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The [[Ovary|ovaries]], present in females, are reddish in colour, circular, and flattened.<ref name=arthur>{{cite journal|last1=Arthur|first1=G.H.|last2=A/Rahim|first2=A.T.|last3=Al Hindi|first3=A.S.|title=Reproduction and genital diseases of the camel|journal=British Veterinary Journal|date=November 1985|volume=141|issue=6|pages=650–9|doi=10.1016/0007-1935(85)90014-4}}</ref> They are enclosed in a conical [[Bursa (anatomy)|bursa]], and have a size of {{convert|4|*|2.5|*|0.5|cm|in|abbr=on}} during [[anestrus]]. The [[oviduct]]s are {{convert|25|-|28|cm|in|abbr=on}} in length. The [[uterus]] is [[Bicornuate uterus|bicornuate]]. The [[vagina]], {{convert|3|-|3.5|cm|in|abbr=on}} long, has well-developed [[Bartholin's gland]]s.<ref name=novoa/> The [[vulva]] is {{convert|3|-|5|cm|in|abbr=on}} deep and contains a small [[clitoris]].<ref name=wilson/> The [[placenta]] is diffuse and [[Placentation#Placentation in mammals|epitheliochorial]], with a crescent-like [[chorion]].<ref name=morton>{{cite journal|last1=Morton|first1=W.R.M.|title=Observations on the full-term foetal membranes of three members of the Camelidae (''Camelus dromedarius'' L.,'' Camelus bactrianus'' L., and ''Lama glama'' L.)|journal=Journal of Anatomy|date=1961|volume=95|issue=2|pages=200-9|pmc=1244464}}</ref> The [[scrotum]], present in males, is located high in the [[perineum]] with [[testicles]] in separate sacs. {{anchor|Testicles}} Testicles are {{convert|7|-|10|cm|in|abbr=on}} long, {{convert|4.5|cm|in|abbr=on}} deep and {{convert|5|cm|in|abbr=on}} in width.<ref name=mammal/> The right testicle is often smaller than the left.<ref name=camel/> The typical mass of either testicle is less than {{convert|140|g|lb|abbr=on}}; however, at the time of rut the mass can range from {{convert|165|-|253|g|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name=mammal/> The [[prostate gland]] is dark yellow, usually disc-shaped and divided into two lobes. The [[Cowper's gland]] is white, shaped like an almond, and lacks [[seminal vesicles]].<ref name=mobarak/> The penis is covered by a triangular [[penile sheath]] opening backwards,<ref name="Yagil1985">{{cite book|author=R. Yagil|title=The Desert Camel: Comparative Physiological Adaptation|year=1985|publisher=Karger|isbn=978-3-8055-4065-0}}</ref> and is about {{convert|60|cm|in|abbr=on}} long.<ref name=mobarak>{{cite journal|last1=Mobarak|first1=A. M.|last2=ElWishy|first2=A. B.|last3=Samira|first3=M. F.|title=The penis and prepuce of the oe-humped camel (''Camelus dromedarius'')|journal=Zentralblatt für Veterinärmedizin Reihe A|date=1972|volume=19|issue=9|pages=787–95|doi=10.1111/j.1439-0442.1972.tb00532.x}}</ref>
The [[Ovary|ovaries]], present in females, are reddish in colour, circular, and flattened.<ref name=arthur>{{cite journal|last1=Arthur|first1=G.H.|last2=A/Rahim|first2=A.T.|last3=Al Hindi|first3=A.S.|title=Reproduction and genital diseases of the camel|journal=British Veterinary Journal|date=November 1985|volume=141|issue=6|pages=650–9|doi=10.1016/0007-1935(85)90014-4}}</ref> They are enclosed in a conical [[Bursa (anatomy)|bursa]], and have a size of {{convert|4|*|2.5|*|0.5|cm|in|abbr=on}} during [[anestrus]]. The [[oviduct]]s are {{convert|25|-|28|cm|in|abbr=on}} in length. The [[uterus]] is [[Bicornuate uterus|bicornuate]]. The [[vagina]], {{convert|3|-|3.5|cm|in|abbr=on}} long, has well-developed [[Bartholin's gland]]s.<ref name=novoa/> The [[vulva]] is {{convert|3|-|5|cm|in|abbr=on}} deep and contains a small [[clitoris]].<ref name=wilson/> The [[placenta]] is diffuse and [[Placentation#Placentation in mammals|epitheliochorial]], with a crescent-like [[chorion]].<ref name=morton>{{cite journal|last1=Morton|first1=W.R.M.|title=Observations on the full-term foetal membranes of three members of the Camelidae (''Camelus dromedarius'' L.,'' Camelus bactrianus'' L., and ''Lama glama'' L.)|journal=Journal of Anatomy|date=1961|volume=95|issue=2|pages=200-9|pmc=1244464}}</ref> The [[scrotum]], present in males, is located high in the [[perineum]] with [[testicles]] in separate sacs. {{anchor|Testicles}} Testicles are {{convert|7|-|10|cm|in|abbr=on}} long, {{convert|4.5|cm|in|abbr=on}} deep and {{convert|5|cm|in|abbr=on}} in width.<ref name=mammal/> The right testicle is often smaller than the left.<ref name=camel/> The typical mass of either testicle is less than {{convert|140|g|lb|abbr=on}}; however, at the time of rut the mass can range from {{convert|165|-|253|g|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name=mammal/> The [[prostate gland]] is dark yellow, usually disc-shaped and divided into two lobes. The [[Cowper's gland]] is white, shaped like an almond, and lacks [[seminal vesicles]].<ref name=mobarak/> The penis is covered by a triangular [[penile sheath]] opening backwards,<ref name="Yagil1985">{{cite book|author=R. Yagil|title=The Desert Camel: Comparative Physiological Adaptation|year=1985|publisher=Karger|isbn=978-3-8055-4065-0}}</ref> and is about {{convert|60|cm|in|abbr=on}} long.<ref name=mobarak>{{cite journal|last1=Mobarak|first1=A. M.|last2=ElWishy|first2=A. B.|last3=Samira|first3=M. F.|title=The penis and prepuce of the oe-humped camel (''Camelus dromedarius'')|journal=Zentralblatt für Veterinärmedizin Reihe A|date=1972|volume=19|issue=9|pages=787–95|doi=10.1111/j.1439-0442.1972.tb00532.x}}</ref>


==Diseases and parasites==
===Health and diseases===
[[File:Camel Nuweibaa 00 (12).JPG|thumbnail|Female Dromedary camel in Disco Tower, Nuweibaa, South Sinai, Egypt.]]
[[File:Mers-virus-3D-image.jpg|thumbnail|right|3D image of MERS-CoV, of which the dromedary is possibly the animal source]]
The dromedary generally suffers from fewer diseases than other domestic livestock.<ref name=leupold>{{cite journal|last1=Leupold|first1=J.|title=Camel--an important domestic animal of the subtropics|journal=Blue Book for the Veterinary Profession|date=1968|volume=15|pages=1-6}}</ref> Temperature fluctuations occur throughout the day in a healthy dromedary - it is usually minimum at dawn, then rises till sunset and falls during the night.<ref name=leese1969>{{cite journal|last1=Leese|first1=A.S.|title=" Tips" on camels for veterinary surgeons on active service|date=1969|pages=1-56|url=http://krishikosh.egranth.ac.in/bitstream/1/22454/1/SVAC3800.pdf|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organisation|location=Rome}}</ref> Vomiting may occur if a nervous camel is handled, and need not indicate any disorder.<ref name=camel/>
⚫
The dromedary is prone to [[trypanosomiasis]], a [[parasite|parasitic]] disease caused by various species of the genus ''[[Trypanosoma]]'' and transmitted by the [[tsetse fly]]. The main symptoms are recurring fever, anemia, and weakness, which usually ends with the camel's death.<ref name=mammal/> [[Brucellosis]] is another disease of dromedaries. In an observational study, the [[seroprevalence]] of the disease was usually low (2-5%) in nomadic or loosely confined dromedaries, while it was high (8-15%) in those kept closely together. Brucellosis is caused by different biotypes of ''[[Brucella abortus]]'' and ''[[Brucella melitensis]]''.<ref name=brucella>{{cite journal|last=Abbas|first=B.|last2=Agab|first2=H.|title=A review of camel brucellosis|journal=Preventive Veterinary Medicine|date=10 September 2002|volume=55|issue=1|pages=47–56|doi=10.1016/S0167-5877(02)00055-7|pmid=12324206}}</ref> Other internal parasites include ''[[Fasciola gigantica]]'', a [[trematode]] (flatworm); two types of [[cestode]] (tapeworm), and various [[nematodes]] (roundworms). Among external parasites, ''[[Sarcoptes]]'' species cause [[sarcoptic mange]].<ref name=mammal/> In a study in [[Jordan]], 83% of the 32 camels tested positive for sarcoptic mange, and 33% of the 257 examined specimens were seroprevalent for trypanosomiasis.<ref name=jordan>{{cite journal|last=Al-Rawashdeh|first=O. F.|last2=Al-Ani|first2=F. K.|last3=Sharrif|first3=L. A.|last4=Al-Qudah|first4=K. M.|last5=Al-Hami|first5=Y.|last6=Frank|first6=N.|title=A survey of camel (''Camelus dromedarius'') diseases in Jordan|journal=Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine|date=September 2000|volume=31|issue=3|pages=335–8|publisher=American Association of Zoo Veterinarians|issn=1042-7260|pmid=11237140|doi=10.1638/1042-7260(2000)031[0335:ASOCCD]2.0.CO;2}}</ref> In another study, following the [[rinderpest]] outbreak in [[Ethiopia]], dromedaries were found to have natural antibodies against [[rinderpest virus]] and [[ovine rinderpest]] virus.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Roger|first=F.|last2=Yesus|first2=M. G.|last3=Libeau|first3=G.|last4=Diallo|first4=A.|last5=Yigezu|first5=L. M.|last6=Yilma|first6=T.|title=Detection of antibodies of rinderpest and peste des petits ruminants viruses (Paramyxoviridae, Morbillivirus) during a new epizootic disease in Ethiopian camels (''Camelus dromedarius'')|journal=Revue de Médecine Veterinaire|year=2001|volume=152|issue=3|pages=265–8|publisher=Ecole Nationale Veterinaire De Toulouse|location=France|issn=0035-1555}}</ref>


⚫
The dromedary is prone to [[trypanosomiasis]], transmitted by the [[tsetse fly]]. The main symptoms are recurring fever, anemia, and weakness, which usually ends with the camel's death.<ref name=currason>{{cite journal|last1=Currason|first1=G.|title=Le Chameau et ses Maladies|journal=Paris: Vigotfreres|date=1947|pages=188-237}}</ref> [[Brucellosis]] is another disease of dromedaries. In an observational study, the [[seroprevalence]] of the disease was usually low (2-5%) in nomadic or loosely confined dromedaries, while it was high (8-15%) in those kept closely together. Brucellosis is caused by different biotypes of ''[[Brucella abortus]]'' and ''[[Brucella melitensis]]''.<ref name=brucella>{{cite journal|last=Abbas|first=B.|last2=Agab|first2=H.|title=A review of camel brucellosis|journal=Preventive Veterinary Medicine|date=10 September 2002|volume=55|issue=1|pages=47–56|doi=10.1016/S0167-5877(02)00055-7|pmid=12324206}}</ref> Other internal parasites include ''[[Fasciola gigantica]]'', a [[trematode]] (flatworm); two types of [[cestode]] (tapeworm), and various [[nematodes]] (roundworms). Among external parasites, ''[[Sarcoptes]]'' species cause [[sarcoptic mange]].<ref name=mammal/> In a study in [[Jordan]], 83% of the 32 camels tested positive for sarcoptic mange, and 33% of the 257 examined specimens were seroprevalent for trypanosomiasis.<ref name=jordan>{{cite journal|last=Al-Rawashdeh|first=O. F.|last2=Al-Ani|first2=F. K.|last3=Sharrif|first3=L. A.|last4=Al-Qudah|first4=K. M.|last5=Al-Hami|first5=Y.|last6=Frank|first6=N.|title=A survey of camel (''Camelus dromedarius'') diseases in Jordan|journal=Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine|date=September 2000|volume=31|issue=3|pages=335–8|publisher=American Association of Zoo Veterinarians|issn=1042-7260|pmid=11237140|doi=10.1638/1042-7260(2000)031[0335:ASOCCD]2.0.CO;2}}</ref> In another study, following the [[rinderpest]] outbreak in [[Ethiopia]], dromedaries were found to have natural antibodies against [[rinderpest virus]] and [[ovine rinderpest]] virus.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Roger|first=F.|last2=Yesus|first2=M. G.|last3=Libeau|first3=G.|last4=Diallo|first4=A.|last5=Yigezu|first5=L. M.|last6=Yilma|first6=T.|title=Detection of antibodies of rinderpest and peste des petits ruminants viruses (Paramyxoviridae, Morbillivirus) during a new epizootic disease in Ethiopian camels (''Camelus dromedarius'')|journal=Revue de Médecine Veterinaire|year=2001|volume=152|issue=3|pages=265–8|publisher=Ecole Nationale Veterinaire De Toulouse|location=France|issn=0035-1555}}</ref>
⚫
[[Fleas]] and [[ticks]] are common and widespread causes of physical irritation. In a study in Egypt, 2,545 ticks (1491 adults and 1054 nymphs) were collected from dromedaries. The range of the number of ticks per camel was broad (6 to 173). A species of ''[[Hyalomma]]'' specific to the dromedary was predominant, with 95.6% of the adult ticks belonging to this species. Other ticks found were also species of ''Hyalomma''. In [[Israel]], the number of ticks per camel ranged from 20 to 105. Nine camels in the date palm plantations in Arava Valley were injected with [[ivermectin]], but it was not effective against ''Hyalomma'' tick infestations.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Straten|first=M.|last2=Jongejan|first2=F.|title=Ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) infesting the Arabian Camel (''Camelus dromedarius'') in the Sinai, Egypt with a note on the acaricidal efficacy of ivermectin|journal=Experimental and Applied Acarology|date=August 1993|volume=17|issue=8|pages=605–16|doi=10.1007/BF00053490|pmid=7628237}}</ref>


In 2013, a seroepidemiological study (a study investigating the patterns, causes and effects of a disease on a specific population based on [[serologic]] tests) in Egypt published in the journal of [[Eurosurveillance]] first presented the possibility that the dromedary might be a host for the [[Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus]] (MERS-CoV).<ref name=merscov2>{{cite journal|last1=Perera|first1=R.|last2=Wang|first2=P.|last3=Gomaa|first3=M.|last4=El-Shesheny|first4=R.|last5=Kandeil|first5=A.|last6=Bagato|first6=O.|last7=Siu|first7=L.|last8=Shehata|first8=M.|last9=Kayed|first9=A.|last10=Moatasim|first10=Y.|last11=Li|first11=M.|last12=Poon|first12=L.|last13=Guan|first13=Y.|last14=Webby|first14=R.|last15=Ali|first15=M.|last16=Peiris|first16=J.|last17=Kayali|first17=G.|title=Seroepidemiology for MERS coronavirus using microneutralisation and pseudoparticle virus neutralisation assays reveal a high prevalence of antibody in dromedary camels in Egypt, June 2013|journal=Eurosurveillance|date=5 September 2013|volume=18|issue=36|page=20574|doi=10.2807/1560-7917.ES2013.18.36.20574}}</ref> A 2013-14 study of dromedaries in Saudi Arabia revealed the unusual genetic stability of the [[Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus]] (MERS-CoV) in the dromedary, coupled with its high seroprevalence in the camel, made the dromedary a highly probable host for the virus. The full [[genome sequence]] of MERS-CoV from dromedaries in this study showed a 99.9% match to the [[genome]]s of human clade B MERS-CoV.<ref name=merscov1>{{cite journal|last1=Hemida|first1=M. G.|last2=Chu|first2=D.K.W.|last3=Poon|first3=L.L.M.|last4=Perera|first4=R.A.P.M.|last5=Alhammadi|first5=M. A.|last6=Ng|first6=Hoiyee-Y.|last7=Siu|first7=L.Y.|last8=Guan|first8=Y.|last9=Alnaeem|first9=A.|last10=Peiris|first10=M.|title=MERS coronavirus in dromedary camel herd, Saudi Arabia|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|date=2014|volume=20|issue=7|pages=1-4|doi=10.3201/eid2007.140571}}</ref> Another study in Saudi Arabia revealed the presence of MERS-CoV in 90% of the evaluated dromedary camels, and even suggested that camels could be the animal source of MERS-CoV.<ref name=merscov3>{{cite journal|last1=Hemida|first1=M.|last2=Perera|first2=R.|last3=Wang|first3=P.|last4=Alhammadi|first4=M.|last5=Siu|first5=L.|last6=Li|first6=M.|last7=Poon|first7=L.|last8=Saif|first8=L.|last9=Alnaeem|first9=A.|last10=Peiris|first10=M.|title=Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) coronavirus seroprevalence in domestic livestock in Saudi Arabia, 2010 to 2013|journal=Eurosurveillance|date=12 December 2013|volume=18|issue=50|page=20659|doi=10.2807/1560-7917.ES2013.18.50.20659}}</ref>
Larvae of ''[[Cephalopsis titillator]]'' known as the camel nasal fly, can cause [[brain compression]] and [[Neurological disorder|nervous disorders]], which can prove fatal. Illnesses that can affect dromedary productivity are [[Pus|pyogenic]] diseases and wound infections due to ''[[Corynebacterium]]'' and ''[[Streptococcus]]''; pulmonary disorders caused by ''[[Pasteurella]]'' (like [[hemorrhagic septicemia]]), and ''[[Rickettsia]]'' ; [[camelpox]] caused by the camelpox virus; [[anthrax]] due to ''[[Bacillus anthracis]]'', and [[cutaneous]] [[necrosis]] due to ''[[Streptothrix]]'' and dietary salt deficiency.<ref name=mammal/>


⚫
[[Fleas]] and [[ticks]] are common causes of physical irritation. In a study in Egypt, a species of ''[[Hyalomma]]'' specific to the dromedary was predominant, comprising 95.6% of the adult ticks isolated from the dromedaries. In [[Israel]], the number of ticks per camel ranged from 20 to 105. Nine camels in the date palm plantations in [[Arava Valley]] were injected with [[ivermectin]], but it was not effective against ''Hyalomma'' tick infestations.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Straten|first=M.|last2=Jongejan|first2=F.|title=Ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) infesting the Arabian Camel (''Camelus dromedarius'') in the Sinai, Egypt with a note on the acaricidal efficacy of ivermectin|journal=Experimental and Applied Acarology|date=August 1993|volume=17|issue=8|pages=605–16|doi=10.1007/BF00053490|pmid=7628237}}</ref> Larvae of ''[[Cephalopsis titillator]]'', the camel nasal fly, can cause [[brain compression]] and [[Neurological disorder|nervous disorders]], which might prove fatal. Illnesses that can affect dromedary productivity are [[Pus|pyogenic]] diseases and wound infections due to ''[[Corynebacterium]]'' and ''[[Streptococcus]]''; pulmonary disorders caused by ''[[Pasteurella]]'' (like [[hemorrhagic septicemia]]), and ''[[Rickettsia]]'' ; [[camelpox]]; [[anthrax]]; and [[cutaneous]] [[necrosis]] due to ''[[Streptothrix]]'' and dietary salt deficiency.<ref name=mammal/>
In 2013 the dromedary was identified as a potential source of infection with Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), a recently discovered respiratory virus that can cause severe lower respiratory tract infection in humans. MERS-CoV was identified in three camels in a herd in Qatar in a barn, which was linked to two confirmed human cases who have since recovered. The presence of MERS-Cov in the camels was confirmed by the National Institute of Public Health and Environment (RIVM) of the Ministry of Health and the Erasmus Medical Center (WHO collaborating center), the Netherlands. None of the camels showed any sign of disease when the samples were collected. The Qatar Supreme Council of Health advised that people with underlying health conditions, such as heart disease, diabetes, kidney disease, respiratory disease, the immunosuppressed, and the elderly, avoid any close animal contacts when visiting farms and markets, and to practice good hygiene, such as washing hands.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sch.gov.qa/sch/En/catcontent.jsp?scatId=833&scatType=1&CSRT=8118031749383040885|publisher=Qatar Supreme Council of Health|accessdate=28 November 2013|title=Based on recent Scientific Research: Three camels hit by MERS Coronavirus in Qatar}}</ref>


==Ecology==
==Ecology==

Revision as of 07:35, 28 January 2016

For the world music group, see Dromedary (band).
Arabian camel redirects here.

Dromedary camel
A dromedary camel in the outback near Silverton, New South Wales, Australia.
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Camelidae
Genus: Camelus
Species:
C. dromedarius
Binomial name
Camelus dromedarius
Domestic dromedary range
Synonyms[1]
Species synonymy[1]
  • C. aegyptiacus Kolenati, 1847
  • C. africanus (Gloger, 1841)
  • C. arabicus Desmoulins, 1823
  • C. dromas Pallas, 1811
  • C. dromos Kerr, 1792
  • C. ferus Falk,1786
  • C. lukius Kolenati, 1847
  • C. polytrichus Kolenati, 1847
  • C. turcomanichus J. Fischer, 1829
  • C. vulgaris Kolenati, 1847

The dromedary (/ˈdrɒmədɛri/ or /-ədri/), also called the Arabian camel (Camelus dromedarius), is a large, even-toed ungulate with one hump on its back.

First described in Western literature by Aristotle, the dromedary was given its binomial name by Carl Linnaeus in 1758. The oldest known ancestor of the dromedary is the Protylopus. Males are 1.8–2 m (5.9–6.6 ft) tall and females are 1.7–1.9 m (5.6–6.2 ft) tall. Males range from 400–600 kg (880–1,320 lb), while females weigh 300–540 kg (660–1,190 lb). They vary in colour from a light beige to dark brown. The notable hump, measuring 20 cm (7.9 in) high, is composed of fat bound together by fibrous tissue.

Their diet includes foliage and desert vegetation, like thorny plants which their extremely tough mouths allow them to eat. These camels are active in the day, and rest together in groups. Led by a dominant male, each herd consists of about 20 individuals. Some males form bachelor groups. Dromedaries show no signs of territoriality, as herds often merge during calamities. Predators in the wild include wolves and lions; and tigers in the past. Dromedaries use a wide set of vocalizations to communicate with each other. They have various adaptations to help them exist in their desert habitat. Dromedaries have bushy eyebrows and two rows of long eyelashes to protect their eyes, and can close their nostrils to face sandstorms. Their ears are also lined with protective hair.[2] When water-deprived, they can fluctuate their body temperature by 6 °C, changing from a morning minimum of 34° to a maximum of 40° or so in the afternoon. This reduces heat flow from the environment to the body and thereby water loss through perspiration is minimised. They have specialized kidneys, which make them able to tolerate water loss of more than 30% of their body mass; a loss of 15% would prove fatal in most other animals.[3] Mating usually occurs in winter, often overlapping the rainy season. One calf is born after the gestational period of 15 months, and is nurtured for about two years.

The dromedary's origin is unclear, but it was probably domesticated in Somalia or Arabian Peninsula about 4000 years ago, with a general agreement among experts about the domestication of the one-humped camel.[4] The domesticated form occurs widely in Horn of Africa, North Africa, South Asia, and the Middle East. Today, almost 13 million dromedaries are domesticated. They are beneficial as beasts of burden, and their docility and toughness compared to cattle are additional advantages. Their hair is a highly regarded source material for woven goods and their dung is used as fertiliser and fuel.

Etymology

The term "dromedary" comes from the Old French word dromedaire, or the Latin word dromedarius, which means "swift". It is based on the Greek word dromas, δρομάς (ο, η) (GEN (γενική) dromados, δρομάδος), meaning "runner" (δρομέας) .[5][6] An early variant of this word was 'drumbledairy' (used in the 1560s).[7] The word "dromedary" has been used in English since the 14th century CE.[8] Greek philosopher Aristotle referred to the dromedary as "the camel of the Arabians".[9]

The term "camel" is derived via Latin and Greek from an old Semitic language (cf. Phoenician or Hebrew gāmāl, Arabic ǧamal or gamal).[10] A northern oïl dialect, such as Old Norman or Old Picard, could have also been an intermediate, where the word for "camel" was camel (compare Old French chamel, modern French chameau).[11] The scientific name of the dromedary is Camelus dromedarius, which could be based on the Greek δρομὰς κάμηλος (dromas kamelos), which means "running camel".[12]

Taxonomy

The dromedary is a member of the genus Camelus (camel) and the family Camelidae.[1] There is evidence that indicates the onset of speciation in Camelus in the early Pliocene.[13] Aristotle was the first to describe the species of Camelus, naming two species: the dromedary and the Bactrian camel. He defined them as one-humped and two-humped, respectively, in his book History of Animals.[14][15] The dromedary was given its current binomial name Camelus dromedarius by Carl Linnaeus, a Swedish zoologist, in his 1758 publication Systema Naturae.[16]

In 1927, British veterinarian Arnold Leese had classified dromedaries by their basic habitats: the hill camels, small muscular animals and efficient beasts of burden; plains camels, larger animals that could be further divided into desert type (that can bear light burden and are apt for riding) and the riverine type (that can bear heavy burden and move slowly); and the third group of animals that are intermediate between the previous two types.[17]

The dromedary and the Bactrian camel often interbreed to produce fertile offspring. Where the ranges of the two species overlap, such as in northern Punjab, Persia and Afghanistan, the phenotypic differences between them tend to decrease as a result of extensive crossbreeding between them. The fertility of their hybrid has given rise to speculation that the dromedary and the Bactrian camel should be merged into a single species, of which they would be two varieties.[17] However, a 1994 analysis of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene revealed that the species have a 10.3% difference.[18]

Genetics and hybrids

Main article: Hybrid camel

The diploid number of chromosomes in the dromedary is 74 , the same as in other camelids. The autosomes consist of five pairs of small to medium-sized metacentrics and submetacentrics.[19] The X chromosome is the largest of the metacentric and submetacentric group.[20] There are 31 pairs of acrocentrics.[19] The karyotypes are similar between the dromedary and the Bactria camel.[21]

The origin of camel hybridisation dates back to as early as the first millennium BCE.[22] For about a thousand years, Bactrian camels and dromedaries have been successfully bred in regions where they are sympatric (coexist) to form hybrids which are characterised by either a long and slightly lopsided hump, or two humps – one small and one large. These hybrids are larger and stronger than their parents – they can bear greater load.[20][22] A cross between a first generation female hybrid and a male Bactrian camel can also produce a hybrid. Other types of hybrids, though, tend to be bad-tempered or runts.[23]

Evolution

The extinct Protylopus, which occurred in the upper Eocene in North America, is the oldest as well as the smallest camel known.[24] In the transitional period from Pliocene to Pleistocene, several mammals faced extinction. However, the Camelus species migrated across the Bering Strait and dispersed widely to Asia, eastern Europe, and Africa.[25][26] By the Pleistocene, ancestors of the dromedary came to be known from the Middle East and northern Africa.[27] The modern dromedary probably evolved in the hotter and arid regions of western Asia from the bactrian camel, which in turn was closely related to the earliest Old World camels.[26] This hypothesis is supported by the fact that the dromedary foetus actually has two humps, while in the adult an anterior vestigial hump is present on an adult male.[17]

In 1975, Richard Bulliet, a professor of history at Columbia University, observed that the dromedary exists in large numbers in those areas from where the Bactrian camel has disappeared, and the converse is also true to a large extent. He suggested that this substitution could have occurred because the nomads of Syrian and Arabian deserts were heavily dependent upon the dromedary, while the Asiatic people domesticated the Bactrian camel but did not have to depend primarily upon it for milk, meat and wool.[28] The dromedary has gradually replaced the Bactrian camel along the Silk Route.

The dromedary possibly had origins in Arabia and is therefore sometimes referred to as the Arabian camel. A jawbone of a dromedary, whose radiocarbon date was 8200 BP, was found on the southern coast of the Red Sea in Saudi Arabia.[29][30]

Description

Note the long curved neck, single hump and the long hair on the throat, shoulders and hump of the dromedary.

The dromedary is the largest camel after the Bactrian camel. Adult male dromedaries stand 1.8–2 m (5.9–6.6 ft) at the shoulder, while females are 1.7–1.9 m (5.6–6.2 ft) tall. The weight typically ranges from 400–600 kg (880–1,320 lb) in males and 300–540 kg (660–1,190 lb) in females. The distinctive features of this camel are its long curved neck, narrow chest and only one hump (compared to the two on the Bactrian camel), thick double-layered eyelashes and bushy eyebrows. The hair is particularly long and concentrated on the throat, shoulders and the hump. The eyes are large and protected by prominent supraorbital ridges. The ears are small and rounded.[31][20] The dromedary camel exhibits sexual dimorphism, as both sexes differ in their appearance.[31] They have sharp eyesight and a good sense of smell.[30]

The coat is generally a shade of brown, but can range from black to nearly white.[20] Leese reported piebald dromedaries, with mouse-coloured necks and backs and white underparts, faces and legs, from Kordofan and Darfur in Sudan.[32] The male has a soft palate, called dulaa in Arabic, which it inflates to produce a deep pink sac. This palate is often mistaken for the tongue, as it hangs out of the side of the male's mouth to attract females during the mating season. The hairs are arranged in clusters of two to three cover hairs and two to five groups of woolly hair.[33][34] The hump, which can be 20 cm (7.9 in) tall or more, is made up of fat bound together by fibrous tissue.[20] The dromedary has long and powerful legs with two toes on each foot, which resemble flat, leathery pads.[35] Dromedaries move both legs on one side of the body at the same time, like the giraffe, which results in a swaying motion. [31]

The dromedary can be distinguished from the Bactrian camel by its lighter build, longer limbs and shorter hairs. The dromedary has a harder palate, and the ethmoidal fissure is small or absent.[36] The dromedary differs from the camelids of the genus Lama (consisting of the guanaco and the llama) in possessing a hump, a longer tail, smaller ears, squarer feet and being more than 1.7 m (5.6 ft) in height. In addition to this, the dromedary has four teats instead of the two in Lama.[20]


Anatomy

Skeleton
Skeleton
Body
Body for comparison with skeleton

The cranium of the dromedary consists of a postorbital bar, a tympanic bulla (filled with spongiosa), a pronounced sagittal crest, long facial part, and an indented nasal bone.[37] The pad-shaped feet have two dorsal nails each. The front feet ,19 cm (7.5 in) wide and 18 cm (7.1 in) long, are larger than the hind feet, 17 cm (6.7 in) wide and 16 cm (6.3 in) long.[35] Typically, there are eight sternal and four asternal pairs of ribs.[32] The spinal cord, nearly 214 cm (84 in) long, terminates in the second and third sacral vertebra.[38] The fibula is reduced to a malleolar bone similar to a tarsal. The dromedary is a digitigrade animal as it walks on its toes or digits.b The dromedary lacks the second and fifth digits.[39]

The dromedary has 22 milk teeth, which are eventually replaced by 34 permanent teeth. The dental formula for permanent dentition is 1.1.3.33.1.2.3, while for the deciduous dentition it is 1.1.33.1.2.[40] The juvenile develops the lower first molars by 12-15 months, but the permanent lower incisors appear only at 4.5 to 6.5 years of age. All teeth are in use by the age of eight years.[41] The lenses of their eyes contain crystallin, which constitutes 8-13% of the total protein present there.[42]

The epidermis is 0.038–0.064 mm (0.0015–0.0025 in) thick, and the dermis is 2.2–4.7 mm (0.087–0.185 in) thick.[43] Though glands are absent on the face, males have glands 5–6 cm (2.0–2.4 in) below the neck crest, on either side of the midline of the neck. These seem to be modified apocrine sweat glands which secrete a pungent, coffee-coloured fluid during rut. The weight of these glands generally increases during the rut, ranging from 20 to 115 g (0.71 to 4.06 oz).[44] Each cover hair of the camel is associated with a separate hair follicle and a ring of sebaceous glands, a tubular sweat gland and an arrector pilli muscle.[33] The females have cone-shaped mammary glands, which are 2.4 cm (0.94 in) in length and 1.5 cm (0.59 in)in diameter at the base. The mammary gland is four-chambered and divided into a left and a right half by an intermammary ridge.[45] They can continue to lactate even during dehydration, with the water content exceeding 90%.[20]

The heart weighs 5 kg (11 lb), and has two ventricles with the apex curving to the left. Its pulse rate is 50 beats per minute. The normal blood volume is 0.093 L (0.020 imp gal).[46] The pH of the blood varies from 7.1 to 7.6. The state of hydration, sex and season can influence the blood values for an individual.[47] The lungs are not lobed.[32] A dehydrated camel has a lower breathing rate.[48] The kidneys each have a volume of 858 cm3 (52.4 cu in), and can produce urine with high chloride concentrations. It is the only mammal with oval red blood corpuscles, and it lacks a gall bladder. The grayish violet spleen is crescent-shaped, and weighs less than 500 g (18 oz).[49] The liver is divided into four parts and is triangular; the dimensions are 60×42×18 cm (23.6×16.5×7.1 in) and has a mass of 6.5 kg (14 lb).

The ovaries, present in females, are reddish in colour, circular, and flattened.[50] They are enclosed in a conical bursa, and have a size of 4×2.5×0.5 cm (1.57×0.98×0.20 in) during anestrus. The oviducts are 25–28 cm (9.8–11.0 in) in length. The uterus is bicornuate. The vagina, 3–3.5 cm (1.2–1.4 in) long, has well-developed Bartholin's glands.[25] The vulva is 3–5 cm (1.2–2.0 in) deep and contains a small clitoris.[40] The placenta is diffuse and epitheliochorial, with a crescent-like chorion.[51] The scrotum, present in males, is located high in the perineum with testicles in separate sacs. Testicles are 7–10 cm (2.8–3.9 in) long, 4.5 cm (1.8 in) deep and 5 cm (2.0 in) in width.[20] The right testicle is often smaller than the left.[17] The typical mass of either testicle is less than 140 g (0.31 lb); however, at the time of rut the mass can range from 165–253 g (0.364–0.558 lb).[20] The prostate gland is dark yellow, usually disc-shaped and divided into two lobes. The Cowper's gland is white, shaped like an almond, and lacks seminal vesicles.[52] The penis is covered by a triangular penile sheath opening backwards,[53] and is about 60 cm (24 in) long.[52]

Health and diseases

File:Mers-virus-3D-image.jpg
3D image of MERS-CoV, of which the dromedary is possibly the animal source

The dromedary generally suffers from fewer diseases than other domestic livestock.[54] Temperature fluctuations occur throughout the day in a healthy dromedary - it is usually minimum at dawn, then rises till sunset and falls during the night.[55] Vomiting may occur if a nervous camel is handled, and need not indicate any disorder.[17]

The dromedary is prone to trypanosomiasis, transmitted by the tsetse fly. The main symptoms are recurring fever, anemia, and weakness, which usually ends with the camel's death.[56] Brucellosis is another disease of dromedaries. In an observational study, the seroprevalence of the disease was usually low (2-5%) in nomadic or loosely confined dromedaries, while it was high (8-15%) in those kept closely together. Brucellosis is caused by different biotypes of Brucella abortus and Brucella melitensis.[57] Other internal parasites include Fasciola gigantica, a trematode (flatworm); two types of cestode (tapeworm), and various nematodes (roundworms). Among external parasites, Sarcoptes species cause sarcoptic mange.[20] In a study in Jordan, 83% of the 32 camels tested positive for sarcoptic mange, and 33% of the 257 examined specimens were seroprevalent for trypanosomiasis.[58] In another study, following the rinderpest outbreak in Ethiopia, dromedaries were found to have natural antibodies against rinderpest virus and ovine rinderpest virus.[59]

In 2013, a seroepidemiological study (a study investigating the patterns, causes and effects of a disease on a specific population based on serologic tests) in Egypt published in the journal of Eurosurveillance first presented the possibility that the dromedary might be a host for the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV).[60] A 2013-14 study of dromedaries in Saudi Arabia revealed the unusual genetic stability of the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) in the dromedary, coupled with its high seroprevalence in the camel, made the dromedary a highly probable host for the virus. The full genome sequence of MERS-CoV from dromedaries in this study showed a 99.9% match to the genomes of human clade B MERS-CoV.[61] Another study in Saudi Arabia revealed the presence of MERS-CoV in 90% of the evaluated dromedary camels, and even suggested that camels could be the animal source of MERS-CoV.[62]

Fleas and ticks are common causes of physical irritation. In a study in Egypt, a species of Hyalomma specific to the dromedary was predominant, comprising 95.6% of the adult ticks isolated from the dromedaries. In Israel, the number of ticks per camel ranged from 20 to 105. Nine camels in the date palm plantations in Arava Valley were injected with ivermectin, but it was not effective against Hyalomma tick infestations.[63] Larvae of Cephalopsis titillator, the camel nasal fly, can cause brain compression and nervous disorders, which might prove fatal. Illnesses that can affect dromedary productivity are pyogenic diseases and wound infections due to Corynebacterium and Streptococcus; pulmonary disorders caused by Pasteurella (like hemorrhagic septicemia), and Rickettsia ; camelpox; anthrax; and cutaneous necrosis due to Streptothrix and dietary salt deficiency.[20]

Ecology

Herd of dromedaries in Israel
Dromedary at Pombia Safari Park, Italy

In summers, the dromedaries, usually diurnal, rest together in closely packed groups. Generally, herds consist of about 20 individuals, led by a dominant male and consisting of several females. Females also lead in turns.[20] Some males either form bachelor groups or roam alone. Groups are not territorial, and form herds of over hundreds of animals, joining other herds during natural calamities and when searching for water. During the breeding season, males become very aggressive, sometimes snapping each other and wrestling, while defending the females with them. The male declares his success in the fight by placing the rival's head between his legs and body. Free-ranging camels face the large predators typical of their regional distribution, which include wolves, lions, tigers, and humans. Camels are often injured or killed by moving vehicles.[35]

Behavior

Some special behavioral features of the camel include snapping at other camels without biting them, showing displeasure by stamping feet, running, and occasionally vomiting cud when hurt or excited. Camels find comfort in scratching parts of their bodies with their front or hind legs or with their lower incisors. They are also seen rubbing against tree bark and rolling in the sand. Their main vocalizations include a sheep-like bleat used to locate individuals and the breeding gurgle of males, while a whistling noise is produced as a threat noise by males by grinding the teeth together.[31] They are not usually aggressive, with the exception of rutting males. The males of the herd prevent their females from interacting with other bachelor males by standing or walking between them and driving other males away. Camels seem to remember their homes; females in particular remember the place they first gave birth or suckled their offspring. They do not defecate in any special posture, and marking behavior is common.[20]

A 1980 study found androgen levels in the blood of males influenced their behavior. Between January and April, when these levels are high due to their being in rut, they become difficult to manage, blow out a palate flap from the mouth, vocalize, and throw urine over their backs with their tails.[64]

Diet

Dromedaries are herbivores.

The diet of the camel mostly consists of foliage, dry grasses, and available desert vegetation, mostly thorny plants growing in the camel's natural habitat.[65] These comprise 70% of their diet in summer and 90% in winter. In the Sahara, 332 plant species have been recorded for the dromedary. The dromedary will feed on Acacia, Atriplex, and Salsola plants whenever available.[20]

They keep their mouths open while chewing thorny food. They use their lips to grasp the food, then chew each bite 40-50 times. Features like long eyelashes, eyebrows, lockable nostrils, caudal opening of the prepuce and a relatively small vulva help the camel avoid injuries, especially while feeding.[65]

Adaptations

Footprint in dry sand

Dromedaries have several adaptations for their desert habitat. Bushy eyebrows, a double row of eyelashes, and the ability to close their nostrils assist in water conservation and prevent sand and dust from entering, even in a sandstorm. Dromedaries can conserve water by fluctuating their body temperature throughout the day from 34.0 to 41.7 °C, which saves water by avoiding perspiration at the rise of the external temperature. The kidneys are specialized so that not much water is excreted. Groups of camels also avoid excess heat from the environment by pressing against each other. The dromedary can tolerate greater than 30% water loss, which is impossible for other mammals. In temperatures of 30-40 °C (86-104 °F), they need water every 10 to 15 days, and only in the hottest temperatures do they take water every four to seven days. They have a very fast rate of rehydration and can drink at the speed of 10–20 L (2.6–5.3 US gal) per minute.[20] Maintaining the brain temperature within certain limits is critical for animals; to assist this, dromedaries have a rete mirabile, a complex of arteries and veins lying very close to each other which uses countercurrent blood flow to cool blood flowing to the brain.[66]

The hump stores up to 80 lb (36 kg) of fat, which a camel can break down into water and energy when sustenance is not available. If the hump is small, the animal can show signs of starvation. In a 2005 study, the mean volume of adipose tissues (in the external part of the hump that have cells to store lipids) is related to the dromedary's unique mechanism of food and water storage.[67] In case of starvation, they can even eat fish and bones, and drink brackish and salty water.[30] The hair is longer at the throat, hump and shoulders. The pads widen under its weight when it steps on the ground.[31][68] This prevents the dromedary from sinking much into the sand. When the dromedary walks, it moves both the feet on the same side of the body at the same time. This way of walking makes the dromedary's body swing from side to side as it walks, hence its nickname: "the ship of the desert". Its thick lips help in eating coarse and thorny plants.

They can adapt their body temperature from 34°C to 41.7°C, to conserve water. They have an average lifespan of 40 years, which may increase to 50 years under captivity.[31]

Reproduction

Mating
Calf suckling

Females reach sexual maturity around three years of age and mate around age four or five. Males begin to mate at around three years of age, too, but still are not sexually mature until six years of age. Mating occurs in winters, but peaks in the rainy season. The onset of the breeding season is believed to be cued by nutritional status of the camel and the daylength.

Dromedaries are induced ovulators.[69] If mating does not occur, the follicle, which grows during estrus, usually regresses within a few days.[70] In one study, 35 complete estrous cycles were observed in five nonpregnant females over a period of 15 months. The cycles were about 28 days long, in which follicles matured in six days, maintained their size for 13 days, and returned to their original size in eight days.[71] In another study, ovulation could be best induced when the follicle reaches a size of 0.9–1.9 cm (0.35–0.75 in).[72] In another study, pregnancy in females could be recognized as early as 40 to 45 days of gestation by the swelling of the left uterine horn, where 99.52% of pregnancies were located.[73]

During the reproductive season, males splash their urine on their tails and nearer regions. Males extrude their soft palate - a trait unique to the dromedary.[74] Copious saliva turns to foam as the male gurgles, covering the mouth.[31] Males threaten each other for dominance over the female by trying to stand taller than the other, making low noises and a series of head movements including lowering, lifting, and bending their necks backwards. A male tries to defeat other males by biting at his legs and taking the opponent's head in between his jaws.[31] Copulation begins with a necking exercise. The male smells the female's genitals, and often bites her in this region or around her hump. The male makes the female sit, and then grasps her with his forelegs. Normally, three to four ejaculations occur. The camelmen often aid the male to enter his penis into the female's vulva, though the male is considered able to do it on his own. Copulation time ranges from 7–35 minutes, averaging 11–15 minutes.[17]

A single calf is born after a gestational period of 15 months. Calves move freely by the end of their first day. Nursing and maternal care continue for one to two years.[31] In a study to find whether young could exist on milk substitutes, two male young camels, one month old, were separated from their mothers and were fed on milk substitutes prepared commercially for lambs. For the initial 30 days, the changes in their weights were marked. Each gained 0.400 kg (0.88 lb) and 1 kg (2.2 lb), respectively, per day. Finally, they were found to have grown properly and weighed normal weights of 135 kg (298 lb) and 145 kg (320 lb).[75] Lactational yield can vary with species, breed, individual, region, diet, management conditions and lactating stage.[76] Maximum milk is produced during the early period of lactation.[17] The length of the lactation period can vary from nine to eighteen months.[77]

Habitat and distribution

Domesticated dromedary camels at the Great Pyramid of Giza, Giza, Egypt
Dromedaries in dunes of Genipabu Beach, (Brazil)

The dromedary inhabits arid regions, notably the Sahara Desert in Africa. The original range of the camel’s wild ancestors was probably southern Asia and the Arabian peninsula. They inhabit the dry, hot regions of northern Africa, Ethiopia, the Near East, and western to central Asia.[78] All African camels are dromedaries, of which 84% occur in Somalia, Ethiopia, Sudan, Djibouti and Kenya,[20] which constitutes 60.1% of the world's whole camel population.[17] In the Horn of Africa, the dromedary can occur as far south as 2°S latitude, where the annual rainfall may be 550 mm (22 in). The dromedary overlaps in distribution with the Bactrian camel in Afghanistan, Pakistan, and southwestern Asia.[79]

The dromedary is generally found in African, Arabian, Indian, and Middle Eastern deserts, domesticated and numbering about 15 million. The dromedary camel is also found in feral populations in northern Australia, where it was introduced in 1840.[80] Attempts had been made to introduce dromedaries into the Caribbean, Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil; some were imported to the western United States in the 1850s and some to Namibia in the early 1900s, but presently they do not exist in any of these areas.[20] Short-term home ranges of feral camels in Australia are 50–150 km2 (19–58 sq mi) in area.[20]

Relationship with humans

Dromedaries at Bait al-Faqih market, Yemen
A camel in the Judean Desert is decorated for a tourist camel ride.

History

Petroglyph of a camel in Negev, southern Israel.

In the ninth or tenth century BCE, the dromedary became popular in the Near East. The Persian invasion of Egypt under Cambyses in 525 BCE introduced domesticated camels to the area. The Persian camels, however, were not particularly suited to trading or travel over the Sahara; journeys across the desert were made on chariots pulled by horses.[81][82]

Woodcut illustration from the book The History of Four-Footed Beasts and Serpents by Edward Topsell.

The popularity of dromedaries got the next major boost after the Islamic conquest of North Africa. While the invasion was accomplished largely on horseback, the new links to the Middle East allowed camels to be imported en masse. These camels were well-suited to long desert journeys and could carry a great deal of cargo, allowing substantial trade over the Sahara for the first time.[83][84] In Libya, they were used for transportation within the country, and their milk and meat constituted the local diet.[85]

In 1840, about six camels were shipped from Tenerife to Adelaide, but only one survived through the trip, reaching the destination on October 12 that year. The animal, a male, was called Harry and was owned by the explorer John Ainsworth Horrocks. Although Harry had proved to be bad-tempered, he was included in an expedition in the following year because of he could carry heavy loads. The next major group of camels were imported in 1860 and between 1860 and 1907 some 10 to 12 thousand were imported. These were used mainly for riding and transportation.[86] An estimated 300.000 feral camels now live in Australia.[86]

Domestication

Dromedaries were first domesticated in central or southern Arabia around 4000 years ago. Today, almost 13 million domesticated dromedaries exist, found mainly from western India via Pakistan through Iran to north Africa.[87][88]

Dromedaries are used as beasts of burden across most of their domesticated range, and commonly referred to as "ships of the desert". Their strength and docility make them a popular choice for riding, transport and agricultural purposes.[17] However, the main attraction these animals have for nomadic groups in deserts is the wide variety of resources they provide them with, which is is crucial for their survival and also holds much economic significance. For instance, the camel is the backbone for several Bedouin pastoralist tribes of northern Arabia, such as the Ruwallah, Shammar and Mutayr.[89] As summarised by Bulliet, the camel can be used for a wide variety of purposes: milking, riding, transport, feeding (on their meat), ploughing, trading and clothing (using their wool and leather).[28]

Dromedaries can be trained to bear loads from five years of age, but must not be given a heavy load until six years old. Camels are usually patient animals, easier to train and tougher than cattle. They can also be used to pull carts, plows, and draw wheels. A dromedary can plough at a speed of 2.5 km/h (1.6 mph), but must not be worked for more than six hours a day. Their hair is durable and light, and thus used as a source material for woven goods, ranging from Bedouin tents to garments. The hair is clipped off using hand shears, or sometimes simply pulled, after which the camel's body is oiled. Juveniles less than two years of age have a fine undercoat, which is also used for these purposes.[17]

Dairy products

Dromedary being milked in Niger
Main article: Camel milk

Camel milk is a staple food of nomadic tribes living in deserts. According to a study, it consists of 11.7% total solids, 3% protein, 3.6% fat, 0.8% ash, 4.4% lactose, and 0.13% acidity (pH 6.5). The quantities of sodium, potassium, zinc, iron, copper, manganese, niacin and vitamin C were relatively higher than the amounts in cow milk. However, the levels of thiamin, riboflavin, folacin, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, vitamin A, lysine, and tryptophan were lower than those in cow milk. The molar percentages of the fatty acids in milk fat were 26.7% for palmitic acid, 25.5% oleic acid, 11.4% myristic acid, and 11% palmitoleic acid.[90] The milk is rich in water and mineral contents.[91] Camel milk has higher thermal stability compared to cow's milk.[92] It does not compare favourably with sheep milk.[17]

Daily yield generally varies from 3.5 to 35 kg (7.7 to 77.2 lb) and from 1.3% to 7.8% of the body weight.[93] Amount of milk yield in dromedaries varies geographically, and depends upon their diet and living conditions.[17] At the peak of lactation, a healthy female would typically provide 9 kg (20 lb) milk per day.[26] Leese estimated that a lactating female would yield 4 to 9 L (0.88 to 1.98 imp gal) besides the amount ingested by the calf.[32] The Pakistani dromedary, considered a better milker and bigger, can yield 9.1–14.1 kg (20–31 lb) when well fed.[94] Dromedaries in Somalia may be milked two to four times a day,[77] while those in Afar (Ethiopia) may be milked as many as six or seven times a day.[95]

Dromedary milk was studied to find if it could form curd. Milk coagulation did not show actual curd formation, and had a pH of 4.4. It was much different from the curd produced from cow milk, and had a fragile heterogeneous composition probably composed of casein flakes.[96] Nevertheless, cheese (even hard cheese) and other dairy products can be made out of the camel's milk. A special factory has been set up in Nouakchott to pasteurize and make cheese out of camel's milk.[97]

Meat

Meat of dromedary served as food

Dromedary meat is composed of 78% water, 19% protein, 3% fat, and 1.2% ash. The carcass is composed of 57% muscle, 26% bone, and 17% fat. Seven to eight-year-old camels can produce a carcass of weight of 125–400 kg (276–882 lb). The meat is a raspberry red to a dark brown or maroon, while the fat is white in colour. It tastes like beef and has the same texture.[98] A study of the meat of Iranian dromedaries revealed its high glycogen content, due to which it was sweet like horse meat. The carcass of well fed camels was found to be covered with a thin layer of good quality fat.[99] Camel meat, however, is rarely consumed by camel herders in Africa, who use it only during severe food scarcity, or for rituals.[17] Camel meat is processed into food items such as burgers, patties, sausages, and shawarma.[98] Dromedaries mature slowly, and can be slaughtered between four and ten years of age. As the age of the animal increases, the meat grows tougher and becomes less tasty and the quality becomes inferior.[17]

In a study of the fatty acid composition of raw meat taken from the hind legs of seven young males (one to three years old), 51.5% were saturated fatty acids, 29.9% were monounsaturated, and 18.6% were polyunsaturated fatty acids, in chains. The major fatty acids in the meat were palmitic acid (26.0%), oleic acid (18.9%), and linoleic acid (12.1%). In the hump, palmitic acid was dominant (34.4%), followed by oleic acid (28.2%), myristic acid (10.3%), and stearic acid (10%).[100]

A 2005 report, issued jointly by the Saudi Ministry of Health and the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, details five cases of bubonic plague in humans, resulting from the ingestion of raw camel liver. Four of the five patients had severe pharyngitis and submandibular lymphadenitis. Yersinia pestis was isolated from the camel's bone marrow, as well as from the jird (Meriones libycus) and also from fleas (Xenopsylla cheopis) captured at the camel's corral.[101]

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