Muhammad: Difference between revisions
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{{Islam}}{{Otherpeople|Muhammad}} |
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'''Muhammad''', {{lang-ar|محمد}} ''{{ArabDIN|muḥammad}}''; also '''Mohammed''' and other variants,<ref>Mahomet etc.; [[Turkish language|Turkish]]: ''Muhammed''; {{Audio|Ar-muhammad.ogg|click here}} for the Arabic pronunciation</ref> (c. 571 – [[632]]) established the religion of [[Islam]] and the [[Umma|Muslim community]].<ref>This is not supposed to mean that Muhammad was the first to propagate the submission to one god (= monotheism). Here, "Islam" and "Muslim" are used in their active lexical senses, ''not'' in their etymological senses.</ref> Muslims believe him to have been [[God]]'s [[Seal of the Prophets|final]] [[prophets of Islam|prophet]], to whom the [[Qur'an]] was [[Revelation|revealed]]. |
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According to traditional Muslim biographers, Muhammad was born c. 570 in [[Mecca]] and died [[June 8]] [[632]] in [[Medina]], both in the [[Hejaz]] region of present day [[Saudi Arabia]]. |
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The name ''[[Muhammad (name)|Muhammad]]'' means "the praised one" in [[Arabic language|Arabic]], being a [[Voice (grammar)|passive]] [[participle]] from the [[triconsonantal|root]] ''{{ArabDIN|[[ḥmd]]}}'' {{Ar|حمد}} "to praise". Within Islam, Muhammad is known as "The Prophet" and "The Messenger". The Qur'an ({{Quran-usc|33|40}}) also refers to him as the "[[Seal of the Prophets]]" (Arabic: ''{{ArabDIN|ḫatamu-n-nabiyyīn}}''). |
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__TOC__ |
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==Summary== |
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[[Image:Aziz efendi-muhammad alayhi s-salam.jpg|thumb|150px|"Muhammad" in Arabic calligraphy.]] |
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Born Muhammad ibn [[`Abdu'llah ibn `Abdu'l-Muttalib]], he is said to have initially been a [[merchant]] who traveled widely. |
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Muhammad often retreated to the mountains outside [[Mecca]], for prayer and contemplation. Muslims believe that in 610, at about the age of forty, while praying in one of these mountain caves called [[Hira]], he was visited by the [[Angel]] [[Gabriel#Gabriel in Islam|Gabriel]], who commanded him to memorize and recite the verses sent by God. These verses were later collected as part of the [[Qur'an]] (which was revealed to him over a period of about 23 years until his death). |
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He expanded his mission as a [[prophets of Islam|prophet]], publicly preaching [[Tawhid|strict monotheism]] and warning of a [[Qiyamah|Day of Judgment]] when all humans shall be held responsible for their deeds. He did not completely reject [[Judaism]] and [[Christianity]], two other monotheistic faiths known to the [[Arab]]s, but said that he had been sent by God in order to complete and perfect those teachings. |
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Many in Mecca resented his preaching and persecuted him and his followers. Eventually, in 622, he was forced to emigrate from Mecca in a journey known to Muslims as the [[Hijra (Islam)|Hijra]] (the Migration). He settled in ''Yathrib'' (now known as [[Medina]]) with his followers, where he was the leader of the first avowedly Muslim community. |
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War between factions in Mecca and Medina followed, in which Muhammad and his followers were victorious. They had in great part achieved their victory by building a tribal coalition. After the conquest of Mecca, the coalition was extended. By the time of Muhammad's death, he had unified much of [[Arabia]] under his rule, and launched military expeditions to the north, towards [[Syria]] and [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]]. |
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Under Muhammad's immediate [[caliph|successors]], the Islamic empire expanded into Palestine, Syria, [[Mesopotamia]], [[Iran|Persia]], [[Egypt]], [[Maghreb|North Africa]], and [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]]. Later conquests, commercial contact between Muslims and non-Muslims, and [[missionary]] activity spread Islam over much of the [[Eastern Hemisphere]], spreading [[Islam in China|Islam into China]] and [[Southeast Asia]]. |
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==Sources for Muhammad's life== |
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{{main|Historiography of early Islam}} |
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Most biographical sources of Muhammad were written by Muslims and were recorded in writing centuries after his death. There are only fragmentary and late references in non-Muslim historical records from the 7th century, and no inscriptions or archaeological remains from that time. The known non-Islamic accounts of Muhammad such as the [[Doctrina Iacobi]] records Muhammed as a Judeo-Arab preacher proclaiming the advent of a [[Jewish]] [[Messiah]], and states that the Jews and Arabs were allies against the [[Byzantines]], contradicting accounts in the [[Qur'an]]. |
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The traditional dates often given for Muhammad's life are 570-632 CE. The earliest biography known is the ''Life of the Apostle of God'', by [[Ibn Ishaq]] who was born about 717 and died in 767. He thus wrote his biography well over 100 years after Muhammad died. He would not have been able to speak to any eyewitnesses, only to those who had heard their accounts, or accounts of their accounts. Furthermore, we possess Ibn Ishaq's work only in fragments quoted in a compilation of anecdotes and traditions composed by Islamic historian [[Ibn Hisham]](???-834) and [[al-Tabari]] (838-923). |
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Other sources for biographies of Muhammad are: the military chronicles of [[Al-Waqidi|Waqidi]] (745-822), the biographies of [[Ibn Sa'd]] (783-845), a student of Waqidi, later histories, Quranic commentaries, and the collections of oral traditions known as [[hadith]]. These texts were recorded more than a century, and often several centuries, after the death of Muhammad. There are some passages in the Qur'an that are believed to shed some light on Muhammad's biography, however, they require a great deal of interpretation to be useful. |
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Some [[skeptic]]al scholars ([[John Wansbrough|Wansbrough]], [[Michael Cook (historian)|Cook]], [[Patricia Crone|Crone]], and others) have raised doubts about the reliability of the Islamic sources, especially the ''[[hadith]]'' collections. They note for instance, that the earliest biography of Muhammad of Ibn Ishaq does not contain any dates or explicit details, yet later Islamic narratives have progressively more dates and minute details inserted into their accounts of Muhammad's life as the generations of scholars relay the story. By the time we arrive at contemporary renditions of Muhammad's story , the dates and details have exploded exponentially without explanation. They believe that many hadith, and other traditions, were manufactured, or doctored, to support one or another of the many political or doctrinal factions that had developed within Islam in its first century or later. The life of Muhammad was believed to be the ''exemplar'' for all Muslims; hence the importance of showing that Muhammad said or did something proving that a particular faction was right. If the skeptics are right, and much of the early material cannot really be trusted, then all that is factually known is what is contained in the summary above. |
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Other academic scholars, such as [[William Montgomery Watt|Montgomery Watt]] and [[Wilferd Madelung]], have been much more willing to trust the Islamic sources. Their accounts of the life of Muhammad are similar to those held by most believing Muslims. These historical "traditionalists," both Muslim and non-Muslim, paint a much more detailed picture of Muhammad's life. |
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There is a great deal of possibly unreliable material for a life of Muhammad and very little that is accepted by all non-Muslim academics. Gregor Schoeler summarizes it, in a 2003 article: |
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: "The current research on the life of Muhammad is characterized by the fact that two groups of researchers stand directly opposed to one another: The one group advocates, somewhat aggressively, the conviction that all transmitted traditions, in part because of great inner contradictions, legendary forms, and so forth, are to be rejected. The other group is opposed to that view. According to these researchers, the Islamic transmission, despite all these defects, has at least a genuine core, which can be recognized using the appropriate source-critical methods. The difficulty certainly consists of finding criteria by which the genuine is to be differentiated from spurious." <ref>Schoeler, Greg, " Foundations for a new biography of Muhammad: The production and evaluation of the corpus of traditions from 'Urwah b. Al-Zubayr", in ''Method and Theory in the Study of Islamic Origins'', Herbert Berg, ed., Brill, 2003</ref> |
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Many, but not all of the first group of scholars would probably accept the first section of this article, the ''Summary''. The second group of academics is more willing to accept the traditional Muslim accounts, shorn of hagiography and supernatural claims and based on the earliest accounts rather than later traditions. |
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Many Muslims accept even fuller accounts of Muhammad's life. They believe traditions not credited by non-Muslim scholars. However, Muslims are not of one mind on the subject. Some Muslims accept "naturalistic" versions pared of most supernatural elements; some Muslims believe in versions of Muhammad's life full of miracles. There are versions of Muhammad's life favoring different traditions within Islam. A [[Sunni]] version of Muhammad's life is very different from a [[Shi'a]] version. It is impossible to present ''one'' Muslim version. However, a few of the commonest traditions, ones that are not accepted by academics but widely believed by Muslims, are covered in a final section. |
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==Life based on Islamic traditions== |
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{{unreferenced}} |
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Most Muslims, and the Western academics who are willing to trust some of the Islamic traditions, accept a much more detailed version of Muhammad's life. |
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===Genealogy=== |
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[[Image:Muhammad callig.gif|right|150px|frame|"Muhammad" in Arabic calligraphy.]] |
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According to tradition, Muhammad traced his [[genealogy]] back as far as [[Adnan]], whom the northern [[Arab]]s believed to be their common ancestor. Adnan in turn is said to be a descendant of Ismaeel ([[Ishmael]]), son of Ibrahim ([[Abraham]]) though the exact genealogy is disputed. Muhammad's genealogy up to Adnan is as follows: |
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Muhammad ibn [[Abd-Allah ibn Abd-al-Muttalib|Abd Allah]] ibn [[Shaiba ibn Hashim|Abd al-Muttalib]] (Shaiba) ibn [[Hashim ibn Abd al-Manaf|Hashim]] (Amr) ibn Abd Manaf (al-Mughira) ibn Qusai (Zaid) ibn Kilab ibn Murra ibn Ka`b ibn Lu'ay ibn Ghalib ibn Fahr ([[Quraish]]) ibn Malik ibn an-Nadr (Qais) ibn Kinana ibn Khuzaimah ibn Mudrikah (Amir) ibn Ilyas ibn [[Mudar]] ibn Nizar ibn Ma`ad ibn [[Adnan]]. (''ibn'' means "son of" in Arabic; alternate names of people with two names are given in parentheses.) <ref> [http://www.sunnipath.com/Resources/PrintMedia/Books/B0033P0005.aspx Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum: The Lineage and Family of Muhammad] by Saifur Rahman al-Mubarakpuri </ref> |
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He was also called ''Abul-Qaasim'' by some meaning "father of Qaasim", after his short-lived first son. |
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===Childhood=== |
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Muhammad was born into a well-to-do family settled in the northern Arabian town of [[Mecca]]. Some calculate his birthdate as [[20 April]], [[570]], while [[Shi'a Islam|Shi'a]] Muslims believe it to be [[26 April]] [[570]]. Other sources calculate the year of his birth to be [[571]]; tradition places it in the [[Year of the Elephant]]. Muhammad's father, [[Abd-Allah ibn Abd-al-Muttalib|Abdullah]], had died almost six months before he was born and the young boy was brought up by his paternal grandfather [[Shaiba ibn Hashim|Abd al-Muttalib]], of the [[Banu Hashim]] [[clan]] of the [[Quraish]] [[tribe]]. At the age of six, Muhammad lost his mother [[Aminah bint Wahab|Amina]] and at the age of eight his grandfather Abd al-Muttalib, who had become his guardian, also died. Muhammad now came under the care of his uncle [[Abu Talib]], the new leader of the [[Hashim ibn Abd al-Manaf|Hashim]] clan of the Quraish tribe, the most powerful in Mecca. |
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Mecca was a thriving commercial centre, due in great part to a stone temple (now called the [[Kaaba]]) that housed many different cult figures (idols). Merchants from different tribes would visit Mecca during the pilgrimage season, when all inter-tribal warfare was forbidden and they could trade in safety. While still in his teens, Muhammad began accompanying his uncle on trading journeys to [[Syria]]. He thus became well-travelled and knowledgeable as to foreign ways. |
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===Middle years=== |
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Muhammad became a merchant. One of his employers was [[Khadijah bint Khuwaylid|Khadija]]h, a forty-year-old widow. She was impressed with Muhammad's character and intelligence, and proposed to him in the year [[595]]. Muhammad consented to the marriage, which by all accounts was a happy one. |
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[[Ibn Ishaq]] records that Khadijah bore Muhammad five children: two sons Al Qasem and Abdullah (who is also called Al Tayeb and Al Taher) and four daughters. All of Khadija's children were born before Muhammad received his first [[revelation]]. His son [[Qasim ibn Muhammad|''Qasim'']] died at the age of two. The four daughters are said to be [[Zainab bint Muhammad|''Zainab'']], [[Ruqayyah bint Muhammad|''Ruqayyah'']], [[Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad|''Umm Kulthum'']], and [[Fatima Zahra|''Fatima'']]. |
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The [[Shi'a Islam|Shi'a]] say that Muhammad had only the one daughter, Fatima, and that the other daughters were either children of Khadijah by her previous marriage, or children of her sister. |
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<!-- BEGIN TIMELINE --> |
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{| align="right" width="30%" style="border:1px solid #ddd; margin:0 0 1em 1em; padding:0 0 1em 1em; vertical-align:right;" |
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!colspan="2" align="center"|<big>Timeline of Muhammad</big> |
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|- |
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|colspan="2" align="center"|<small>Important dates and locations in the life of Muhammad |
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|- |
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|align="right">|''c''. [[569]] |
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|Death of his father, `Abd Allah |
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|- |
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|align="right">|''c''. [[570]] |
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|Possible date of birth, [[April 20]]: [[Mecca]] |
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|align="right">|[[570]] |
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|Legendary unsuccessful [[Abraha|Ethiopian]] attack on Mecca |
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|- |
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|align="right">|[[576]] |
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|Mother dies |
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|- |
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|align="right">|[[578]] |
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|Grandfather dies |
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|align="right">|''c''. [[583]] |
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|Takes trading journeys to [[Syria]] |
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|- |
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|align="right">|''c''. [[595]] |
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|Meets and marries [[Khadijah]] |
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|align="right">|[[610]] |
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|First reports of [[Al-Alaq|Qur'anic revelation]]: Mecca |
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|align="right">|''c''. [[610]] |
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|Appears as [[Prophet of Islam]]: Mecca |
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|align="right">|''c''. [[613]] |
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|Begins spreading message of Islam publicly: Mecca |
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|align="right">|''c''. [[614]] |
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|Begins to gather following: Mecca |
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|- |
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|align="right">|''c''. [[615]] |
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|Emigration of Muslims to [[Kingdom of Aksum|Ethiopia]] |
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|- |
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|align="right">|[[616]] |
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|[[Banu Hashim]] clan boycott begins |
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|align="right">|''c''. [[618]] |
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|Medinan Civil War: [[Medina]] |
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|align="right">|[[619]] |
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|Banu Hashim clan boycott ends |
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|align="right">|''c''. [[620]] |
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|[[Isra and Miraj]] |
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|- |
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|align="right">|[[622]] |
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|Emigrates to [[Medina]] ([[Hijra (Islam)|Hijra]]) |
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|- |
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|align="right">|[[624]] |
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|[[Battle of Badr]] Muslims defeat Meccans |
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|- |
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|align="right">|[[624]] |
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|Expulsion of [[Banu Qaynuqa]] |
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|- |
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|align="right">|[[625]] |
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|[[Battle of Uhud]] Meccans defeat Muslims |
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|- |
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|align="right">|[[625]] |
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|Expulsion of [[Banu Nadir]] |
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|- |
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|align="right">|[[626]] |
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|Attack on Dumat al-Jandal: Syria |
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|align="right">|[[627]] |
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|[[Battle of the Trench]] |
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|- |
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|align="right">|[[627]] |
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||Destruction of [[Banu Qurayza]] |
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|- |
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|align="right">|[[627]] |
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|Bani Kalb subjugation: [[Dumat al-Jandal]] |
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|- |
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|align="right">|[[628]] |
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|[[Treaty of Hudaybiyya]] |
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|- |
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|align="right">|''c''. [[628]] |
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|Gains access to Mecca shrine [[Kaaba]] |
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|- |
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|align="right">|[[628]] |
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|Conquest of the [[Battle of Khaybar|Khaybar]] oasis |
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|- |
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|align="right">|[[629]] |
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|First [[hajj]] pilgrimage |
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|- |
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|align="right">|[[629]] |
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|Attack on [[Byzantine empire]] fails: [[Battle of Mu'tah]] |
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|- |
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|align="right">|[[630]] |
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|Attacks and bloodlessly captures Mecca |
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|- |
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|align="right">|''c''. [[630]] |
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|[[Battle of Hunayn]] |
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|- |
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|align="right">|''c''. [[630]] |
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|[[Siege of Taif]] |
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|- |
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|align="right">|[[630]] |
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|Establishes [[theocracy]]: Mecca |
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|- |
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|align="right">|''c''. [[631]] |
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|Subjugates most of the Arabian peninsula |
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|- |
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|align="right">|''c''. [[632]] |
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|Attacks the [[Ghassanids]]: [[Tabuk]] |
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|- |
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|align="right">|[[632]] |
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|Farewell [[hajj]] pilgrimage |
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|- |
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|align="right">|[[632]] |
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|Dies ([[June 8]]): Medina |
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|} |
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<!-- END TIMELINE --> |
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===The first revelations=== |
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Muhammad had a reflective turn of mind and routinely spent nights in a cave ([[Hira]]) near Mecca in [[meditation]] and thought. Muslims believe that around the year 610, while meditating, Muhammad was visited by the Angel [[Gabriel]]. |
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His wife [[Khadijah bint Khuwaylid|Khadijah]] and her Christian cousin [[Waraqah ibn Nawfal]] were the first to believe Muhammad was a prophet. She was soon followed by his ten-year-old cousin [[Ali|Ali ibn Abi Talib]], [[Abu Bakr]], one of Muhammad's close friends, and Zaid bin Haarith, his adopted son. (The [[Identity of first male Muslim|identity of the first male Muslim]] is a hotly debated topic.) |
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Until his death, Muhammad reportedly received frequent revelations, although there was a relatively long gap after the first revelation. This silence worried him, until he received ''surat'' ''[[ad-Dhuha]]'', whose words provided comfort and reassurance. |
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Around 613, Muhammad began to spread his message amongst the people. Most of those who heard his message ignored it. A few mocked him. Others believed and joined him. |
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===Rejection=== |
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As the ranks of Muhammad's followers swelled, he became a threat to the local tribes and the rulers of the city. Their wealth, after all, rested on the Kaaba, the focal point of Meccan religious life. If they threw out their idols, as Muhammad preached, there would be no more pilgrims, no more trade, and no more wealth. Muhammad’s denunciation of the Meccan traditional religion was especially offensive to his own tribe, the [[Quraish|Quraysh]], as they were the guardians of the Ka'aba. Muhammad and his followers were persecuted. Some of them fled to the [[Ethiopian]] [[Kingdom of Aksum]] and founded a small colony there under the protection of the Christian Ethiopian king (called [[Al-Negashi]], or "The King"). |
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Several ''suras'' and parts of ''suras'' are said to date from this time, and reflect its circumstances: see for example ''[[al-Masadd]]'', ''[[al-Humaza]]'', parts of ''[[Maryam (sura)|Maryam]]'' and ''[[al-Anbiya]]'', ''[[al-Kafirun]]'', and ''[[Abasa]]''. |
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In 619, both Muhammad's wife Khadijah and his uncle Abu Talib died; it was known as ''aamul hazn'' (''"the year of sorrows."'') Muhammad's own clan withdrew their protection of him. Muslims patiently endured persecution: ostracism, an economic embargo and consequent poverty and hunger, even beatings and death threats. |
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===Isra and Miraj=== |
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Some time in 620, Muhammad told his followers that he had experienced the ''[[Isra and Miraj]]'', a miraculous journey said to have been accomplished in one night along with [[Gabriel|Angel Gabriel]]. In the first part of the journey, the ''Isra'', he is said to have travelled from [[Mecca]] to the furthest mosque. In the second part, the ''Miraj'', Muhammad is said to have toured [[Heaven]] and [[Hell]], and spoken with earlier prophets, such as [[Abraham]], [[Moses]], and [[Jesus]]. |
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Muslims believe that the Jerusalem mosque on the [[Temple Mount]] known as the [[Al-Aqsa Mosque|Masjid al-Aqsa]] or furthest mosque, is the site from which Muhammad ascended to Heaven. |
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===Hijra=== |
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By 622, life in the small Muslim community of Mecca was becoming not only difficult, but dangerous. Muslim traditions say that there were several attempts to assassinate Muhammad. Muhammad then resolved to emigrate to [[Medina]], then known as Yathrib, a large agricultural [[oasis]] where there were a number of Muslim converts. By breaking the link with his own tribe, Muhammad demonstrated that tribal and family loyalties were insignificant compared to the bonds of [[Islam]], a revolutionary idea in the tribal society of Arabia. This ''[[Hijra (Islam)|Hijra]]'' or emigration (traditionally translated into English as "flight") marks the beginning of the [[Islamic calendar]]. The Muslim calendar counts dates from the Hijra, which is why Muslim dates have the suffix AH (After Hijra). |
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Muhammad came to Medina as a mediator, invited to resolve the feud between the Arab factions of [[Aws]] and [[Khazraj]]. He ultimately did so by absorbing both factions into his Muslim community, forbidding bloodshed among Muslims. However, Medina was also home to a number of Jewish tribes (whether they were ethnically as well as religiously Jewish is an open question, as is the depth of their "Jewishness"). Islamic tradition refers to the conversion to Islam of one of the leaders of the Jews named Ibn Salam. Muhammad had hoped that his conversion would be followed and that other Jews would also recognize him as a prophet, but they did not do so. |
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Some academic historians attribute the change of [[qibla]], the Muslim direction of prayer, from the site of the former [[Temple in Jerusalem]] to the [[Kaaba]] in Mecca, which occurred during this period, to Muhammad's abandonment of hope of recruiting Jews as allies or followers. According to Muslims, the change of [[qibla]] was seen as a command from [[Allah]] both reflecting the independence of the Muslims as well as a test to discern those who truly followed the revelation and those who were simply opportunistic. |
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Muhammad and his followers are said to have negotiated an agreement with the other Medinans, a document now known as the ''[[Constitution of Medina]]'' (date debated), which laid out the terms on which the different factions, specifically the [[Jew]]s and other "[[People of the Book|Peoples of the Book]]" could exist within the new [[Islamic republic|Islamic State]]. This system would come to typify Muslim relations with their non-believing subjects. |
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===War=== |
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Relations between [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]] rapidly worsened (see ''surat'' ''[[al-Baqara]]''). Meccans confiscated all the property that the Muslims had left in Mecca. In Medina, Muhammad signed treaties of alliance and mutual help with neighboring tribes. |
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Muhammad turned to raiding [[Camel train|caravan]]s bound for Mecca. Caravan raiding ([[ghazw|al-ghazw]]) was an old Arabian tradition; Muslims justified the raids by the Meccans' confiscation of the property they had left at Mecca and the state of war deemed to exist between the Meccans and the Muslims. |
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In March of 624, the murderous Muhammad led some 300 warriors in a [[raid]] on a Meccan merchant caravan. The Meccans successfully defended the caravan and then decided to teach the Medinans a lesson. They sent a small army against Medina. On [[March 15]], [[624]] near a place called [[Battle of Badr|Badr]], the Meccans and the Muslims clashed. Though outnumbered more than three times (1000 to 300) in the battle, the Muslims met with success, killing at least forty-five Meccans and taking seventy prisoners for ransom; only fourteen Muslims died. This marked the real beginning of Muslim military achievement. |
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===Rule consolidated=== |
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To his followers, the [[Battle of Badr|victory in Badr]] appeared as a divine authentication of Muhammad's prophethood. Following this victory, the victors expelled a local Jewish clan, the [[Banu Qainuqa]], whom they believed to have broken a treaty by conspiring with the attacking Meccan forces. Muhammad and his followers were now a dominant force in the oasis. |
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After Khadija's death, Muhammad married again, to [[Aisha]], the daughter of his friend [[Abu Bakr]] (who would later emerge as the first leader of the Muslims after Muhammad's death). In Medina, he married [[Hafsah]], daughter of [[Umar ibn al-Khattab|Umar]] (who would eventually become Abu Bakr's successor). |
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Muhammad's daughter [[Fatima Zahra|Fatima]] married [[Ali]], Muhammad's cousin. According to the Sunni, another daughter, Umm Kulthum, married [[Uthman ibn Affan|Uthman]]. Each of these men, in later years, would emerge as successors to Muhammad and political leaders of the Muslims. Thus, all four of the first four [[caliphs]] were linked to Muhammad by marriage. Sunni Muslims regard these caliphs as the ''[[Rashidun]]'', or ''Rightly Guided''. (See [[Succession to Muhammad]] for more information on the controversy on the succession to the caliphate). |
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===Continued warfare=== |
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In 625 the [[Mecca]]n general [[Abu Sufyan]] marched on [[Medina]] with 3,000 men. The ensuing [[Battle of Uhud]] took place on [[March 23]], ending in a stalemate. The Meccans claimed victory, but they had lost too many men to pursue the Muslims into Medina. |
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In April 627 Abu Sufyan led another strong force against Medina. But Muhammad had dug a trench around Medina and successfully defended the city in the [[Battle of the Trench]]. |
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Many of the Muslims believed that Abu Sufyan had been aided by sympathizers among the Medinans, the Jewish tribe of the [[Banu Qurayza]]. They attacked and defeated the Banu Qurayza, and subsequently killed hundreds of the adult men of the tribe. This execution has been the subject of much controversy. |
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Following the Muslims' victory at the Battle of the Trench, the Muslims were able, through conversion and conquest, to extend their rule to many of the neighboring cities and tribes. |
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===The conquest of Mecca=== |
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{{TotallyDisputed}} |
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By 628, the Muslim position was strong enough that Muhammad decided to return to [[Mecca]], this time as a [[pilgrim]]. In March of that year, he set out for Mecca, followed by 1,600 men. After some negotiation, a treaty was signed at the border town of [[Treaty of Hudaybiyya|al-Hudaybiyah]]. While Muhammad would not be allowed to finish his pilgrimage that year, hostilities would cease and the Muslims would have permission to make a pilgrimage to Mecca in the following year. |
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Many of Muhammad's followers were disgruntled at the inconclusive result of the Treaty of Hudaybiyya, and to deflect their opposition, Muhammad needed a new victory. He chose to attack the rich [[Battle of Khaybar|Khaybar]] oasis inhabited by several Jewish tribes, including [[Banu Nadir]], whom Muhammad had previously expelled from Medina. Muslims captured Khaybar after a siege in June 628, killed all the men of Banu Nadir, and divided the women among themselves; Muhammad chose for himself [[Safiyya bint Huyayy]], daughter of the Banu Nadir chief. Other Jews of Khaybar were allowed to remain in the oasis on condition of paying heavy tribute; Muslims also took substantial booty.<ref>Stillman (1979), p. 18; "Khaybar", ''[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]]''</ref> |
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Strengthened by the conquest of Khaybar, Muhammad soon found a ''[[casus belli]]'' to attack Mecca. Tribal allies of the Muslims and the Meccans clashed, and Muhammad regarded this incident as a breach of the treaty. In 630, Muhammad marched on Mecca with an enormous force, said to number more than 10,000 men. After some scattered skirmishes, in which only twenty-four Meccans were killed, the Muslims seized Mecca. Muhammad promised a general amnesty to all but a few of the Meccans. Most Meccans converted to Islam, and Muhammad destroyed the idols in the [[Kaaba]]. Henceforth the pilgrimage would be a Muslim pilgrimage and the shrine a Muslim shrine. |
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===Unification of Arabia=== |
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The capitulation of Mecca and the defeat of an alliance of enemy tribes at [[Hunayn]] effectively brought the greater part of the Arabian peninsula under Muhammad's authority. This authority was not enforced by a regular government, however, as he chose instead to rule through personal relationships and tribal treaties. The Muslims were clearly the dominant force in Arabia, and most of the remaining tribes and states hastened to convert to Islam. |
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===Muhammad as a warrior=== |
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{{main| Muhammad as a warrior}} |
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For most of the sixty-three years of his life, Muhammad was a merchant, then a prophet. He took up the sword late in his life. He was a warrior for ten years. |
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Critics claim that Muhammad expanded his realm and imposed his religion by force. Muslim commentators, however, argue that he fought only to defend his community against the Meccans, and that he insisted on humane rules of warfare. |
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===Family life=== |
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{{main|Muhammad's marriages}} |
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From 595 to 619, Muhammad had only one wife, [[Khadijah]]. After her death, he married [[Sawda bint Zama]] and [[Aisha]] (which marriage came first is disputed), then [[Hafsa]]. Later he was to marry more wives, for a total of eleven (nine or ten living at the time of his death). (The status of [[Maria al-Qibtiyya]] is also disputed; she may have been a slave, a freed slave, or a wife.) |
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Muhammad had children by only two of these unions. Khadijah is said to have born him four daughters and a son; only one daughter, [[Fatima Zahra|Fatima]], survived her father. Shi'a Muslims dispute the number of Muhammad's children, claiming that he had only one daughter, and that the other "daughters" were step-daughters. Maria al-Qibtiyya bore him a son, but the child died when he was ten months old. |
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Muhammad's marriages have been the subject of much criticism. Some consider it wrong that he had more wives than the four generally allowed by the Qur'an (although one Quranic verse makes an exception for Muhammad). They question the circumstances of some of his marriages, such as those to [[Zaynab bint Jahsh]], his adopted son's ex-wife, and to [[Aisha]], according to hadith was [[Aisha#Young_marriage_age_controversy|nine years old]] when the marriage was consummated. |
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===Companions=== |
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{{main articles|[[Sahaba]] and [[Salaf]]}} |
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The term [[Sahaba]] (''companion'') refers to anyone who met three criteria. First, he must have been a contemporary of Muhammad. Second, he must have seen or heard Muhammad speak on at least one occasion. Third, he must have converted to Islam. Companions are considered the ultimate sources for the oral traditions, or ''[[hadith]]'', on which much Muslim law and practice are based. There were many other companions in addition to the ones listed here. |
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List in alphabetic order: |
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{{col-begin}} |
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{{col-break}} |
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* [[Abdullah ibn Abbas]] |
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* [[Abu Bakr]] |
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* [[Abu Dharr]] |
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* [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]] |
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* [[Ammar]] |
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{{col-break}} |
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* [[Bilal ibn Ribah|Bilal]] |
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* [[Hamza ibn Abd al-Muttalib|Hamza]] |
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* [[Al-Miqdad]] |
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* [[Sad ibn Abi Waqqas|Sa'd]] |
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* [[Zayd ibn Harithah|Zayd]] |
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{{col-break}} |
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* [[Salman the Persian]] |
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* [[Talha]] |
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* [[Umar ibn al-Khattab|Umar]] |
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* [[Uthman ibn Affan|Uthman]] |
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* [[Zubayr ibn al-Awwam|Zubair]] |
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{{col-end}} |
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===Death=== |
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One day upon returning from a visit to a cemetery Muhammad became very ill. He suffered for several days with head pain and weakness. Muhammad finally succumbed to his malady around noon on Monday [[June 8]], [[632]], in the city of Madina, at the age of sixty-three. He is buried in the [[Mosque of the Prophet]] in [[Madina]]. |
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According to [[Shi'a Islam]], Muhammad had appointed his son-in-law Ali as his successor, in a public sermon at [[Ghadir Khumm]]. Shi'a believe that Muhammad's companions Abu Bakr and Umar conspired to oust Ali and make Abu Bakr the leader or ''[[caliph]]''. [[Sunni]] Muslims dispute this, and say that the leaders of the community conferred and freely chose Abu Bakr, who was pre-eminent among the followers of Muhammad. |
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The matter is further discussed in the article [[Succession to Muhammad]]. |
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Abu Bakr spent much of his short reign suppressing rebellious tribes in the [[Ridda Wars]]. With unity restored in Arabia, the Muslims looked outward and commenced the conquests that would eventually unite the [[Middle East]] under the caliphs. |
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===Descendants=== |
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Muhammad was survived by his daughter [[Fatima Zahra|Fatima]] and her children. (Some say that he had a daughter [[Zainab bint Muhammad|Zainab]], who had borne a daughter, Amma or Umama, who survived him as well.) |
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In Shi'a Islam, it is believed that Fatima's husband Ali and his descendants are the rightful leaders of the faithful. The Sunni do not accept this view, but they still honor Muhammad's descendants. |
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Descendants of Muhammad are known by many names, such as ''[[sayyid]]s'', ''[[syed]]s'' سيد, and ''[[sharif]]s'' شريف (plural: ِأشراف Ashraaf). Many rulers and notables in Muslim countries, past and present, claim such descent, with various degrees of credibility, such as the [[Fatimid]] dynasty of [[North Africa]], the [[Idrisid]]s, the current royal families of [[Jordan]] and [[Morocco]], and the [[Agha Khan]] [[Imam]]s of the [[Ismaili]] branch of Islam. In various Muslim countries, there are societies that authenticate claims of descent; some societies are more credible than others. |
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==Popular Muslim traditions== |
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These traditions are believed by many Muslims, but not accepted by secular academic historians. |
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Many Muslims believe that as an infant Muhammad was placed with a [[Bedouin]] wetnurse, [[Halima Sadia]], as [[desert]] life was believed to be safer and healthier for children. Many stories are told of his life in the desert. |
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After he returned to Mecca, he is said to have been beloved by all around him because he was such a polite and honest child. |
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As a youth, he was called upon to solve a vexing political problem for his Meccan neighbors. They were rebuilding the Kaaba and feuding over which clan should have the honor of raising the [[Black Stone]] into place. Muhammad suggested that the heads of each clan raise the Black Stone on a cloth, so that all had the honor of lifting it. Muhammad then put the stone into its place. |
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As a young man and a merchant, Muhammad was known to be trustworthy and honest. The other Meccans called him "Al-Amin", the trustworthy one or the honest one. <ref> [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/prophet USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts: About the Prophet Muhammad] </ref> After he proclaimed his prophethood, however, his neighbors turned against him. |
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==Muslim veneration for Muhammad== |
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<div style="float:right; margin: 0 0 0.1em 0.2em;"> |
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<gallery> |
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Image:Miraj2.jpg|A 16th century [[Persians|Persian]] miniature painting celebrating Muhammad's ascent into the Heavens, a journey known as the [[Miraj]]. Muhammad's face is veiled, a common practice in Islamic art. |
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</gallery> |
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</div> |
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{{main|Islam and veneration for Muhammad}} |
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It is traditional for Muslims to illustrate and express their love and veneration for Muhammad in a number of different ways. |
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* When speaking or writing, Muhammad's name is often preceded by the title "Prophet" and is followed by the phrase, ''[[Peace be upon him]]'', or ''Peace be upon him and his descendants'' by Shias; in English often abbreviated as ''"([[pbuh]])"'' and ''"pbuh&hd"'', or just simply as "p". Also in some English texts, the notation "(saw)" is used. This is an abbreviation of ''sallalahu aleyhi wasallam'', which is an Arabic transliteration for "peace be upon him". |
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* His contemporaries gave him the title '''Apostle of God''' (Arabic: ''[[Rasul]]-[[Allah]]'' or ''Rasulallah''), which is also used by [[Muslims]] today. |
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* Concerts of Muslim and especially [[Sufi]] devotional music include songs praising Muhammad (see [[Muslim music]], ''[[Qawwali]]''). |
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* Muslims celebrate the birthday of Muhammad (''[[Mawlid]]'') with elaborate festivities. Some do not, believing that such festivities are modern [[Bid'ah|innovations]]. |
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* Criticism of Muhammad is often equated with [[blasphemy]], which is punishable by death in some Muslim states. |
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* Muhammad is often referred to with titles of praise. |
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* Beyond the stories accepted as [[wiktionary:canon|canon]]ical by Islamic scholars of ''[[hadith]]'', or oral traditions, there are many [[folktales]] praising Muhammad and recounting miraculous stories of his birth, upbringing and life. |
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* Many Muslims believe that Islam prohibits depicting the prophet Muhammad in art. Others have accepted such depictions. See [[Depiction of Muhammad]]. |
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==Muhammad in other traditions== |
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*Muhammad is also a prophet in the [[Mustaali|Mustaˤliyya]], [[Nizari|Nizarī]], [[Alawi|Alawites]], [[Zikri]], and the [[Ahmadi|Ahmadiyya]] traditions. These are closely related to Islam, and are considered by their followers to be [[sect]]s thereof, but mainstream Muslims see them as separate religions. |
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*The [[Druze]], who accept most but not all Qur'anic revelations, also consider him a prophet. |
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*[[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'ís]] venerate Muhammad as one of a number of prophets or "[[Manifestation of God|Manifestations of God]]", but consider his teachings to have been superseded by those of [[Bahá'u'lláh]]. |
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*Some [[Humanism|humanists]] see Muhammad, like [[Jesus]] and [[Buddha]], as an important ethical leader. |
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*In the [[Middle Ages]], Jews usually referred to Muhammad as ''ha-meshuggah'' ("the madman" or "possessed"), a title contemptuously used in the [[Hebrew Bible]] for impostors who think of themselves as prophets. <ref>{{cite book | first=Norman | last=Stillman | title=The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book | publisher=Jewish Publication Society of America | location=Philadelphia | year=1979 | id=ISBN 082760198 | pages=p. 236}}</ref> |
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*Many [[Christian]]s view Muhammad as a false prophet and not as the bringer of any divine revelation.{{citation needed}} During the Middle Ages, especially in places where there was frequent Christian-Muslim conflict, it was popular to depict Muhammad being tortured by the demons in [[Hell]]. One such example is in [[Dante]]'s [[The Divine Comedy]] in which Muhammad is in the ninth ditch of the eighth circle of hell. |
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{{Islam}}{{Otherpeople|Muhammad}} |
{{Islam}}{{Otherpeople|Muhammad}} |
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*[[HG Wells]]: [[The Outline of History]], London 1920, p. 325: A year before his death, at the end of the tenth year of the Hegira, Muhammad made his last pilgrimage from Medina to Mecca. He made then a great sermon to his people… The reader will note that the first paragraph sweeps away all plunder and blood feuds among the followers of Islam. The last makes the, believing Negro the equal of the [[Caliph]]… they established in the world a great tradition of dignified fair dealing, they breathe a spirit of generosity, and they are human and workable. They created a society more free from widespread cruelty and social oppression than any society had ever been in the world before. |
*[[HG Wells]]: [[The Outline of History]], London 1920, p. 325: A year before his death, at the end of the tenth year of the Hegira, Muhammad made his last pilgrimage from Medina to Mecca. He made then a great sermon to his people… The reader will note that the first paragraph sweeps away all plunder and blood feuds among the followers of Islam. The last makes the, believing Negro the equal of the [[Caliph]]… they established in the world a great tradition of dignified fair dealing, they breathe a spirit of generosity, and they are human and workable. They created a society more free from widespread cruelty and social oppression than any society had ever been in the world before. |
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*Jules Masserman in 'Who Were Histories Great Leaders?' in TIME Magazine, July 15, 1974: Perhaps the greatest leader of all times was Mohammad, who combined all the three functions. To a lesser degree Moses did the same. |
*Jules Masserman in 'Who Were Histories Great Leaders?' in TIME Magazine, July 15, 1974: Perhaps the greatest leader of all times was Mohammad, who combined all the three functions. To a lesser degree Moses did the same. |
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==Historical significance== |
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Before his death in 632, Muhammad had established Islam as a social and political force and had unified most of Arabia through both conversion and conquest. Within a few decades after his death, his successors had united all of Arabia under Islamic empire, and conquered [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], [[Egypt]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], [[Syria]], [[Armenia]], and much of [[North Africa]]. By 750, Islam had emerged as the spiritual counterpart to the two great monotheistic belief systems, Judaism and Christianity, and as the geopolitical successor to the [[Sassanid empire]].{{fact}} The rest of North Africa came under Muslim rule, as well as most of the [[Iberian Peninsula]], much of [[Central Asia]], and parts of [[South Asia]] (including [[Sind]], in the [[Indus Valley]]). |
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In the tenth century, the armies of the [[Ghaznavids]] conquered northern [[India]] bringing Islam into the mainly [[Hindu]] principalities east of the Indus river. The [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] conquests extended the sway of Islam over the [[Balkans]], as well as much of the [[Caucasus]]. Even later, Islam expanded into much of [[Africa]] and [[Southeast Asia]]. Islam is now the faith of over a billion people all over the globe, and is now the second largest religion after Christianity by the number of adherents. |
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==See also== |
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{{col-begin}} |
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{{col-break}} |
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* [[Depictions of Muhammad]] |
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* [[Family tree of Muhammad]] |
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* [[Hadith]] |
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* [[Hanif]] |
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* [[Islam]] |
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* [[Islam and veneration for Muhammad]] |
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* [[List of films about Muhammad]] |
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{{col-break}} |
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* [[List of founders of major religions]] |
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* [[List of Islamic terms in Arabic]] |
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*''[[Mohammad, Messenger of God (film)|Mohammad, Messenger of God]]'' (''aka'' The Message) |
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* [[Muhammad's marriages]] |
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* [[Sira]] |
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* [[Succession to Muhammad]] |
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* [[The Farewell Sermon]] |
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{{col-end}} |
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==Notes== |
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<div class="references-small"> |
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<!--See [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the <ref(erences/)> tags--> |
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<references/> |
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</div> |
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==References== |
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*{{cite book | author=Andrae, Tor | title=Mohammed: The Man and His Faith | publisher=Dover | year=2000 | id=ISBN 0486411362}} |
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*{{cite book | author=Armstrong, Karen | title=Muhammad: A Biography of the Prophet | location=San Francisco | publisher=Harper | year=1993 | id=ISBN 0062508865}} |
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*{{cite book | author=Cook, Michael | title=Muhammad | publisher=Oxford University Press (reissue 1996) | year=1983 | id=ISBN ISBN 0192876058}} |
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*{{cite book | author=Dashti, Ali | title=Twenty-Three Years: A Study of the Prophetic Career of Mohammad | publisher=Mazda | year=1994 | id=ISBN 1568590296}} |
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*{{cite book | author=Hamidullah, Muhammad | title=The Life and Work of the Prophet of Islam | publisher=[s.n.](Islamabad: Islamic Research Institute) | year=1998 | id=ISBN 9698413006}} |
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*{{cite book | author=[[Haykal, Muhammad Husayn]] | title=The Life of Muhammad | publisher=Islamic Book Service | year=1995 | id=ISBN 1577311957}} |
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*{{cite book | author=Lings, Martin | title=Muhammad: His Life Based on Earliest Sources | publisher=Inner Traditions International, Limited | year=1987 | id=ISBN 0892811706}} |
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*{{cite book |author=Motzki, Harald, ed. | title=The Biography of Muhammad: The Issue of the Sources, ''in'' Islamic History and Civilization: Studies and Texts, Vol. 32 | publisher=E. J. Brill | year=2000 |id= }} |
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*{{cite book | author=Rodinson, Maxime| title=Muhammad | publisher=New Publishers | year=1961 | id=ISBN 1565847520}} |
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*{{cite book | author=[[Annemarie Schimmel|Schimmel, Annemarie]] | title=And Muhammad is His Messenger: The Veneration of the Prophet in Islamic Piety | publisher=The University of North Carolina Press | year=1985 | id=ISBN 0807841285}} |
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*{{cite book | author=Warraq, Ibn | title=The Quest for the Historical Muhammad | publisher=Prometheus Books | year=2000 | id=ISBN 1573927872}} |
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*{{cite book | author=Watt, W. Montgomery | title=Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1961 | id=ISBN 0198810784}} |
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==External links== |
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{{Commons|Muhammad}} |
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{{wikiquote}} |
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;Non-sectarian biography |
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* [http://www.pbs.org/muhammad Public Broadcasting System program on Muhammad] |
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* [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761553918/Muhammad_(prophet).html/ Encarta Encyclopedia] |
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* [http://31.1911encyclopedia.org/M/MA/MAHOMET.htm 1911 Encyclopedia article of Muhammad] |
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;Muslim biographies |
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*[http://web.archive.org/web/20040625103910/http://www.hraic.org/hadith/ibn_ishaq.html#The%20earliest%20biography%20of%20Muhammad,%20by%20ibn%20Ishaq The earliest biography of Muhammad, by ibn Ishaq] |
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*[http://www.al-sunnah.com/nektar/ Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum (The Sealed Nectar)] - comprehensive and authoritative modern biography of the prophet |
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*[http://www.quraan.com/index.aspx?tabindex=4&tabid=11&bid=7 Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum (The Sealed Nectar)] - as above but easier to navigate |
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*[http://www.theprophetmuhammad.org/ Biography by Harun Yahya] |
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*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/prophet/ About Muhammad] |
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*[http://www.alislam.org/urdu/pdf/SeeratKhatamunNabiyeen.pdf Seerat Khaatamun Nabiyyeen]Urdu Biography. |
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;Nonmuslim/Critical biographies |
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*[http://www.answering-islam.org.uk/Books/Muir/Life1/index.htm William Muir: The Life of Mahomet] |
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{{Prophets in the Qur'an}} |
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==Historical significance== |
==Historical significance== |
Revision as of 19:05, 11 June 2006
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Islam |
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Muhammad, Arabic: محمد Template:ArabDIN; also Mohammed and other variants,[1] (c. 571 – 632) established the religion of Islam and the Muslim community.[2] Muslims believe him to have been God's final prophet, to whom the Qur'an was revealed.
According to traditional Muslim biographers, Muhammad was born c. 570 in Mecca and died June 8 632 in Medina, both in the Hejaz region of present day Saudi Arabia.
The name Muhammad means "the praised one" in Arabic, being a passive participle from the root Template:ArabDIN Template:Ar "to praise". Within Islam, Muhammad is known as "The Prophet" and "The Messenger". The Qur'an ([Quran 33:40]) also refers to him as the "Seal of the Prophets" (Arabic: Template:ArabDIN).
Summary
Born Muhammad ibn `Abdu'llah ibn `Abdu'l-Muttalib, he is said to have initially been a merchant who traveled widely. Muhammad often retreated to the mountains outside Mecca, for prayer and contemplation. Muslims believe that in 610, at about the age of forty, while praying in one of these mountain caves called Hira, he was visited by the Angel Gabriel, who commanded him to memorize and recite the verses sent by God. These verses were later collected as part of the Qur'an (which was revealed to him over a period of about 23 years until his death).
He expanded his mission as a prophet, publicly preaching strict monotheism and warning of a Day of Judgment when all humans shall be held responsible for their deeds. He did not completely reject Judaism and Christianity, two other monotheistic faiths known to the Arabs, but said that he had been sent by God in order to complete and perfect those teachings.
Many in Mecca resented his preaching and persecuted him and his followers. Eventually, in 622, he was forced to emigrate from Mecca in a journey known to Muslims as the Hijra (the Migration). He settled in Yathrib (now known as Medina) with his followers, where he was the leader of the first avowedly Muslim community.
War between factions in Mecca and Medina followed, in which Muhammad and his followers were victorious. They had in great part achieved their victory by building a tribal coalition. After the conquest of Mecca, the coalition was extended. By the time of Muhammad's death, he had unified much of Arabia under his rule, and launched military expeditions to the north, towards Syria and Palestine.
Under Muhammad's immediate successors, the Islamic empire expanded into Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia, Persia, Egypt, North Africa, and Iberia. Later conquests, commercial contact between Muslims and non-Muslims, and missionary activity spread Islam over much of the Eastern Hemisphere, spreading Islam into China and Southeast Asia.
Sources for Muhammad's life
Most biographical sources of Muhammad were written by Muslims and were recorded in writing centuries after his death. There are only fragmentary and late references in non-Muslim historical records from the 7th century, and no inscriptions or archaeological remains from that time. The known non-Islamic accounts of Muhammad such as the Doctrina Iacobi records Muhammed as a Judeo-Arab preacher proclaiming the advent of a Jewish Messiah, and states that the Jews and Arabs were allies against the Byzantines, contradicting accounts in the Qur'an.
The traditional dates often given for Muhammad's life are 570-632 CE. The earliest biography known is the Life of the Apostle of God, by Ibn Ishaq who was born about 717 and died in 767. He thus wrote his biography well over 100 years after Muhammad died. He would not have been able to speak to any eyewitnesses, only to those who had heard their accounts, or accounts of their accounts. Furthermore, we possess Ibn Ishaq's work only in fragments quoted in a compilation of anecdotes and traditions composed by Islamic historian Ibn Hisham(???-834) and al-Tabari (838-923).
Other sources for biographies of Muhammad are: the military chronicles of Waqidi (745-822), the biographies of Ibn Sa'd (783-845), a student of Waqidi, later histories, Quranic commentaries, and the collections of oral traditions known as hadith. These texts were recorded more than a century, and often several centuries, after the death of Muhammad. There are some passages in the Qur'an that are believed to shed some light on Muhammad's biography, however, they require a great deal of interpretation to be useful.
Some skeptical scholars (Wansbrough, Cook, Crone, and others) have raised doubts about the reliability of the Islamic sources, especially the hadith collections. They note for instance, that the earliest biography of Muhammad of Ibn Ishaq does not contain any dates or explicit details, yet later Islamic narratives have progressively more dates and minute details inserted into their accounts of Muhammad's life as the generations of scholars relay the story. By the time we arrive at contemporary renditions of Muhammad's story , the dates and details have exploded exponentially without explanation. They believe that many hadith, and other traditions, were manufactured, or doctored, to support one or another of the many political or doctrinal factions that had developed within Islam in its first century or later. The life of Muhammad was believed to be the exemplar for all Muslims; hence the importance of showing that Muhammad said or did something proving that a particular faction was right. If the skeptics are right, and much of the early material cannot really be trusted, then all that is factually known is what is contained in the summary above.
Other academic scholars, such as Montgomery Watt and Wilferd Madelung, have been much more willing to trust the Islamic sources. Their accounts of the life of Muhammad are similar to those held by most believing Muslims. These historical "traditionalists," both Muslim and non-Muslim, paint a much more detailed picture of Muhammad's life.
There is a great deal of possibly unreliable material for a life of Muhammad and very little that is accepted by all non-Muslim academics. Gregor Schoeler summarizes it, in a 2003 article:
- "The current research on the life of Muhammad is characterized by the fact that two groups of researchers stand directly opposed to one another: The one group advocates, somewhat aggressively, the conviction that all transmitted traditions, in part because of great inner contradictions, legendary forms, and so forth, are to be rejected. The other group is opposed to that view. According to these researchers, the Islamic transmission, despite all these defects, has at least a genuine core, which can be recognized using the appropriate source-critical methods. The difficulty certainly consists of finding criteria by which the genuine is to be differentiated from spurious." [3]
Many, but not all of the first group of scholars would probably accept the first section of this article, the Summary. The second group of academics is more willing to accept the traditional Muslim accounts, shorn of hagiography and supernatural claims and based on the earliest accounts rather than later traditions.
Many Muslims accept even fuller accounts of Muhammad's life. They believe traditions not credited by non-Muslim scholars. However, Muslims are not of one mind on the subject. Some Muslims accept "naturalistic" versions pared of most supernatural elements; some Muslims believe in versions of Muhammad's life full of miracles. There are versions of Muhammad's life favoring different traditions within Islam. A Sunni version of Muhammad's life is very different from a Shi'a version. It is impossible to present one Muslim version. However, a few of the commonest traditions, ones that are not accepted by academics but widely believed by Muslims, are covered in a final section.
Life based on Islamic traditions
Most Muslims, and the Western academics who are willing to trust some of the Islamic traditions, accept a much more detailed version of Muhammad's life.
Genealogy
According to tradition, Muhammad traced his genealogy back as far as Adnan, whom the northern Arabs believed to be their common ancestor. Adnan in turn is said to be a descendant of Ismaeel (Ishmael), son of Ibrahim (Abraham) though the exact genealogy is disputed. Muhammad's genealogy up to Adnan is as follows:
Muhammad ibn Abd Allah ibn Abd al-Muttalib (Shaiba) ibn Hashim (Amr) ibn Abd Manaf (al-Mughira) ibn Qusai (Zaid) ibn Kilab ibn Murra ibn Ka`b ibn Lu'ay ibn Ghalib ibn Fahr (Quraish) ibn Malik ibn an-Nadr (Qais) ibn Kinana ibn Khuzaimah ibn Mudrikah (Amir) ibn Ilyas ibn Mudar ibn Nizar ibn Ma`ad ibn Adnan. (ibn means "son of" in Arabic; alternate names of people with two names are given in parentheses.) [4]
He was also called Abul-Qaasim by some meaning "father of Qaasim", after his short-lived first son.
Childhood
Muhammad was born into a well-to-do family settled in the northern Arabian town of Mecca. Some calculate his birthdate as 20 April, 570, while Shi'a Muslims believe it to be 26 April 570. Other sources calculate the year of his birth to be 571; tradition places it in the Year of the Elephant. Muhammad's father, Abdullah, had died almost six months before he was born and the young boy was brought up by his paternal grandfather Abd al-Muttalib, of the Banu Hashim clan of the Quraish tribe. At the age of six, Muhammad lost his mother Amina and at the age of eight his grandfather Abd al-Muttalib, who had become his guardian, also died. Muhammad now came under the care of his uncle Abu Talib, the new leader of the Hashim clan of the Quraish tribe, the most powerful in Mecca.
Mecca was a thriving commercial centre, due in great part to a stone temple (now called the Kaaba) that housed many different cult figures (idols). Merchants from different tribes would visit Mecca during the pilgrimage season, when all inter-tribal warfare was forbidden and they could trade in safety. While still in his teens, Muhammad began accompanying his uncle on trading journeys to Syria. He thus became well-travelled and knowledgeable as to foreign ways.
Middle years
Muhammad became a merchant. One of his employers was Khadijah, a forty-year-old widow. She was impressed with Muhammad's character and intelligence, and proposed to him in the year 595. Muhammad consented to the marriage, which by all accounts was a happy one.
Ibn Ishaq records that Khadijah bore Muhammad five children: two sons Al Qasem and Abdullah (who is also called Al Tayeb and Al Taher) and four daughters. All of Khadija's children were born before Muhammad received his first revelation. His son Qasim died at the age of two. The four daughters are said to be Zainab, Ruqayyah, Umm Kulthum, and Fatima.
The Shi'a say that Muhammad had only the one daughter, Fatima, and that the other daughters were either children of Khadijah by her previous marriage, or children of her sister.
Timeline of Muhammad | |
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Important dates and locations in the life of Muhammad | |
c. 569 | Death of his father, `Abd Allah |
c. 570 | Possible date of birth, April 20: Mecca |
570 | Legendary unsuccessful Ethiopian attack on Mecca |
576 | Mother dies |
578 | Grandfather dies |
c. 583 | Takes trading journeys to Syria |
c. 595 | Meets and marries Khadijah |
610 | First reports of Qur'anic revelation: Mecca |
c. 610 | Appears as Prophet of Islam: Mecca |
c. 613 | Begins spreading message of Islam publicly: Mecca |
c. 614 | Begins to gather following: Mecca |
c. 615 | Emigration of Muslims to Ethiopia |
616 | Banu Hashim clan boycott begins |
c. 618 | Medinan Civil War: Medina |
619 | Banu Hashim clan boycott ends |
c. 620 | Isra and Miraj |
622 | Emigrates to Medina (Hijra) |
624 | Battle of Badr Muslims defeat Meccans |
624 | Expulsion of Banu Qaynuqa |
625 | Battle of Uhud Meccans defeat Muslims |
625 | Expulsion of Banu Nadir |
626 | Attack on Dumat al-Jandal: Syria |
627 | Battle of the Trench |
627 | Destruction of Banu Qurayza |
627 | Bani Kalb subjugation: Dumat al-Jandal |
628 | Treaty of Hudaybiyya |
c. 628 | Gains access to Mecca shrine Kaaba |
628 | Conquest of the Khaybar oasis |
629 | First hajj pilgrimage |
629 | Attack on Byzantine empire fails: Battle of Mu'tah |
630 | Attacks and bloodlessly captures Mecca |
c. 630 | Battle of Hunayn |
c. 630 | Siege of Taif |
630 | Establishes theocracy: Mecca |
c. 631 | Subjugates most of the Arabian peninsula |
c. 632 | Attacks the Ghassanids: Tabuk |
632 | Farewell hajj pilgrimage |
632 | Dies (June 8): Medina |
The first revelations
Muhammad had a reflective turn of mind and routinely spent nights in a cave (Hira) near Mecca in meditation and thought. Muslims believe that around the year 610, while meditating, Muhammad was visited by the Angel Gabriel.
His wife Khadijah and her Christian cousin Waraqah ibn Nawfal were the first to believe Muhammad was a prophet. She was soon followed by his ten-year-old cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib, Abu Bakr, one of Muhammad's close friends, and Zaid bin Haarith, his adopted son. (The identity of the first male Muslim is a hotly debated topic.)
Until his death, Muhammad reportedly received frequent revelations, although there was a relatively long gap after the first revelation. This silence worried him, until he received surat ad-Dhuha, whose words provided comfort and reassurance.
Around 613, Muhammad began to spread his message amongst the people. Most of those who heard his message ignored it. A few mocked him. Others believed and joined him.
Rejection
As the ranks of Muhammad's followers swelled, he became a threat to the local tribes and the rulers of the city. Their wealth, after all, rested on the Kaaba, the focal point of Meccan religious life. If they threw out their idols, as Muhammad preached, there would be no more pilgrims, no more trade, and no more wealth. Muhammad’s denunciation of the Meccan traditional religion was especially offensive to his own tribe, the Quraysh, as they were the guardians of the Ka'aba. Muhammad and his followers were persecuted. Some of them fled to the Ethiopian Kingdom of Aksum and founded a small colony there under the protection of the Christian Ethiopian king (called Al-Negashi, or "The King").
Several suras and parts of suras are said to date from this time, and reflect its circumstances: see for example al-Masadd, al-Humaza, parts of Maryam and al-Anbiya, al-Kafirun, and Abasa.
In 619, both Muhammad's wife Khadijah and his uncle Abu Talib died; it was known as aamul hazn ("the year of sorrows.") Muhammad's own clan withdrew their protection of him. Muslims patiently endured persecution: ostracism, an economic embargo and consequent poverty and hunger, even beatings and death threats.
Isra and Miraj
Some time in 620, Muhammad told his followers that he had experienced the Isra and Miraj, a miraculous journey said to have been accomplished in one night along with Angel Gabriel. In the first part of the journey, the Isra, he is said to have travelled from Mecca to the furthest mosque. In the second part, the Miraj, Muhammad is said to have toured Heaven and Hell, and spoken with earlier prophets, such as Abraham, Moses, and Jesus.
Muslims believe that the Jerusalem mosque on the Temple Mount known as the Masjid al-Aqsa or furthest mosque, is the site from which Muhammad ascended to Heaven.
Hijra
By 622, life in the small Muslim community of Mecca was becoming not only difficult, but dangerous. Muslim traditions say that there were several attempts to assassinate Muhammad. Muhammad then resolved to emigrate to Medina, then known as Yathrib, a large agricultural oasis where there were a number of Muslim converts. By breaking the link with his own tribe, Muhammad demonstrated that tribal and family loyalties were insignificant compared to the bonds of Islam, a revolutionary idea in the tribal society of Arabia. This Hijra or emigration (traditionally translated into English as "flight") marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar. The Muslim calendar counts dates from the Hijra, which is why Muslim dates have the suffix AH (After Hijra).
Muhammad came to Medina as a mediator, invited to resolve the feud between the Arab factions of Aws and Khazraj. He ultimately did so by absorbing both factions into his Muslim community, forbidding bloodshed among Muslims. However, Medina was also home to a number of Jewish tribes (whether they were ethnically as well as religiously Jewish is an open question, as is the depth of their "Jewishness"). Islamic tradition refers to the conversion to Islam of one of the leaders of the Jews named Ibn Salam. Muhammad had hoped that his conversion would be followed and that other Jews would also recognize him as a prophet, but they did not do so.
Some academic historians attribute the change of qibla, the Muslim direction of prayer, from the site of the former Temple in Jerusalem to the Kaaba in Mecca, which occurred during this period, to Muhammad's abandonment of hope of recruiting Jews as allies or followers. According to Muslims, the change of qibla was seen as a command from Allah both reflecting the independence of the Muslims as well as a test to discern those who truly followed the revelation and those who were simply opportunistic.
Muhammad and his followers are said to have negotiated an agreement with the other Medinans, a document now known as the Constitution of Medina (date debated), which laid out the terms on which the different factions, specifically the Jews and other "Peoples of the Book" could exist within the new Islamic State. This system would come to typify Muslim relations with their non-believing subjects.
War
Relations between Mecca and Medina rapidly worsened (see surat al-Baqara). Meccans confiscated all the property that the Muslims had left in Mecca. In Medina, Muhammad signed treaties of alliance and mutual help with neighboring tribes.
Muhammad turned to raiding caravans bound for Mecca. Caravan raiding (al-ghazw) was an old Arabian tradition; Muslims justified the raids by the Meccans' confiscation of the property they had left at Mecca and the state of war deemed to exist between the Meccans and the Muslims.
In March of 624, the murderous Muhammad led some 300 warriors in a raid on a Meccan merchant caravan. The Meccans successfully defended the caravan and then decided to teach the Medinans a lesson. They sent a small army against Medina. On March 15, 624 near a place called Badr, the Meccans and the Muslims clashed. Though outnumbered more than three times (1000 to 300) in the battle, the Muslims met with success, killing at least forty-five Meccans and taking seventy prisoners for ransom; only fourteen Muslims died. This marked the real beginning of Muslim military achievement.
Rule consolidated
To his followers, the victory in Badr appeared as a divine authentication of Muhammad's prophethood. Following this victory, the victors expelled a local Jewish clan, the Banu Qainuqa, whom they believed to have broken a treaty by conspiring with the attacking Meccan forces. Muhammad and his followers were now a dominant force in the oasis.
After Khadija's death, Muhammad married again, to Aisha, the daughter of his friend Abu Bakr (who would later emerge as the first leader of the Muslims after Muhammad's death). In Medina, he married Hafsah, daughter of Umar (who would eventually become Abu Bakr's successor).
Muhammad's daughter Fatima married Ali, Muhammad's cousin. According to the Sunni, another daughter, Umm Kulthum, married Uthman. Each of these men, in later years, would emerge as successors to Muhammad and political leaders of the Muslims. Thus, all four of the first four caliphs were linked to Muhammad by marriage. Sunni Muslims regard these caliphs as the Rashidun, or Rightly Guided. (See Succession to Muhammad for more information on the controversy on the succession to the caliphate).
Continued warfare
In 625 the Meccan general Abu Sufyan marched on Medina with 3,000 men. The ensuing Battle of Uhud took place on March 23, ending in a stalemate. The Meccans claimed victory, but they had lost too many men to pursue the Muslims into Medina.
In April 627 Abu Sufyan led another strong force against Medina. But Muhammad had dug a trench around Medina and successfully defended the city in the Battle of the Trench.
Many of the Muslims believed that Abu Sufyan had been aided by sympathizers among the Medinans, the Jewish tribe of the Banu Qurayza. They attacked and defeated the Banu Qurayza, and subsequently killed hundreds of the adult men of the tribe. This execution has been the subject of much controversy.
Following the Muslims' victory at the Battle of the Trench, the Muslims were able, through conversion and conquest, to extend their rule to many of the neighboring cities and tribes.
The conquest of Mecca
Template:TotallyDisputed By 628, the Muslim position was strong enough that Muhammad decided to return to Mecca, this time as a pilgrim. In March of that year, he set out for Mecca, followed by 1,600 men. After some negotiation, a treaty was signed at the border town of al-Hudaybiyah. While Muhammad would not be allowed to finish his pilgrimage that year, hostilities would cease and the Muslims would have permission to make a pilgrimage to Mecca in the following year.
Many of Muhammad's followers were disgruntled at the inconclusive result of the Treaty of Hudaybiyya, and to deflect their opposition, Muhammad needed a new victory. He chose to attack the rich Khaybar oasis inhabited by several Jewish tribes, including Banu Nadir, whom Muhammad had previously expelled from Medina. Muslims captured Khaybar after a siege in June 628, killed all the men of Banu Nadir, and divided the women among themselves; Muhammad chose for himself Safiyya bint Huyayy, daughter of the Banu Nadir chief. Other Jews of Khaybar were allowed to remain in the oasis on condition of paying heavy tribute; Muslims also took substantial booty.[5]
Strengthened by the conquest of Khaybar, Muhammad soon found a casus belli to attack Mecca. Tribal allies of the Muslims and the Meccans clashed, and Muhammad regarded this incident as a breach of the treaty. In 630, Muhammad marched on Mecca with an enormous force, said to number more than 10,000 men. After some scattered skirmishes, in which only twenty-four Meccans were killed, the Muslims seized Mecca. Muhammad promised a general amnesty to all but a few of the Meccans. Most Meccans converted to Islam, and Muhammad destroyed the idols in the Kaaba. Henceforth the pilgrimage would be a Muslim pilgrimage and the shrine a Muslim shrine.
Unification of Arabia
The capitulation of Mecca and the defeat of an alliance of enemy tribes at Hunayn effectively brought the greater part of the Arabian peninsula under Muhammad's authority. This authority was not enforced by a regular government, however, as he chose instead to rule through personal relationships and tribal treaties. The Muslims were clearly the dominant force in Arabia, and most of the remaining tribes and states hastened to convert to Islam.
Muhammad as a warrior
For most of the sixty-three years of his life, Muhammad was a merchant, then a prophet. He took up the sword late in his life. He was a warrior for ten years.
Critics claim that Muhammad expanded his realm and imposed his religion by force. Muslim commentators, however, argue that he fought only to defend his community against the Meccans, and that he insisted on humane rules of warfare.
Family life
From 595 to 619, Muhammad had only one wife, Khadijah. After her death, he married Sawda bint Zama and Aisha (which marriage came first is disputed), then Hafsa. Later he was to marry more wives, for a total of eleven (nine or ten living at the time of his death). (The status of Maria al-Qibtiyya is also disputed; she may have been a slave, a freed slave, or a wife.)
Muhammad had children by only two of these unions. Khadijah is said to have born him four daughters and a son; only one daughter, Fatima, survived her father. Shi'a Muslims dispute the number of Muhammad's children, claiming that he had only one daughter, and that the other "daughters" were step-daughters. Maria al-Qibtiyya bore him a son, but the child died when he was ten months old.
Muhammad's marriages have been the subject of much criticism. Some consider it wrong that he had more wives than the four generally allowed by the Qur'an (although one Quranic verse makes an exception for Muhammad). They question the circumstances of some of his marriages, such as those to Zaynab bint Jahsh, his adopted son's ex-wife, and to Aisha, according to hadith was nine years old when the marriage was consummated.
Companions
The term Sahaba (companion) refers to anyone who met three criteria. First, he must have been a contemporary of Muhammad. Second, he must have seen or heard Muhammad speak on at least one occasion. Third, he must have converted to Islam. Companions are considered the ultimate sources for the oral traditions, or hadith, on which much Muslim law and practice are based. There were many other companions in addition to the ones listed here.
List in alphabetic order:
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Death
One day upon returning from a visit to a cemetery Muhammad became very ill. He suffered for several days with head pain and weakness. Muhammad finally succumbed to his malady around noon on Monday June 8, 632, in the city of Madina, at the age of sixty-three. He is buried in the Mosque of the Prophet in Madina.
According to Shi'a Islam, Muhammad had appointed his son-in-law Ali as his successor, in a public sermon at Ghadir Khumm. Shi'a believe that Muhammad's companions Abu Bakr and Umar conspired to oust Ali and make Abu Bakr the leader or caliph. Sunni Muslims dispute this, and say that the leaders of the community conferred and freely chose Abu Bakr, who was pre-eminent among the followers of Muhammad. The matter is further discussed in the article Succession to Muhammad.
Abu Bakr spent much of his short reign suppressing rebellious tribes in the Ridda Wars. With unity restored in Arabia, the Muslims looked outward and commenced the conquests that would eventually unite the Middle East under the caliphs.
Descendants
Muhammad was survived by his daughter Fatima and her children. (Some say that he had a daughter Zainab, who had borne a daughter, Amma or Umama, who survived him as well.)
In Shi'a Islam, it is believed that Fatima's husband Ali and his descendants are the rightful leaders of the faithful. The Sunni do not accept this view, but they still honor Muhammad's descendants.
Descendants of Muhammad are known by many names, such as sayyids, syeds سيد, and sharifs شريف (plural: ِأشراف Ashraaf). Many rulers and notables in Muslim countries, past and present, claim such descent, with various degrees of credibility, such as the Fatimid dynasty of North Africa, the Idrisids, the current royal families of Jordan and Morocco, and the Agha Khan Imams of the Ismaili branch of Islam. In various Muslim countries, there are societies that authenticate claims of descent; some societies are more credible than others.
Popular Muslim traditions
These traditions are believed by many Muslims, but not accepted by secular academic historians.
Many Muslims believe that as an infant Muhammad was placed with a Bedouin wetnurse, Halima Sadia, as desert life was believed to be safer and healthier for children. Many stories are told of his life in the desert.
After he returned to Mecca, he is said to have been beloved by all around him because he was such a polite and honest child.
As a youth, he was called upon to solve a vexing political problem for his Meccan neighbors. They were rebuilding the Kaaba and feuding over which clan should have the honor of raising the Black Stone into place. Muhammad suggested that the heads of each clan raise the Black Stone on a cloth, so that all had the honor of lifting it. Muhammad then put the stone into its place.
As a young man and a merchant, Muhammad was known to be trustworthy and honest. The other Meccans called him "Al-Amin", the trustworthy one or the honest one. [6] After he proclaimed his prophethood, however, his neighbors turned against him.
Muslim veneration for Muhammad
It is traditional for Muslims to illustrate and express their love and veneration for Muhammad in a number of different ways.
- When speaking or writing, Muhammad's name is often preceded by the title "Prophet" and is followed by the phrase, Peace be upon him, or Peace be upon him and his descendants by Shias; in English often abbreviated as "(pbuh)" and "pbuh&hd", or just simply as "p". Also in some English texts, the notation "(saw)" is used. This is an abbreviation of sallalahu aleyhi wasallam, which is an Arabic transliteration for "peace be upon him".
- His contemporaries gave him the title Apostle of God (Arabic: Rasul-Allah or Rasulallah), which is also used by Muslims today.
- Concerts of Muslim and especially Sufi devotional music include songs praising Muhammad (see Muslim music, Qawwali).
- Muslims celebrate the birthday of Muhammad (Mawlid) with elaborate festivities. Some do not, believing that such festivities are modern innovations.
- Criticism of Muhammad is often equated with blasphemy, which is punishable by death in some Muslim states.
- Muhammad is often referred to with titles of praise.
- Beyond the stories accepted as canonical by Islamic scholars of hadith, or oral traditions, there are many folktales praising Muhammad and recounting miraculous stories of his birth, upbringing and life.
- Many Muslims believe that Islam prohibits depicting the prophet Muhammad in art. Others have accepted such depictions. See Depiction of Muhammad.
Muhammad in other traditions
- Muhammad is also a prophet in the Mustaˤliyya, Nizarī, Alawites, Zikri, and the Ahmadiyya traditions. These are closely related to Islam, and are considered by their followers to be sects thereof, but mainstream Muslims see them as separate religions.
- The Druze, who accept most but not all Qur'anic revelations, also consider him a prophet.
- Bahá'ís venerate Muhammad as one of a number of prophets or "Manifestations of God", but consider his teachings to have been superseded by those of Bahá'u'lláh.
- Some humanists see Muhammad, like Jesus and Buddha, as an important ethical leader.
- In the Middle Ages, Jews usually referred to Muhammad as ha-meshuggah ("the madman" or "possessed"), a title contemptuously used in the Hebrew Bible for impostors who think of themselves as prophets. [7]
- Many Christians view Muhammad as a false prophet and not as the bringer of any divine revelation.[citation needed] During the Middle Ages, especially in places where there was frequent Christian-Muslim conflict, it was popular to depict Muhammad being tortured by the demons in Hell. One such example is in Dante's The Divine Comedy in which Muhammad is in the ninth ditch of the eighth circle of hell.
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Muhammad, Arabic: محمد Template:ArabDIN; also Mohammed and other variants,[8] (c. 571 – 632) established the religion of Islam and the Muslim community.[9] Muslims believe him to have been God's final prophet, to whom the Qur'an was revealed.
According to traditional Muslim biographers, Muhammad was born c. 570 in Mecca and died June 8 632 in Medina, both in the Hejaz region of present day Saudi Arabia.
The name Muhammad means "the praised one" in Arabic, being a passive participle from the root Template:ArabDIN Template:Ar "to praise". Within Islam, Muhammad is known as "The Prophet" and "The Messenger". The Qur'an ([Quran 33:40]) also refers to him as the "Seal of the Prophets" (Arabic: Template:ArabDIN).
Summary
Born Muhammad ibn `Abdu'llah ibn `Abdu'l-Muttalib, he is said to have initially been a merchant who traveled widely. Muhammad often retreated to the mountains outside Mecca, for prayer and contemplation. Muslims believe that in 610, at about the age of forty, while praying in one of these mountain caves called Hira, he was visited by the Angel Gabriel, who commanded him to memorize and recite the verses sent by God. These verses were later collected as part of the Qur'an (which was revealed to him over a period of about 23 years until his death).
He expanded his mission as a prophet, publicly preaching strict monotheism and warning of a Day of Judgment when all humans shall be held responsible for their deeds. He did not completely reject Judaism and Christianity, two other monotheistic faiths known to the Arabs, but said that he had been sent by God in order to complete and perfect those teachings.
Many in Mecca resented his preaching and persecuted him and his followers. Eventually, in 622, he was forced to emigrate from Mecca in a journey known to Muslims as the Hijra (the Migration). He settled in Yathrib (now known as Medina) with his followers, where he was the leader of the first avowedly Muslim community.
War between factions in Mecca and Medina followed, in which Muhammad and his followers were victorious. They had in great part achieved their victory by building a tribal coalition. After the conquest of Mecca, the coalition was extended. By the time of Muhammad's death, he had unified much of Arabia under his rule, and launched military expeditions to the north, towards Syria and Palestine.
Under Muhammad's immediate successors, the Islamic empire expanded into Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia, Persia, Egypt, North Africa, and Iberia. Later conquests, commercial contact between Muslims and non-Muslims, and missionary activity spread Islam over much of the Eastern Hemisphere, spreading Islam into China and Southeast Asia.
Sources for Muhammad's life
Most biographical sources of Muhammad were written by Muslims and were recorded in writing centuries after his death. There are only fragmentary and late references in non-Muslim historical records from the 7th century, and no inscriptions or archaeological remains from that time. The known non-Islamic accounts of Muhammad such as the Doctrina Iacobi records Muhammed as a Judeo-Arab preacher proclaiming the advent of a Jewish Messiah, and states that the Jews and Arabs were allies against the Byzantines, contradicting accounts in the Qur'an.
The traditional dates often given for Muhammad's life are 570-632 CE. The earliest biography known is the Life of the Apostle of God, by Ibn Ishaq who was born about 717 and died in 767. He thus wrote his biography well over 100 years after Muhammad died. He would not have been able to speak to any eyewitnesses, only to those who had heard their accounts, or accounts of their accounts. Furthermore, we possess Ibn Ishaq's work only in fragments quoted in a compilation of anecdotes and traditions composed by Islamic historian Ibn Hisham(???-834) and al-Tabari (838-923).
Other sources for biographies of Muhammad are: the military chronicles of Waqidi (745-822), the biographies of Ibn Sa'd (783-845), a student of Waqidi, later histories, Quranic commentaries, and the collections of oral traditions known as hadith. These texts were recorded more than a century, and often several centuries, after the death of Muhammad. There are some passages in the Qur'an that are believed to shed some light on Muhammad's biography, however, they require a great deal of interpretation to be useful.
Some skeptical scholars (Wansbrough, Cook, Crone, and others) have raised doubts about the reliability of the Islamic sources, especially the hadith collections. They note for instance, that the earliest biography of Muhammad of Ibn Ishaq does not contain any dates or explicit details, yet later Islamic narratives have progressively more dates and minute details inserted into their accounts of Muhammad's life as the generations of scholars relay the story. By the time we arrive at contemporary renditions of Muhammad's story , the dates and details have exploded exponentially without explanation. They believe that many hadith, and other traditions, were manufactured, or doctored, to support one or another of the many political or doctrinal factions that had developed within Islam in its first century or later. The life of Muhammad was believed to be the exemplar for all Muslims; hence the importance of showing that Muhammad said or did something proving that a particular faction was right. If the skeptics are right, and much of the early material cannot really be trusted, then all that is factually known is what is contained in the summary above.
Other academic scholars, such as Montgomery Watt and Wilferd Madelung, have been much more willing to trust the Islamic sources. Their accounts of the life of Muhammad are similar to those held by most believing Muslims. These historical "traditionalists," both Muslim and non-Muslim, paint a much more detailed picture of Muhammad's life.
There is a great deal of possibly unreliable material for a life of Muhammad and very little that is accepted by all non-Muslim academics. Gregor Schoeler summarizes it, in a 2003 article:
- "The current research on the life of Muhammad is characterized by the fact that two groups of researchers stand directly opposed to one another: The one group advocates, somewhat aggressively, the conviction that all transmitted traditions, in part because of great inner contradictions, legendary forms, and so forth, are to be rejected. The other group is opposed to that view. According to these researchers, the Islamic transmission, despite all these defects, has at least a genuine core, which can be recognized using the appropriate source-critical methods. The difficulty certainly consists of finding criteria by which the genuine is to be differentiated from spurious." [10]
Many, but not all of the first group of scholars would probably accept the first section of this article, the Summary. The second group of academics is more willing to accept the traditional Muslim accounts, shorn of hagiography and supernatural claims and based on the earliest accounts rather than later traditions.
Many Muslims accept even fuller accounts of Muhammad's life. They believe traditions not credited by non-Muslim scholars. However, Muslims are not of one mind on the subject. Some Muslims accept "naturalistic" versions pared of most supernatural elements; some Muslims believe in versions of Muhammad's life full of miracles. There are versions of Muhammad's life favoring different traditions within Islam. A Sunni version of Muhammad's life is very different from a Shi'a version. It is impossible to present one Muslim version. However, a few of the commonest traditions, ones that are not accepted by academics but widely believed by Muslims, are covered in a final section.
Life based on Islamic traditions
Most Muslims, and the Western academics who are willing to trust some of the Islamic traditions, accept a much more detailed version of Muhammad's life.
Genealogy
According to tradition, Muhammad traced his genealogy back as far as Adnan, whom the northern Arabs believed to be their common ancestor. Adnan in turn is said to be a descendant of Ismaeel (Ishmael), son of Ibrahim (Abraham) though the exact genealogy is disputed. Muhammad's genealogy up to Adnan is as follows:
Muhammad ibn Abd Allah ibn Abd al-Muttalib (Shaiba) ibn Hashim (Amr) ibn Abd Manaf (al-Mughira) ibn Qusai (Zaid) ibn Kilab ibn Murra ibn Ka`b ibn Lu'ay ibn Ghalib ibn Fahr (Quraish) ibn Malik ibn an-Nadr (Qais) ibn Kinana ibn Khuzaimah ibn Mudrikah (Amir) ibn Ilyas ibn Mudar ibn Nizar ibn Ma`ad ibn Adnan. (ibn means "son of" in Arabic; alternate names of people with two names are given in parentheses.) [11]
He was also called Abul-Qaasim by some meaning "father of Qaasim", after his short-lived first son.
Childhood
Muhammad was born into a well-to-do family settled in the northern Arabian town of Mecca. Some calculate his birthdate as 20 April, 570, while Shi'a Muslims believe it to be 26 April 570. Other sources calculate the year of his birth to be 571; tradition places it in the Year of the Elephant. Muhammad's father, Abdullah, had died almost six months before he was born and the young boy was brought up by his paternal grandfather Abd al-Muttalib, of the Banu Hashim clan of the Quraish tribe. At the age of six, Muhammad lost his mother Amina and at the age of eight his grandfather Abd al-Muttalib, who had become his guardian, also died. Muhammad now came under the care of his uncle Abu Talib, the new leader of the Hashim clan of the Quraish tribe, the most powerful in Mecca.
Mecca was a thriving commercial centre, due in great part to a stone temple (now called the Kaaba) that housed many different cult figures (idols). Merchants from different tribes would visit Mecca during the pilgrimage season, when all inter-tribal warfare was forbidden and they could trade in safety. While still in his teens, Muhammad began accompanying his uncle on trading journeys to Syria. He thus became well-travelled and knowledgeable as to foreign ways.
Middle years
Muhammad became a merchant. One of his employers was Khadijah, a forty-year-old widow. She was impressed with Muhammad's character and intelligence, and proposed to him in the year 595. Muhammad consented to the marriage, which by all accounts was a happy one.
Ibn Ishaq records that Khadijah bore Muhammad five children: two sons Al Qasem and Abdullah (who is also called Al Tayeb and Al Taher) and four daughters. All of Khadija's children were born before Muhammad received his first revelation. His son Qasim died at the age of two. The four daughters are said to be Zainab, Ruqayyah, Umm Kulthum, and Fatima.
The Shi'a say that Muhammad had only the one daughter, Fatima, and that the other daughters were either children of Khadijah by her previous marriage, or children of her sister.
Timeline of Muhammad | |
---|---|
Important dates and locations in the life of Muhammad | |
c. 569 | Death of his father, `Abd Allah |
c. 570 | Possible date of birth, April 20: Mecca |
570 | Legendary unsuccessful Ethiopian attack on Mecca |
576 | Mother dies |
578 | Grandfather dies |
c. 583 | Takes trading journeys to Syria |
c. 595 | Meets and marries Khadijah |
610 | First reports of Qur'anic revelation: Mecca |
c. 610 | Appears as Prophet of Islam: Mecca |
c. 613 | Begins spreading message of Islam publicly: Mecca |
c. 614 | Begins to gather following: Mecca |
c. 615 | Emigration of Muslims to Ethiopia |
616 | Banu Hashim clan boycott begins |
c. 618 | Medinan Civil War: Medina |
619 | Banu Hashim clan boycott ends |
c. 620 | Isra and Miraj |
622 | Emigrates to Medina (Hijra) |
624 | Battle of Badr Muslims defeat Meccans |
624 | Expulsion of Banu Qaynuqa |
625 | Battle of Uhud Meccans defeat Muslims |
625 | Expulsion of Banu Nadir |
626 | Attack on Dumat al-Jandal: Syria |
627 | Battle of the Trench |
627 | Destruction of Banu Qurayza |
627 | Bani Kalb subjugation: Dumat al-Jandal |
628 | Treaty of Hudaybiyya |
c. 628 | Gains access to Mecca shrine Kaaba |
628 | Conquest of the Khaybar oasis |
629 | First hajj pilgrimage |
629 | Attack on Byzantine empire fails: Battle of Mu'tah |
630 | Attacks and bloodlessly captures Mecca |
c. 630 | Battle of Hunayn |
c. 630 | Siege of Taif |
630 | Establishes theocracy: Mecca |
c. 631 | Subjugates most of the Arabian peninsula |
c. 632 | Attacks the Ghassanids: Tabuk |
632 | Farewell hajj pilgrimage |
632 | Dies (June 8): Medina |
The first revelations
Muhammad had a reflective turn of mind and routinely spent nights in a cave (Hira) near Mecca in meditation and thought. Muslims believe that around the year 610, while meditating, Muhammad was visited by the Angel Gabriel.
His wife Khadijah and her Christian cousin Waraqah ibn Nawfal were the first to believe Muhammad was a prophet. She was soon followed by his ten-year-old cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib, Abu Bakr, one of Muhammad's close friends, and Zaid bin Haarith, his adopted son. (The identity of the first male Muslim is a hotly debated topic.)
Until his death, Muhammad reportedly received frequent revelations, although there was a relatively long gap after the first revelation. This silence worried him, until he received surat ad-Dhuha, whose words provided comfort and reassurance.
Around 613, Muhammad began to spread his message amongst the people. Most of those who heard his message ignored it. A few mocked him. Others believed and joined him.
Rejection
As the ranks of Muhammad's followers swelled, he became a threat to the local tribes and the rulers of the city. Their wealth, after all, rested on the Kaaba, the focal point of Meccan religious life. If they threw out their idols, as Muhammad preached, there would be no more pilgrims, no more trade, and no more wealth. Muhammad’s denunciation of the Meccan traditional religion was especially offensive to his own tribe, the Quraysh, as they were the guardians of the Ka'aba. Muhammad and his followers were persecuted. Some of them fled to the Ethiopian Kingdom of Aksum and founded a small colony there under the protection of the Christian Ethiopian king (called Al-Negashi, or "The King").
Several suras and parts of suras are said to date from this time, and reflect its circumstances: see for example al-Masadd, al-Humaza, parts of Maryam and al-Anbiya, al-Kafirun, and Abasa.
In 619, both Muhammad's wife Khadijah and his uncle Abu Talib died; it was known as aamul hazn ("the year of sorrows.") Muhammad's own clan withdrew their protection of him. Muslims patiently endured persecution: ostracism, an economic embargo and consequent poverty and hunger, even beatings and death threats.
Isra and Miraj
Some time in 620, Muhammad told his followers that he had experienced the Isra and Miraj, a miraculous journey said to have been accomplished in one night along with Angel Gabriel. In the first part of the journey, the Isra, he is said to have travelled from Mecca to the furthest mosque. In the second part, the Miraj, Muhammad is said to have toured Heaven and Hell, and spoken with earlier prophets, such as Abraham, Moses, and Jesus.
Muslims believe that the Jerusalem mosque on the Temple Mount known as the Masjid al-Aqsa or furthest mosque, is the site from which Muhammad ascended to Heaven.
Hijra
By 622, life in the small Muslim community of Mecca was becoming not only difficult, but dangerous. Muslim traditions say that there were several attempts to assassinate Muhammad. Muhammad then resolved to emigrate to Medina, then known as Yathrib, a large agricultural oasis where there were a number of Muslim converts. By breaking the link with his own tribe, Muhammad demonstrated that tribal and family loyalties were insignificant compared to the bonds of Islam, a revolutionary idea in the tribal society of Arabia. This Hijra or emigration (traditionally translated into English as "flight") marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar. The Muslim calendar counts dates from the Hijra, which is why Muslim dates have the suffix AH (After Hijra).
Muhammad came to Medina as a mediator, invited to resolve the feud between the Arab factions of Aws and Khazraj. He ultimately did so by absorbing both factions into his Muslim community, forbidding bloodshed among Muslims. However, Medina was also home to a number of Jewish tribes (whether they were ethnically as well as religiously Jewish is an open question, as is the depth of their "Jewishness"). Islamic tradition refers to the conversion to Islam of one of the leaders of the Jews named Ibn Salam. Muhammad had hoped that his conversion would be followed and that other Jews would also recognize him as a prophet, but they did not do so.
Some academic historians attribute the change of qibla, the Muslim direction of prayer, from the site of the former Temple in Jerusalem to the Kaaba in Mecca, which occurred during this period, to Muhammad's abandonment of hope of recruiting Jews as allies or followers. According to Muslims, the change of qibla was seen as a command from Allah both reflecting the independence of the Muslims as well as a test to discern those who truly followed the revelation and those who were simply opportunistic.
Muhammad and his followers are said to have negotiated an agreement with the other Medinans, a document now known as the Constitution of Medina (date debated), which laid out the terms on which the different factions, specifically the Jews and other "Peoples of the Book" could exist within the new Islamic State. This system would come to typify Muslim relations with their non-believing subjects.
War
Relations between Mecca and Medina rapidly worsened (see surat al-Baqara). Meccans confiscated all the property that the Muslims had left in Mecca. In Medina, Muhammad signed treaties of alliance and mutual help with neighboring tribes.
Muhammad turned to raiding caravans bound for Mecca. Caravan raiding (al-ghazw) was an old Arabian tradition; Muslims justified the raids by the Meccans' confiscation of the property they had left at Mecca and the state of war deemed to exist between the Meccans and the Muslims.
In March of 624, the murderous Muhammad led some 300 warriors in a raid on a Meccan merchant caravan. The Meccans successfully defended the caravan and then decided to teach the Medinans a lesson. They sent a small army against Medina. On March 15, 624 near a place called Badr, the Meccans and the Muslims clashed. Though outnumbered more than three times (1000 to 300) in the battle, the Muslims met with success, killing at least forty-five Meccans and taking seventy prisoners for ransom; only fourteen Muslims died. This marked the real beginning of Muslim military achievement.
Rule consolidated
To his followers, the victory in Badr appeared as a divine authentication of Muhammad's prophethood. Following this victory, the victors expelled a local Jewish clan, the Banu Qainuqa, whom they believed to have broken a treaty by conspiring with the attacking Meccan forces. Muhammad and his followers were now a dominant force in the oasis.
After Khadija's death, Muhammad married again, to Aisha, the daughter of his friend Abu Bakr (who would later emerge as the first leader of the Muslims after Muhammad's death). In Medina, he married Hafsah, daughter of Umar (who would eventually become Abu Bakr's successor).
Muhammad's daughter Fatima married Ali, Muhammad's cousin. According to the Sunni, another daughter, Umm Kulthum, married Uthman. Each of these men, in later years, would emerge as successors to Muhammad and political leaders of the Muslims. Thus, all four of the first four caliphs were linked to Muhammad by marriage. Sunni Muslims regard these caliphs as the Rashidun, or Rightly Guided. (See Succession to Muhammad for more information on the controversy on the succession to the caliphate).
Continued warfare
In 625 the Meccan general Abu Sufyan marched on Medina with 3,000 men. The ensuing Battle of Uhud took place on March 23, ending in a stalemate. The Meccans claimed victory, but they had lost too many men to pursue the Muslims into Medina.
In April 627 Abu Sufyan led another strong force against Medina. But Muhammad had dug a trench around Medina and successfully defended the city in the Battle of the Trench.
Many of the Muslims believed that Abu Sufyan had been aided by sympathizers among the Medinans, the Jewish tribe of the Banu Qurayza. They attacked and defeated the Banu Qurayza, and subsequently killed hundreds of the adult men of the tribe. This execution has been the subject of much controversy.
Following the Muslims' victory at the Battle of the Trench, the Muslims were able, through conversion and conquest, to extend their rule to many of the neighboring cities and tribes.
The conquest of Mecca
Template:TotallyDisputed By 628, the Muslim position was strong enough that Muhammad decided to return to Mecca, this time as a pilgrim. In March of that year, he set out for Mecca, followed by 1,600 men. After some negotiation, a treaty was signed at the border town of al-Hudaybiyah. While Muhammad would not be allowed to finish his pilgrimage that year, hostilities would cease and the Muslims would have permission to make a pilgrimage to Mecca in the following year.
Many of Muhammad's followers were disgruntled at the inconclusive result of the Treaty of Hudaybiyya, and to deflect their opposition, Muhammad needed a new victory. He chose to attack the rich Khaybar oasis inhabited by several Jewish tribes, including Banu Nadir, whom Muhammad had previously expelled from Medina. Muslims captured Khaybar after a siege in June 628, killed all the men of Banu Nadir, and divided the women among themselves; Muhammad chose for himself Safiyya bint Huyayy, daughter of the Banu Nadir chief. Other Jews of Khaybar were allowed to remain in the oasis on condition of paying heavy tribute; Muslims also took substantial booty.[12]
Strengthened by the conquest of Khaybar, Muhammad soon found a casus belli to attack Mecca. Tribal allies of the Muslims and the Meccans clashed, and Muhammad regarded this incident as a breach of the treaty. In 630, Muhammad marched on Mecca with an enormous force, said to number more than 10,000 men. After some scattered skirmishes, in which only twenty-four Meccans were killed, the Muslims seized Mecca. Muhammad promised a general amnesty to all but a few of the Meccans. Most Meccans converted to Islam, and Muhammad destroyed the idols in the Kaaba. Henceforth the pilgrimage would be a Muslim pilgrimage and the shrine a Muslim shrine.
Unification of Arabia
The capitulation of Mecca and the defeat of an alliance of enemy tribes at Hunayn effectively brought the greater part of the Arabian peninsula under Muhammad's authority. This authority was not enforced by a regular government, however, as he chose instead to rule through personal relationships and tribal treaties. The Muslims were clearly the dominant force in Arabia, and most of the remaining tribes and states hastened to convert to Islam.
Muhammad as a warrior
For most of the sixty-three years of his life, Muhammad was a merchant, then a prophet. He took up the sword late in his life. He was a warrior for ten years.
Critics claim that Muhammad expanded his realm and imposed his religion by force. Muslim commentators, however, argue that he fought only to defend his community against the Meccans, and that he insisted on humane rules of warfare.
Family life
From 595 to 619, Muhammad had only one wife, Khadijah. After her death, he married Sawda bint Zama and Aisha (which marriage came first is disputed), then Hafsa. Later he was to marry more wives, for a total of eleven (nine or ten living at the time of his death). (The status of Maria al-Qibtiyya is also disputed; she may have been a slave, a freed slave, or a wife.)
Muhammad had children by only two of these unions. Khadijah is said to have born him four daughters and a son; only one daughter, Fatima, survived her father. Shi'a Muslims dispute the number of Muhammad's children, claiming that he had only one daughter, and that the other "daughters" were step-daughters. Maria al-Qibtiyya bore him a son, but the child died when he was ten months old.
Muhammad's marriages have been the subject of much criticism. Some consider it wrong that he had more wives than the four generally allowed by the Qur'an (although one Quranic verse makes an exception for Muhammad). They question the circumstances of some of his marriages, such as those to Zaynab bint Jahsh, his adopted son's ex-wife, and to Aisha, according to hadith was nine years old when the marriage was consummated.
Companions
The term Sahaba (companion) refers to anyone who met three criteria. First, he must have been a contemporary of Muhammad. Second, he must have seen or heard Muhammad speak on at least one occasion. Third, he must have converted to Islam. Companions are considered the ultimate sources for the oral traditions, or hadith, on which much Muslim law and practice are based. There were many other companions in addition to the ones listed here.
List in alphabetic order:
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Death
One day upon returning from a visit to a cemetery Muhammad became very ill. He suffered for several days with head pain and weakness. Muhammad finally succumbed to his malady around noon on Monday June 8, 632, in the city of Madina, at the age of sixty-three. He is buried in the Mosque of the Prophet in Madina.
According to Shi'a Islam, Muhammad had appointed his son-in-law Ali as his successor, in a public sermon at Ghadir Khumm. Shi'a believe that Muhammad's companions Abu Bakr and Umar conspired to oust Ali and make Abu Bakr the leader or caliph. Sunni Muslims dispute this, and say that the leaders of the community conferred and freely chose Abu Bakr, who was pre-eminent among the followers of Muhammad. The matter is further discussed in the article Succession to Muhammad.
Abu Bakr spent much of his short reign suppressing rebellious tribes in the Ridda Wars. With unity restored in Arabia, the Muslims looked outward and commenced the conquests that would eventually unite the Middle East under the caliphs.
Descendants
Muhammad was survived by his daughter Fatima and her children. (Some say that he had a daughter Zainab, who had borne a daughter, Amma or Umama, who survived him as well.)
In Shi'a Islam, it is believed that Fatima's husband Ali and his descendants are the rightful leaders of the faithful. The Sunni do not accept this view, but they still honor Muhammad's descendants.
Descendants of Muhammad are known by many names, such as sayyids, syeds سيد, and sharifs شريف (plural: ِأشراف Ashraaf). Many rulers and notables in Muslim countries, past and present, claim such descent, with various degrees of credibility, such as the Fatimid dynasty of North Africa, the Idrisids, the current royal families of Jordan and Morocco, and the Agha Khan Imams of the Ismaili branch of Islam. In various Muslim countries, there are societies that authenticate claims of descent; some societies are more credible than others.
Popular Muslim traditions
These traditions are believed by many Muslims, but not accepted by secular academic historians.
Many Muslims believe that as an infant Muhammad was placed with a Bedouin wetnurse, Halima Sadia, as desert life was believed to be safer and healthier for children. Many stories are told of his life in the desert.
After he returned to Mecca, he is said to have been beloved by all around him because he was such a polite and honest child.
As a youth, he was called upon to solve a vexing political problem for his Meccan neighbors. They were rebuilding the Kaaba and feuding over which clan should have the honor of raising the Black Stone into place. Muhammad suggested that the heads of each clan raise the Black Stone on a cloth, so that all had the honor of lifting it. Muhammad then put the stone into its place.
As a young man and a merchant, Muhammad was known to be trustworthy and honest. The other Meccans called him "Al-Amin", the trustworthy one or the honest one. [13] After he proclaimed his prophethood, however, his neighbors turned against him.
Muslim veneration for Muhammad
It is traditional for Muslims to illustrate and express their love and veneration for Muhammad in a number of different ways.
- When speaking or writing, Muhammad's name is often preceded by the title "Prophet" and is followed by the phrase, Peace be upon him, or Peace be upon him and his descendants by Shias; in English often abbreviated as "(pbuh)" and "pbuh&hd", or just simply as "p". Also in some English texts, the notation "(saw)" is used. This is an abbreviation of sallalahu aleyhi wasallam, which is an Arabic transliteration for "peace be upon him".
- His contemporaries gave him the title Apostle of God (Arabic: Rasul-Allah or Rasulallah), which is also used by Muslims today.
- Concerts of Muslim and especially Sufi devotional music include songs praising Muhammad (see Muslim music, Qawwali).
- Muslims celebrate the birthday of Muhammad (Mawlid) with elaborate festivities. Some do not, believing that such festivities are modern innovations.
- Criticism of Muhammad is often equated with blasphemy, which is punishable by death in some Muslim states.
- Muhammad is often referred to with titles of praise.
- Beyond the stories accepted as canonical by Islamic scholars of hadith, or oral traditions, there are many folktales praising Muhammad and recounting miraculous stories of his birth, upbringing and life.
- Many Muslims believe that Islam prohibits depicting the prophet Muhammad in art. Others have accepted such depictions. See Depiction of Muhammad.
Muhammad in other traditions
- Muhammad is also a prophet in the Mustaˤliyya, Nizarī, Alawites, Zikri, and the Ahmadiyya traditions. These are closely related to Islam, and are considered by their followers to be sects thereof, but mainstream Muslims see them as separate religions.
- The Druze, who accept most but not all Qur'anic revelations, also consider him a prophet.
- Bahá'ís venerate Muhammad as one of a number of prophets or "Manifestations of God", but consider his teachings to have been superseded by those of Bahá'u'lláh.
- Some humanists see Muhammad, like Jesus and Buddha, as an important ethical leader.
- In the Middle Ages, Jews usually referred to Muhammad as ha-meshuggah ("the madman" or "possessed"), a title contemptuously used in the Hebrew Bible for impostors who think of themselves as prophets. [14]
- Many Christians view Muhammad as a false prophet and not as the bringer of any divine revelation.[citation needed] During the Middle Ages, especially in places where there was frequent Christian-Muslim conflict, it was popular to depict Muhammad being tortured by the demons in Hell. One such example is in Dante's The Divine Comedy in which Muhammad is in the ninth ditch of the eighth circle of hell.
Quotations About Muhammad
- Michael Hart in 'The 100, A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons In History,' New York, 1978: My choice of Muhammad to lead the list of the world’s most influential persons may surprise some readers and may be questioned by others, but he was the only man in history who was supremely successful on both the secular and religious level. ...It is probable that the relative influence of Muhammad on Islam has been larger than the combined influence of Jesus Christ and St. Paul on Christianity. ...It is this unparalleled combination of secular and religious influence which I feel entitles Muhammad to be considered the most influential single figure in human history.
- Sir George Bernard Shaw in 'The Genuine Islam,' Vol. 1, No. 8, 1936: I have always held the religion of Muhammad in high estimation because of its wonderful vitality. It is the only religion which appears to me to possess that assimilating capacity to the changing phase of existence which can make itself appeal to every age. I have studied him - the wonderful man and in my opinion for from being an anti-Christ, he must be called the Savior of Humanity.
- Dr. John William Draper in 'History of Intellectual Development of Europe': Four years after the death of Justinian, A.D. 569, was born in Mecca, in Arabia, the man who, of all men, has exercised the greatest influence upon the human race... To be the religious head of many empires, to guide the daily life of one-third of the human race, may perhaps justify the title of a Messenger of God.
- Alphonse de LaMartaine in 'Historie de la Turquie,' Paris, 1854: If greatness of purpose, smallness of means, and astonishing results are the three criteria of a human genius, who could dare compare any great man in history with Muhammad?
- D.G. Hogarth in 'Arabia': Serious or trivial, his daily behavior has instituted a canon which millions observe this day with conscious memory. No one regarded by any section of the human race as Perfect Man has ever been imitated so minutely. The conduct of the founder of Christianity has not governed the ordinary life of his followers. Moreover, no founder of a religion has left on so solitary an eminence as the Muslim apostle.
- HG Wells: The Outline of History, London 1920, p. 325: A year before his death, at the end of the tenth year of the Hegira, Muhammad made his last pilgrimage from Medina to Mecca. He made then a great sermon to his people… The reader will note that the first paragraph sweeps away all plunder and blood feuds among the followers of Islam. The last makes the, believing Negro the equal of the Caliph… they established in the world a great tradition of dignified fair dealing, they breathe a spirit of generosity, and they are human and workable. They created a society more free from widespread cruelty and social oppression than any society had ever been in the world before.
- Jules Masserman in 'Who Were Histories Great Leaders?' in TIME Magazine, July 15, 1974: Perhaps the greatest leader of all times was Mohammad, who combined all the three functions. To a lesser degree Moses did the same.
Historical significance
Before his death in 632, Muhammad had established Islam as a social and political force and had unified most of Arabia through both conversion and conquest. Within a few decades after his death, his successors had united all of Arabia under Islamic empire, and conquered Iran, Iraq, Egypt, Palestine, Syria, Armenia, and much of North Africa. By 750, Islam had emerged as the spiritual counterpart to the two great monotheistic belief systems, Judaism and Christianity, and as the geopolitical successor to the Sassanid empire.[citation needed] The rest of North Africa came under Muslim rule, as well as most of the Iberian Peninsula, much of Central Asia, and parts of South Asia (including Sind, in the Indus Valley).
In the tenth century, the armies of the Ghaznavids conquered northern India bringing Islam into the mainly Hindu principalities east of the Indus river. The Ottoman conquests extended the sway of Islam over the Balkans, as well as much of the Caucasus. Even later, Islam expanded into much of Africa and Southeast Asia. Islam is now the faith of over a billion people all over the globe, and is now the second largest religion after Christianity by the number of adherents.
See also
Notes
- ^ Mahomet etc.; Turkish: Muhammed; for the Arabic pronunciation
- ^ This is not supposed to mean that Muhammad was the first to propagate the submission to one god (= monotheism). Here, "Islam" and "Muslim" are used in their active lexical senses, not in their etymological senses.
- ^ Schoeler, Greg, " Foundations for a new biography of Muhammad: The production and evaluation of the corpus of traditions from 'Urwah b. Al-Zubayr", in Method and Theory in the Study of Islamic Origins, Herbert Berg, ed., Brill, 2003
- ^ Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum: The Lineage and Family of Muhammad by Saifur Rahman al-Mubarakpuri
- ^ Stillman (1979), p. 18; "Khaybar", Encyclopaedia of Islam
- ^ USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts: About the Prophet Muhammad
- ^ Stillman, Norman (1979). The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. pp. p. 236. ISBN 082760198.
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:|pages=
has extra text (help) - ^ Mahomet etc.; Turkish: Muhammed; for the Arabic pronunciation
- ^ This is not supposed to mean that Muhammad was the first to propagate the submission to one god (= monotheism). Here, "Islam" and "Muslim" are used in their active lexical senses, not in their etymological senses.
- ^ Schoeler, Greg, " Foundations for a new biography of Muhammad: The production and evaluation of the corpus of traditions from 'Urwah b. Al-Zubayr", in Method and Theory in the Study of Islamic Origins, Herbert Berg, ed., Brill, 2003
- ^ Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum: The Lineage and Family of Muhammad by Saifur Rahman al-Mubarakpuri
- ^ Stillman (1979), p. 18; "Khaybar", Encyclopaedia of Islam
- ^ USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts: About the Prophet Muhammad
- ^ Stillman, Norman (1979). The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. pp. p. 236. ISBN 082760198.
{{cite book}}
:|pages=
has extra text (help)
References
- Andrae, Tor (2000). Mohammed: The Man and His Faith. Dover. ISBN 0486411362.
- Armstrong, Karen (1993). Muhammad: A Biography of the Prophet. San Francisco: Harper. ISBN 0062508865.
- Cook, Michael (1983). Muhammad. Oxford University Press (reissue 1996). ISBN ISBN 0192876058.
- Dashti, Ali (1994). Twenty-Three Years: A Study of the Prophetic Career of Mohammad. Mazda. ISBN 1568590296.
- Hamidullah, Muhammad (1998). The Life and Work of the Prophet of Islam. [s.n.](Islamabad: Islamic Research Institute). ISBN 9698413006.
- Haykal, Muhammad Husayn (1995). The Life of Muhammad. Islamic Book Service. ISBN 1577311957.
- Lings, Martin (1987). Muhammad: His Life Based on Earliest Sources. Inner Traditions International, Limited. ISBN 0892811706.
- Motzki, Harald, ed. (2000). The Biography of Muhammad: The Issue of the Sources, in Islamic History and Civilization: Studies and Texts, Vol. 32. E. J. Brill.
{{cite book}}
:|author=
has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - Rodinson, Maxime (1961). Muhammad. New Publishers. ISBN 1565847520.
- Schimmel, Annemarie (1985). And Muhammad is His Messenger: The Veneration of the Prophet in Islamic Piety. The University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0807841285.
- Warraq, Ibn (2000). The Quest for the Historical Muhammad. Prometheus Books. ISBN 1573927872.
- Watt, W. Montgomery (1961). Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198810784.
External links
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- Non-sectarian biography
- Public Broadcasting System program on Muhammad
- Encarta Encyclopedia
- 1911 Encyclopedia article of Muhammad
- Muslim biographies
- The earliest biography of Muhammad, by ibn Ishaq
- Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum (The Sealed Nectar) - comprehensive and authoritative modern biography of the prophet
- Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum (The Sealed Nectar) - as above but easier to navigate
- Biography by Harun Yahya
- About Muhammad
- Seerat Khaatamun NabiyyeenUrdu Biography.
- Nonmuslim/Critical biographies
Historical significance
Before his death in 632, Muhammad had established Islam as a social and political force and had unified most of Arabia through both conversion and conquest. Within a few decades after his death, his successors had united all of Arabia under Islamic empire, and conquered Iran, Iraq, Egypt, Palestine, Syria, Armenia, and much of North Africa. By 750, Islam had emerged as the spiritual counterpart to the two great monotheistic belief systems, Judaism and Christianity, and as the geopolitical successor to the Sassanid empire.[citation needed] The rest of North Africa came under Muslim rule, as well as most of the Iberian Peninsula, much of Central Asia, and parts of South Asia (including Sind, in the Indus Valley).
In the tenth century, the armies of the Ghaznavids conquered northern India bringing Islam into the mainly Hindu principalities east of the Indus river. The Ottoman conquests extended the sway of Islam over the Balkans, as well as much of the Caucasus. Even later, Islam expanded into much of Africa and Southeast Asia. Islam is now the faith of over a billion people all over the globe, and is now the second largest religion after Christianity by the number of adherents.
See also
Notes
References
- Andrae, Tor (2000). Mohammed: The Man and His Faith. Dover. ISBN 0486411362.
- Armstrong, Karen (1993). Muhammad: A Biography of the Prophet. San Francisco: Harper. ISBN 0062508865.
- Cook, Michael (1983). Muhammad. Oxford University Press (reissue 1996). ISBN ISBN 0192876058.
- Dashti, Ali (1994). Twenty-Three Years: A Study of the Prophetic Career of Mohammad. Mazda. ISBN 1568590296.
- Hamidullah, Muhammad (1998). The Life and Work of the Prophet of Islam. [s.n.](Islamabad: Islamic Research Institute). ISBN 9698413006.
- Haykal, Muhammad Husayn (1995). The Life of Muhammad. Islamic Book Service. ISBN 1577311957.
- Lings, Martin (1987). Muhammad: His Life Based on Earliest Sources. Inner Traditions International, Limited. ISBN 0892811706.
- Motzki, Harald, ed. (2000). The Biography of Muhammad: The Issue of the Sources, in Islamic History and Civilization: Studies and Texts, Vol. 32. E. J. Brill.
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:|author=
has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - Rodinson, Maxime (1961). Muhammad. New Publishers. ISBN 1565847520.
- Schimmel, Annemarie (1985). And Muhammad is His Messenger: The Veneration of the Prophet in Islamic Piety. The University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0807841285.
- Warraq, Ibn (2000). The Quest for the Historical Muhammad. Prometheus Books. ISBN 1573927872.
- Watt, W. Montgomery (1961). Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198810784.
External links
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png)
- Non-sectarian biography
- Public Broadcasting System program on Muhammad
- Encarta Encyclopedia
- 1911 Encyclopedia article of Muhammad
- Muslim biographies
- The earliest biography of Muhammad, by ibn Ishaq
- Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum (The Sealed Nectar) - comprehensive and authoritative modern biography of the prophet
- Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum (The Sealed Nectar) - as above but easier to navigate
- Biography by Harun Yahya
- About Muhammad
- Seerat Khaatamun NabiyyeenUrdu Biography.
- Nonmuslim/Critical biographies