky, and interpreted it as an omen of his victory.
In 1227, Genghis Khan's army attacked and destroyed the Tangut capital of Ning Hia, and continued to advance, seizing Lintiao-fu, Xining province, Xindu-fu, and Deshun province in quick succession in the Spring. At Deshun, the Tangut general Ma Jianlong put up a fierce resistance for several days and personally led charges against the invaders outside the city gate. Ma Jianlong later died from wounds received from arrows in battle. Genghis Khan, after conquering Deshun, went to Liupanshan (Qingshui County, Gansu Province) to escape the severe summer. The new Tangut emperor quickly surrendered to the Mongols, and the rest of the Tanguts officially surrendered soon after. Not happy with their betrayal and resistance, Genghis Khan ordered the entire imperial family to be executed, effectively ending the Tangut lineage.
Succession
The succession topic of Genghis Khan was already significant during the later years of Genghis Khan's reign since he was already reaching his older years. Also the long running paternity discussion about Genghis' oldest son Jochi was already a relatively hot topic behind the scenes, which particularly was contentious because of the seniority of Jochi among the brothers. According to traditional historical accounts, the issue over Jochi's paternity was voiced most strongly by Chagatai. In The Secret History of the Mongols, just before the invasion of the Khwarezmid Empire by Genghis Khan, Chagatai declares before his father and brothers that he would never accept Jochi as Genghis Khan's successor. In response to this tension[19] and possibly for other reasons, it was Ögedei who was appointed as successor.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Mongol_Great_Khans_coin_minted_at_Balk_Afghanistan_AH_618_AD_1221.jpg/220px-Mongol_Great_Khans_coin_minted_at_Balk_Afghanistan_AH_618_AD_1221.jpg)
Jochi
Jochi died in 1226, during his father's lifetime. Some scholars, notably Ratchnevsky, have commented on the possibility that Jochi was secretly poisoned by an order from Genghis Khan. Rashid al-Din reports that the great Khan sent for his sons in the spring of 1223, and while his brothers heeded the order, Jochi remained in Khorasan. Juzjani suggests that the disagreement arose from a quarrel between Jochi and his brothers in the siege of Urgench. Jochi had attempted to protect Urgench from destruction, as it belonged to territory allocated to him as a fief. He concludes his story with the clearly apocryphal statement by Jochi: "Genghis Khan is mad to have massacred so many people and laid waste so many lands. I would be doing a service if I killed my father when he is hunting, made an alliance with Sultan Muhammad, brought this land to life and gave assistance and support to the Muslims." Juzjani claims that it was in response to hearing of these plans that Genghis Khan ordered his son secretly poisoned; however, as Sultan Muhammad was already dead in 1223, the accuracy of this story is questionable.[20]
Genghis Khan was aware of this friction between his sons (particularly between Chagatai and Jochi) and worried of possible conflict between them if he died and therefore he decided to explicitly divide his empire among his sons and make all of them Khan in their own right and by appointing one of his sons as his successor. Chagatai was considered unstable due to his temper and rash behavior because of his statements he made that he would not follow Jochi if he were to become his father's successor. Tolui, Genghis Khan's youngest son was definitely not to be his successor because he was the youngest and in the Mongol culture, youngest sons were not given a huge responsibility due to their age. If Jochi was to become successor, it was likely that Chagatai would engage in warfare with him and collapse the empire. Therefore Genghis Khan decided to give the throne to Ogedei. Ogedei was seen by Genghis Khan as dependable in character and relatively stable and down to earth and would be a neutral candidate and might defuse the situation between his brothers.
Death and burial
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In 1227, after defeating the Tangut people, Genghis Khan died (according to The Secret History of the Mongols). The reason for his death is uncertain and speculations abound. Some historians maintain that he fell off his horse during a horseback pursuit from the land of present day Egypt due to battle wounds and physical fatigue, ultimately dying of his injuries.[21] Others contend that he was felled by a protracted illness such as pneumonia. The Galician-Volhynian Chronicle alleges he was killed by the Tanguts in battle. Later Mongol chronicles connect Genghis' death with a Tangut princess taken as war booty. One chronicle from the early 17th century even relates that the princess hid a small pair of pliers inside her vagina, and hurt the Great Khan so badly that he died. Some Mongol authors have doubted this version and suspected it to be an invention by the rival Oirads.[22]
Genghis Khan asked to be buried without markings, according to the customs of his tribe. After he died, his body was returned to Mongolia and presumably to his birthplace in Khentii Aimag, where many assume he is buried somewhere close to the Onon River and the Burkhan Khaldun mountain (part of the Kentii mountain range). According to legend, the funeral escort killed anyone and anything across their path to conceal where he was finally buried. The Genghis Khan Mausoleum, constructed many years after his death, is his memorial, but not his burial site.
On October 6, 2004, a joint Japanese-Mongolian archaeological dig uncovered what is believed to be Genghis Khan's palace in rural Mongolia, which raises the possibility of actually locating the ruler's long-lost burial site.[23] Folklore says that a river was diverted over his grave to make it impossible to find (the same manner of burial as the Sumerian King Gilgamesh of Uruk and Atilla the Hun). Other tales state that his grave was stampeded over by many horses, and that trees were then planted over the site, and the permafrost also did its part in hiding the burial site.
Genghis Khan left behind an army of more than 129,000 men; 28,000 were given to his various brothers and his sons. Tolui, his youngest son, inherited more than 100,000 men. This force contained the bulk of the elite Mongolian cavalry. By tradition, the youngest son inherits his father's property. Jochi, Chagatai, Ögedei Khan, and Kulan's son Gelejian received armies of 4,000 men each. His mother and the descendants of his three brothers received 3,000 men each.
Mongol Empire
Politics and economics
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Mongol_Empire_map.gif/300px-Mongol_Empire_map.gif)
The Mongol Empire was governed by a civilian and military code, called the Yassa, created by Genghis Khan. The Mongol Empire did not emphasize the importance of ethnicity and race in the administrative realm, instead adopting an approach grounded in meritocracy. The exception was the role of Genghis Khan and his family. The Mongol Empire was one of the most ethnically and culturally diverse empires in history, as befitted its size. Many of the empire's nomadic inhabitants considered themselves Mongols in military and civilian life, including Turks, Mongols, and others and included many diverse Khans of various ethnicities as part of the Mongol Empire such as Muhammad Khan.
There were tax exemptions for religious figures and, to some extent, teachers and doctors. The Mongol Empire practiced religious tolerance to a large degree because Mongol tradition had long held that religion was a very personal concept, and not subject to law or interference.[citation needed] Sometime before the rise of Genghis Khan, Ong Khan, his mentor and eventual rival, had converted to Nestorian Christianity. Various Mongol tribes were Buddhist, Muslim, shamanist or Christian. Religious tolerance was thus a well established concept on the Asian steppe.
Modern Mongolian historians say that towards the end of his life, Genghis Khan attempted to create a civil state under the Great Yassa that would have established the legal equality of all individuals, including women.[24] However, there is no contemporary evidence of this, or of the lifting of discriminatory policies towards sedentary peoples such as the Chinese. Women played a relatively important role in Mongol Empire and in family, for example Töregene Khatun was briefly in charge of the Mongol Empire when next male Khagan was being chosen. Modern scholars refer to the alleged policy of encouraging trade and communication as the Pax Mongolica (Mongol Peace).
Genghis Khan realised that he needed people who could govern cities and states conquered by him. He also realised that such administrators could not be found among his Mongol people because they were nomads and thus had no experience governing cities. For this purpose Genghis Khan invited a Khitan prince, Chu'Tsai, who worked for the Jin and had been captured by the Mongol army after the Jin Dynasty were defeated. Jin had captured power by displacing Khitan. Genghis told Chu'Tsai, who was a lineal descendant of Khitan rulers, that he had avenged Chu'Tsai's forefathers. Chu'Tsai responded that his father served the Jin Dynasty honestly and so did he; he did not consider his own father his enemy, so the question of revenge did not apply. Genghis Khan was very impressed by this reply. Chu'Tsai administered parts of the Mongol Empire and became a confidant of the successive Mongol Khans.
Military
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/MongolCavalry_crop.jpg/220px-MongolCavalry_crop.jpg)
Genghis Khan put absolute trust in his generals, such as Muqali, Jebe and Subutai, and regarded them as close advisors, often extending them the same privileges and trust normally reserved for close family members. He allowed them to make decisions on their own when they embarked on campaigns far from the Mongol Empire capital Karakorum. Genghis Khan expected unwavering loyalty from his generals, and granted them a great deal of autonomy in making command decisions. Muqali, a trusted general, was given command of the Mongol forces against the Jin Dynasty while Genghis Khan was fighting in Central Asia, and Subutai and Jebe were allowed to pursue the Great Raid into the Caucausus and Kievan Rus, an idea they had presented to the Khagan on their own initiative. The Mongol military was also successful in siege warfare, cutting off resources for cities and towns by diverting certain rivers, taking enemy prisoners and driving them in front of the army, and adopting new ideas, techniques and tools from the people they conquered, particularly in employing Muslim and Chinese siege engines and engineers to aid the Mongol cavalry in capturing cities. Another standard tactic of the Mongol military was the commonly practiced feigned retreat to break enemy formations and to lure small enemy groups away from the larger group and defended position for ambush and counterattack.
Another important aspect of the military organization of Genghis Khan was the communications and supply route or Yam, adapted from previous Chinese models. Genghis Khan dedicated special attention to this in order to speed up the gathering of military intelligence and official communications. To this end, Yam waystations were established all over the empire.
Khanates
Before his death, Genghis Khan divided his empire among his sons Ögedei, Chagatai, Tolui, and Jochi (Jochi's death several months before Genghis Khan meant that his lands were instead split between his sons, Batu and Orda) into several Khanates designed as sub-territories: their Khans were expected to follow the Great Khan, who was, initially, Ögedei.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Harhorin.jpg/300px-Harhorin.jpg)
Following are the Khanates the way Genghis Khan assigned them:
- Empire of the Great Khan: Ögedei Khan, as Great Khan, took most of Eastern Asia, including China; this territory later to comprise the Yuan Dynasty under Kubilai Khan.
- Mongol homeland (present day Mongolia, including Karakorum): Tolui Khan, being the youngest son, received a small territory near the Mongol homeland, following Mongol custom.
- Chagatai Khanate: Chagatai Khan, Genghis Khan's second son, was given Central Asia and northern Iran.
- Blue Horde to Batu Khan, and White Horde to Orda Khan, both were later combined into the Kipchak Khanate, or Khanate of the Golden Horde, under Toqtamysh. Genghis Khan's eldest son, Jochi, had received most of the distant Russia and Ruthenia. Because Jochi died before Genghis Khan, his territory was further split up between his sons. Batu Khan launched an invasion of Russia, and later Hungary and Poland, and crushed several armies before being summoned back by the news of Ögedei's death.
After Genghis Khan
Contrary to popular belief, Genghis Khan did not conquer all of the areas of the Mongol Empire. At the time of his death, the Mongol Empire stretched from the Caspian Sea to the Sea of Japan. The empire's expansion continued for a generation or more after Genghis's death in 1227. Under Genghis's successor Ögedei Khan the speed of expansion reached its peak. Mongol armies pushed into Persia, finished off the Xi Xia and the remnants of the Khwarezmids, and came into conflict with the imperial Song Dynasty of China, starting a war that would last until 1279 and that would conclude with the Mongols gaining control of all of China. They also pushed further into Russia and eastern Europe.
Perceptions
Like other notable conquerors, Genghis Khan is portrayed differently by those he conquered and those who conquered with him. Negative views of Genghis Khan are very persistent within histories written by many different cultures, from various different geographical regions. They often cite the cruelties and destruction brought upon by Mongol armies, not to mention the systematic slaughter of civilians in the conquered regions; other authors cite positive aspects of Genghis Khan's conquests as well.
Positive
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/GhingisHan-rev.jpg/170px-GhingisHan-rev.jpg)
Genghis Khan is credited with bringing the Silk Road under one cohesive political environment. This allowed increased communication and trade between the West, Middle East and Asia, thus expanding the horizons of all three cultural areas. Some historians have noted that Genghis Khan instituted certain levels of meritocracy in his rule, was tolerant of different religions and explained his policies clearly to all his soldiers.[25] In Turkey, Genghis Khan is looked on as a great military leader, and it is popular for male children to carry his title as name.[26]
In Mongolia
Traditionally Genghis Khan had been revered for centuries among the Mongols, and also among certain other ethnic groups such as the Turks, largely because of his association with Mongol statehood, political and military organization, and his historic victories in war. He eventually evolved into a larger-than-life figure chiefly among the Mongols and is still considered the symbol of Mongolian culture.
During the communist period, Genghis Khan was often described as reactionary, and positive statements about him were generally avoided.[27] In 1962, the erection of a monument at his birthplace and a conference held in commemoration of his 800th birthday led to criticism from the Soviet Union, and resulted in the dismissal of Tömör-Ochir, a secretary of the ruling Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party Central Committee.
In the early 1990s, when democracy was established in Mongolia, the memory of Genghis Khan with the Mongolian traditional national identity has had a powerful revival partly because of his perception during the Mongolian People's Republic period. Genghis Khan became one of the central figures of the national identity. He is looked upon positively by Mongolians for his role in uniting various warring tribes. For example, it is not uncommon for Mongolians to refer to Mongolia as "Genghis Khan's Mongolia", to themselves as "Genghis Khan's children", and to Genghis Khan as the "father of the Mongols" especially among the younger generation. However, there is a chasm in the perception of his brutality, Mongolians maintain that the historical records written by non-Mongolians are unfairly biased against Genghis Khan, and that his butchery is exaggerated, while his positive role is underrated.[28]
Genghis Khan's name and likeness are endorsed on products, streets, buildings, and other places. His face can be found on everyday commodities, from liquors to the largest denominations of 500, 1,000, 5,000 and 10,000 Mongolian tögrög (₮). Mongolia's main international airport has been renamed Chinggis Khaan International Airport, and major Genghis Khan statues have been erected before the parliament[29] and near Ulaanbaatar. There have been repeated discussions about regulating the use of his name and image to avoid trivialization.[30]
Genghis Khan is now regarded as one of Mongolia's prominent leaders.[31] He is responsible for the emergence of the Mongols as a political and ethnic identity because there was no unified identity between the various tribes that had cultural similarity. He reinforced many Mongol traditions and provided stability and unity during a time of almost endemic warfare between various tribes. He is also given credit for the introduction of the traditional Mongolian script and the creation of the Ikh Zasag, the first written Mongolian law.[32] In summary, Mongolians see him as the fundamental figure in the founding of the Mongol Empire, and therefore the basis for Mongolia as a country.
Mixed
In China
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/GenghisKhanMonument.jpg/220px-GenghisKhanMonument.jpg)
There are conflicting views of Genghis Khan in the People's Republic of China with some viewing him positively in the Inner Mongolia section where there is a monument and buildings about him and where there are considerable Mongols in the area with a population of around 5 million, almost twice the population of Mongolia. While Genghis Khan never conquered all of China, his grandson Kublai Khan completed that conquest,[33] and established the Yuan Dynasty that is often credited with re-uniting China. There has also been much artwork and literature praising Genghis as a great military leader and political genius. The years of the Mongol-established Yuan Dynasty left an indelible imprint on Chinese political and social structures for subsequent generations with literature during the Jin Dynasty relatively fewer. In general the legacy of Genghis Khan and his successors, who completed the conquest of China after 65 years of struggle, remains a mixed topic, even to this day.
Negative
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Bagdad1258.jpg/220px-Bagdad1258.jpg)
In the Middle East and Iran, he is almost universally looked on as a destructive and genocidal warlord who caused enormous damage and destruction to the population of these areas.[34] Similarly, in Afghanistan (along with other non-Turkic Muslim countries) he is generally viewed unfavorably though some groups display ambivalence as it is believed that the Hazara of Afghanistan are descendants of a large Mongol garrison stationed therein.[35][36]
The invasions of Baghdad, Samarkand, Urgench, Kiev, Vladimir among others caused mass murders, such as when portions of southern Khuzestan were completely destroyed. His descendant, Hulagu Khan destroyed much of Iran's northern part and sacked Baghdad although his forces were initially defeated by the Mamluks of Egypt. Trade along the Silk Road never recovered to its former state.
According to the works of the Persian historian Rashid-al-Din Hamadani, the Mongols killed more than 700,000 people in Merv and more than a million in Nishapur. The total population of Persia may have dropped from 2,500,000 to 250,000 as a result of mass extermination and famine.
Although the famous Mughal Emperors were descendants of Genghis Khan and Tamerlane, they distanced themselves from the Mongol atrocities against the Khwarizim Shahs, Turks, Persians, the citizens of Baghdad and Damascus and historical figures such as Attar of Nishapur.
Among the Iranian peoples, he is regarded along with Alexander and Tamerlane as one of the most despised conquerors of Iran.[37][38] The Mongol violence and depredations killed up to three quarters of the population of the Iranian Plateau, possibly 10 to 15 million people. Some historians have estimated that Iran's population did not again reach its pre-Mongol levels until the mid-20th century.[39] In much of Russia, Middle East, Korea, China, Ukraine, Poland and Hungary, Genghis Khan and his regime are credited with considerable damage, destruction and loss of population.
Descent
Zerjal et al. [2003][40] identified a Y-chromosomal lineage present in about 8% of the men in a large region of Asia (about 0.5% of the men in the world). The paper suggests that the pattern of variation within the lineage is consistent with a hypothesis that it originated in Mongolia about 1,000 years ago. Because the rate of such a spread would be too rapid to have occurred by genetic drift, the authors propose that the lineage is carried by likely male-line descendants of Genghis Khan, and that it has spread through social selection. In addition to most of the Mongol nobility up to the 20th century, the Mughal emperor Babur's mother was a descendant. Timur (also known as Tamerlane), the 14th century military leader, claimed descent from Genghis Khan.
Depictions in modern culture
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/GhinggisKhanMausoleum.jpg/220px-GhinggisKhanMausoleum.jpg)
There have been several films, novels and other adaptation works on the Mongolian ruler.
Films
- The Conqueror, released in 1956 and starring John Wayne as Temüjin and Susan Hayward as Börte.
- Genghis Khan, released in 1965 and starring Omar Sharif.
- Genghis Khan (1992 film) starring Richard Tyson, Charlton Heston and Pat Morita.
- Genghis Khan - A Proud Son Of Heaven (1998 film), made in Mongolian, with English subtitles.
- Genghis Khan: To the Ends of the Earth and Sea, also known as "The Descendant of Gray Wolf", a Japanese-Mongolian film released in 2007 about the life of Genghis Khan.
- Mongol, a film by Sergei Bodrov released in 2007. (Academy Award nominee for Best Foreign Language Film.)
Poster for the film Mongol - "By the Will of Genghis Khan", a Russian film released in 2009.
TV series
Year | Production | Lead actor | Additional information |
---|---|---|---|
1987 | TVB (Hong Kong) | Alex Man | see Genghis Khan (TVB) |
1987 | ATV (Hong Kong) | Tony Liu | 20 episodes |
2004 | China and Mongolia | Ba Sen | see Genghis Khan (2004 TV series) |
Novels
- The Conqueror series of novels by Conn Iggulden
- "You Can't, But Genghis Khan" from the Time Warp Trio book series
Short stories
- The Private Life of Genghis Khan by Douglas Adams and Graham Chapman
Pop music
- West German pop band Dschinghis Khan took its name from Genghis Khan. They participated in the Eurovision contest of 1979 with a song of the same name.
- English Heavy Metal band Iron Maiden titled an instrumental track Genghis Khan on their 1981 album Killers.
- The band Protest The Hero's song bloodmeat references Genghis Khan and the Khanate, and re-tells the tale of a small un-militiarised, and unequiped town fighting off a large, elite enemy, which may also be a reference to Genghis Khan.
Name and title
There are many theories about the origins of Temüjin's title. Since people of the Mongol nation later associated the name with ching (Mongolian for strength), such confusion is obvious, though it does not follow etymology.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/GhinggisKhanMausoleumGate.jpg/220px-GhinggisKhanMausoleumGate.jpg)
One theory suggests the name stems from a palatalised version of the Mongolian and Turkic word tenggis, meaning "ocean", "oceanic" or "wide-spreading". (Lake Baikal and ocean were called tenggis by the Mongols. However, it seems that if they had meant to call Genghis tenggis they could have said (and written) "Tenggis Khan", which they did not. Zhèng (Chinese: 正) meaning "right", "just", or "true", would have received the Mongolian adjectival modifier -s, creating "Jenggis", which in medieval romanization would be written "Genghis". It is likely that the 13th century Mongolian pronunciation would have closely matched "Chinggis".[41]
The English spelling "Genghis" is of unclear origin. Weatherford claims it to derive from a spelling used in original Persian reports.Even at this time some Iranians pronounce his name as "Ghengiss". However, review of historical Persian sources does not confirm this.[42]
According to the Secret History of the Mongols, Temüjin was named after a powerful warrior of the Tatar tribe that his father Yesügei had taken prisoner. The name "Temüjin" is believed to derive from the word temür, meaning iron (modern Mongolian: төмөр, tömör). The name would imply skill as a blacksmith.
More likely, as no evidence has survived to indicate that Genghis Khan had any exceptional training or reputation as a blacksmith, the name indicated an implied lineage in a family once known as blacksmiths. The latter interpretation is supported by the names of Genghis Khan's siblings, Temülin and Temüge, which are derived from the same root word.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/GenghisKhanMonumentInHulunbuir.jpg/220px-GenghisKhanMonumentInHulunbuir.jpg)
Name and spelling variations
Genghis Khan's name is spelled in variety of ways in different languages such as Chinese: 成吉思汗; pinyin: Chéngjísī Hán, Turkic: Cengiz Han, Chengez Khan, Chinggis Khan, Chinggis Xaan, Chingis Khan, Jenghis Khan, Chinggis Qan, Djingis Kahn, Russian: Чингисхан (Čingiskhan) or Чингиз-хан (Čingiz-khan), etc. Temüjin is written in Chinese as simplified Chinese: 铁木真; traditional Chinese: 鐵木眞; pinyin: Tiěmùzhēn.
When Kublai Khan established the Yuan Dynasty in 1271, he had his grandfather Genghis Khan placed on the official record as the founder of the dynasty or Taizu (Chinese: 太祖). Thus, Genghis Khan is also referred to as Yuan Taizu (Chinese: 元太祖) in Chinese historiography.
Timeline
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/GhinggisKhanStatue.jpg/220px-GhinggisKhanStatue.jpg)
- Probably 1155, 1162, or 1167: Temüjin was born in the Khentii mountains.
- At the age of nine, Temüjin's father Yesükhei was poisoned by Tatars, leaving him and his family destitute.
- c. 1184: Temüjin's wife Börte was kidnapped by Merkits; he called on blood brother Jamuka and Wang Khan for aid, and they rescued her.
- c. 1185: First son Jochi was born; leading to doubt about his paternity later among Genghis' children, because he was born shortly after Börte's rescue from the Merkits.
- 1190: Temüjin united the Mongol tribes, became leader, and devised code of law Yassa.
- 1201: Victory over Jamuka's Jadarans.
- 1202: Adopted as Wang Khan's heir after successful campaigns against Tatars.
- 1203: Victory over Wang Khan's Keraits. Wang Khan himself is killed by accident by allied Naimans.
- 1204: Victory over Naimans (all these confederations are united and become the Mongols).
- 1206: Jamuka was killed. Temüjin was given the title Genghis Khan by his followers in a Kurultai (around 40 years of age).
- 1207–1210: Genghis led operations against the Western Xia, which comprises much of northwestern China and parts of Tibet. Western Xia ruler submitted to Genghis Khan. During this period, the Uyghurs also submitted peacefully to the Mongols and became valued administrators throughout the empire.
- 1211: After the kurultai, Genghis led his armies against the Jin Dynasty ruling northern China.
- 1215: Beijing fell; Genghis Khan turned to west and the Khara-Kitan Khanate.
- 1219–1222: Conquered Khwarezmid Empire.
- 1226: Started the campaign against the Western Xia for forming coalition against the Mongols, the second battle with the Western Xia.
- 1227: Genghis Khan died after conquering the Tangut people. Cause of death is uncertain, although legend states that he was thrown off his horse in the battle and contracted a deadly fever soon after.
Notes
- ^ "History of the World Conqueror",the author is Ala-al-Dn‘Aa-Malik Juwain
- ^ The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition (2000).
- ^ a b Rashid al-Din asserts that Genghis Khan lived to the age of 72, placing his year of birth at 1155. The Yuanshi (元史, History of the Yuan dynasty records his year of birth as 1165. According to Ratchnevsky, accepting a birth in 1155 would render Genghis Khan a father at the age of 30 and would imply that he personally commanded the expedition against the Tanguts at the age of 72. Also, according to the Altan Tobci, Genghis Khan's sister, Temülin, was nine years younger than he; but the Secret History relates that Temülin was an infant during the attack by the Merkits, during which Genghis Khan would have been 18, had he been born in 1155. Zhao Hong reports in his travelogue that the Mongols he questioned did not know and had never known their ages.
- ^ John Joseph Saunders-The History of the Mongol Conquests
- ^ "Genghis Khan". North Georgia College and State University. Retrieved 2010-01-26.
- ^ Ratchnevsky, Paul (1991). Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy. Blackwell Publishing. pp. 9–10. ISBN 0-631-16785-4.
- ^ Morgan, David (1990). The Mongols (Peoples of Europe). p. 58.
- ^ Guida Myrl Jackson-Laufer, Guida M. Jackson-Encyclopedia of traditional epics,p. 527
- ^ Paul Kahn, Francis Woodman Cleaves-The secret history of the Mongols, p.192
- ^ "THE MONGOLS — PART I". Republican China. Retrieved 2008-05-20.
- ^ "The Emperors of Emperors". California State University. Retrieved 2008-05-20.
- ^ "Genghis Khan Biography (1162/7)". The Biography Channel. Retrieved 2008-05-20.
- ^ Grousset, Rene (1944). Conqueror of the World: The Life of Chingis-khan. New York: Viking Press.
- ^ Weatherford, Jack (2004). "2: Tale of Three Rivers". Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World. Three Rivers Press. p. 44. ISBN 0-609-80964-4.
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: External link in
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- ^ a b Man, John (2004). Genghis Khan: Life, Death and Resurrection. London; New York: Bantam Press. ISBN 0-593-05044-4.
- ^ Central Asian world cities
- ^ Morgan, David (1986). The Mongols. The Peoples of Europe. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-17563-6.
- ^ De Hartog, Leo (1988). Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World. London, UK: I.B. Tauris. pp. 122–123.
- ^ Ratchnevsky 1991, p. 126
- ^ Ratchnevsky 1991, pp. 136–7
- ^ Haenisch, Erich (1948). Die Geheime Geschichte der Mongolen. Leipzig. pp. 133, 136.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Heissig, Walther (1964). Die Mongolen. Ein Volk sucht seine Geschichte. Düsseldorf. p. 124.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ "Palace of Genghis Khan unearthed". BBC. 2004-10-07. Retrieved 2008-05-20.
- ^ Pocha, Jehangir S. (2005-05-10). "Mongolia sees Genghis Khan's good side". International Herald Tribune. Retrieved 2008-05-20.
- ^ Clive Foss, The Tyrants, page 57, Quercus, London, 2007.
- ^ "Ismi Didikle" (in Turkish). Ismi Didikle. Retrieved 2008-05-05.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link) - ^ Christopher Kaplonski: The case of the disappearing Chinggis Khaan.
- ^ Griffiths, Daniel (2007-01-11). "Asia-Pacific | Post-communist Mongolia's struggle". BBC News. Retrieved 2009-08-03.
- ^ Once Shunned, Genghis Khan Conquers Mongolia Again.
- ^ "Business | Genghis Khan may get protection". BBC News. 2006-10-06. Retrieved 2009-08-03.
- ^ "ASIA-PACIFIC | Mongolia glorifies Genghis Khan". BBC News. 2002-05-03. Retrieved 2009-08-03.
- ^ "The Yasa of Chingis Khan". Retrieved 2010-02-16.
- ^ Inner Mongolia Travel Guide.
- ^ "The Legacy of Genghis Khan" at Los Angeles County Museum of Art--again.
- ^ Zerjal, et el.; Xue, Y; Bertorelle, G; Wells, RS; Bao, W; Zhu, S; Qamar, R; Ayub, Q; Mohyuddin, A (2003). "The Genetic Legacy of the Mongols". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 72 (3): 717–721. doi:10.1086/367774. PMC 1180246. PMID 12592608. Archived from the original on September 29, 2007. Retrieved 2007-12-28.
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- ^ Phoenix From the Ashes: A Tale of the Book in Iran.
- ^ Civilizations: How we see others, how others see us.
- ^ R. Ward, Steven (2009). Immortal: a military history of Iran and its armed forces. Georgetown University Press. p. 39. ISBN 1589012585.
{{cite book}}
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- ^ Zerjal, et el.; Xue, Y; Bertorelle, G; Wells, RS; Bao, W; Zhu, S; Qamar, R; Ayub, Q; Mohyuddin, A (2003). "The Genetic Legacy of the Mongols". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 72 (3): 717–721. doi:10.1086/367774. PMC 1180246. PMID 12592608. Archived from the original on September 29, 2007. Retrieved 2007-12-28.
{{cite journal}}
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(help)CS1 maint: year (link) - ^ Timothy May. "Book Review". North Georgia College and State University. Retrieved 2008-02-20.
References
- Ratchnevsky, Paul (1992, c1991). Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy [Čingis-Khan: sein Leben und Wirken]. tr. & ed. Thomas Nivison Haining. Oxford, UK; Cambridge, Mass., USA: B. Blackwell. ISBN ISBN 0-631-16785-4.
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Further reading
- Brent, Peter (1976). The Mongol Empire: Genghis Khan: His Triumph and His Legacy. London: Weidenfeld & Nicholson. ISBN 029777137X.
- Bretschneider, Emilii (1888, repr. 2001). Mediæval Researches from Eastern Asiatic Sources; Fragments Towards the Knowledge of the Geography & History of Central & Western Asia. Trübner's Oriental Series. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co (repr. Munshirm Manoharlal Pub Pvt Ltd). ISBN 81-215-1003-1.
{{cite book}}
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(help)CS1 maint: year (link) - Cable, Mildred (1943). The Gobi Desert. London: Landsborough Publications.
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suggested) (help) - Charney, Israel W. (ed.) (1994). Genocide: A Critical Bibliographic Review. New York: Facts on File Publications.
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has generic name (help) - De Hartog, Leo (1988). Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World. London: I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd.
- Template:Fr Farale, Dominique (2002). De Gengis Khan à Qoubilaï Khan : la grande chevauchée mongole. Campagnes & stratégies. Paris: Economica. ISBN 2-7178-4537-2.
- Template:Fr Farale, Dominique (2007). La Russie et les Turco-Mongols : 15 siècles de guerre. Paris: Economica. ISBN 978-2-7178-5429-9.
- "Genghis Khan". Funk & Wagnalls New Encyclopedia. World Almanac Education Group. 2005. Retrieved 2008-05-22. Via the Internet Archive's copy of the History Channel Web site.
- Smitha, Frank E. "Genghis Khan and the Mongols". Macrohistory and World Report. Retrieved 2005-06-30.
- Kahn, Paul (adaptor) (1998). Secret History of the Mongols: The Origin of Chingis Khan (expanded edition): An Adaptation of the Yüan chʾao pi shih, Based Primarily on the English Translation by Francis Woodman Cleaves. Asian Culture Series. Boston: Cheng & Tsui Co. ISBN 0-88727-299-1.
- Kennedy, Hugh (2002). Mongols, Huns & Vikings. London: Cassell. ISBN ISBN 0-304-35292-6.
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value: invalid character (help) - Kradin, Nikolay (2006). Imperiia Chingis-khana (Chinggis Khan Empire). Moscow: Vostochnaia literatura. ISBN 5-02-018521-3.
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(help)CS1 maint: year (link) - Man, John (2004). Genghis Khan: Life, Death and Resurrection. London; New York: Bantam Press. ISBN ISBN 0-593-05044-4.
{{cite book}}
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value: invalid character (help) - Man, John (1997, 1998, 1999). Gobi: Tracking the Desert. London; New Haven, Conn: Weidenfeld & Nicolson; Yale University Press. ISBN 0-7538-0161-2.
{{cite book}}
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(help)CS1 maint: year (link) - Martin, Henry Desmond (1950). The Rise of Chingis Khan and his Conquest of North China. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press.
- May, Timothy (2001). "Mongol Arms". Explorations in Empire: Pre-Modern Imperialism Tutorial: The Mongols. San Antonio College History Department. Retrieved 2008-05-22.
- Morgan, David (1986). The Mongols. The Peoples of Europe. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-17563-6.
- Saunders, J.J. (1972, repr. 2001). History of the Mongol Conquests. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0812217667.
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(help)CS1 maint: year (link) - Stevens, Keith. Template:PDFlink Retrieved 22 May 2008.
- Stewart, Stanley (2001). In the Empire of Genghis Khan: A Journey among Nomads. London: Harper Collins. ISBN ISBN 0-00-653027-3.
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value: invalid character (help) - Turnbull, Stephen (2003). Genghis Khan & the Mongol Conquests 1190-1400. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-84176-523-6.
- Valentino, Benjamin A. (2004). Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the Twentieth Century. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0801439655.
- Weatherford, Jack (2004). Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World (review). New York: Crown. ISBN 0-609-61062-7.
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- Zerjal, Xue, Bertorelle, Wells, Bao, Zhu, Qamar, Ayub, Mohyuddin, Fu, Li, Yuldasheva, Ruzibakiev, Xu, Shu, Du, Yang, Hurles, Robinson, Gerelsaikhan, Dashnyam, Mehdi, Tyler-Smith (2003). "The Genetic Legacy of the Mongols" ([dead link] – Scholar search). The American Journal of Human Genetics. 72 (72): 717–721, . doi:10.1086/367774. PMC 1180246. PMID 12592608.
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Primary sources
- Juvaynī, Alā al-Dīn Atā Malik, 1226–1283 (1997). Genghis Khan: The History of the World-Conqueror [Tarīkh-i jahāngushā]. tr. John Andrew Boyle. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 0-295-97654-3.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - Rashid al-Din Tabib (1995). A Compendium of Chronicles: Rashid al-Din's Illustrated History of the World Jami' al-Tawarikh. The Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art, Vol. XXVII. Sheila S. Blair (ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-727627-X.
- Rashid al-Din Tabib (1971). The Successors of Genghis Khan (extracts from Jami’ Al-Tawarikh). UNESCO Collection of Representative Works: Persian heritage series. tr. from the Persian by John Andrew Boyle. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-03351-6.
- The Secret History of the Mongols: A Mongolian Epic Chronicle of the Thirteenth Century [Yuan chao bi shi]. Brill's Inner Asian Library vol. 7. tr. Igor de Rachewiltz. Leiden; Boston: Brill. 2004. ISBN 90-04-13159-0.
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External links
- Book Review of Genghis Khan by Leo De Hartog
- Genghis Khan and the Mongols
- Welcome to The Realm of the Mongols
- Parts of this biography were taken from the Area Handbook series at the Library of Congress
- Coverage of Temüjin's Earlier Years
- Estimates of Mongol warfare casualties
- Genghis Khan on the Web (directory of some 250 resources)
- Mongol Arms
- Genghis Khan's leadership approach - LeaderValues
- BBC Radio 4 programme In Our Time, topic was Genghis Khan February 2007
- ‘Ala’ al-Din ‘Ata Malik Juvayni A History of the World-Conqueror Ghengis Genghis Khan, Ata al-Mulk Juvayni and Rashid-al-Din Hamadani
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