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'''Ethnic violence in South Sudan''' has a long history among [[South Sudan]]'s varied [[Demographics of South Sudan#Ethnic groups|ethnic groups]]. South Sudan has 64 tribes<ref name=guardian1215/> with the largest being the [[Dinka people|Dinka]]s, who constitute about 35% of the population<ref name=cia>{{CIA World Factbook link|od|South Sudan}}</ref> and predominate in government. The second largest are the [[Nuer people|Nuer]]s. Conflict is often aggravated among nomadic groups over the issue of cattle and grazing land and is part of the wider [[Sudanese nomadic conflicts]].
'''Ethnic violence in South Sudan''' has a long history among [[South Sudan]]'s varied [[Demographics of South Sudan#Ethnic groups|ethnic groups]]. South Sudan has 64 tribes<ref name=guardian1215/> with the largest being the [[Dinka people|Dinka]]s, who constitute about 35% of the population<ref name=cia>{{CIA World Factbook link|od|South Sudan}}</ref> and predominate in government. The second largest are the [[Nuer people|Nuer]]s. Conflict is often aggravated among nomadic groups over the issue of cattle and grazing land and is part of the wider [[Sudanese nomadic conflicts]].


In 2010, [[Dennis C. Blair|Dennis Blair]], then United States [[Director of National Intelligence]], issued a warning that "over the next five years,...a new mass killing or genocide is most likely to occur in southern Sudan."<ref name=Abramowitz>{{cite news | last = Abramowitz | first = Michael |author2=Lawrence Woocher | title = How Genocide Became a National Security Threat | work = Foreign Policy | accessdate = 2013-02-12 | date = 2010-02-26| url = http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2010/02/26/how_genocide_became_a_national_security_threat }}</ref><ref name=aljazeera>{{cite news |title=Sudan: Transcending tribe |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/photo_galleries/africa/201111010324526960.html |work=[[Al Jazeera English]] |accessdate=30 April 2011| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110317113359/http://english.aljazeera.net//photo_galleries/africa/201111010324526960.html| archivedate= 17 March 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref>
In 2010, [[Dennis C. Blair|Dennis Blair]], then United States [[Director of National Intelligence]], issued a warning that "over the next five years,...a new mass killing or genocide is most likely to occur in southern Sudan."<ref name=Abramowitz>{{cite news | last = Abramowitz | first = Michael |author2=Lawrence Woocher | title = How Genocide Became a National Security Threat | work = Foreign Policy | accessdate = 2013-02-12 | date = 2010-02-26| url = http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2010/02/26/how_genocide_became_a_national_security_threat }}</ref><ref name=aljazeera>{{cite news|title=Sudan: Transcending tribe |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/photo_galleries/africa/201111010324526960.html |work=[[Al Jazeera English]] |accessdate=30 April 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110317113359/http://english.aljazeera.net//photo_galleries/africa/201111010324526960.html |archivedate=17 March 2011 |deadurl=yes |df=dmy }}</ref>


== Background ==
== Background ==
Line 115: Line 115:


===South Sudanese Civil War===
===South Sudanese Civil War===
During the South Sudanese Civil War, the Dinka dominated SPLA recruited militias and young men from the [[Jikany Nuer]] and Bul Nuer in Unity state to take back areas held by the Nuer dominated SPLM-IO.<ref>{{cite news|last=McNeish|first=Hannah|title=South Sudan:women and girls raped as 'wages' for government-allied fighters|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2015/sep/28/south-sudan-women-girls-raped-as-wages-for-government-allied-fighters|accessdate=13 December 2016|newspaper=The Guardian|date=28 September 2015}}{{dead link|date=November 2015}}</ref>
During the South Sudanese Civil War, the Dinka dominated SPLA recruited militias and young men from the [[Jikany Nuer]] and Bul Nuer in Unity state to take back areas held by the Nuer dominated SPLM-IO.<ref>{{cite news|last=McNeish |first=Hannah |title=South Sudan:women and girls raped as 'wages' for government-allied fighters |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2015/sep/28/south-sudan-women-girls-raped-as-wages-for-government-allied-fighters |accessdate=13 December 2016 |newspaper=The Guardian |date=28 September 2015 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221084603/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2015/sep/28/south-sudan-women-girls-raped-as-wages-for-government-allied-fighters |archivedate=21 December 2016 |df=dmy }}</ref>


== See also ==
== See also ==

Revision as of 18:13, 26 December 2016

Ethnic violence in South Sudan has a long history among South Sudan's varied ethnic groups. South Sudan has 64 tribes[1] with the largest being the Dinkas, who constitute about 35% of the population[2] and predominate in government. The second largest are the Nuers. Conflict is often aggravated among nomadic groups over the issue of cattle and grazing land and is part of the wider Sudanese nomadic conflicts.

In 2010, Dennis Blair, then United States Director of National Intelligence, issued a warning that "over the next five years,...a new mass killing or genocide is most likely to occur in southern Sudan."[3][4]

Background

Nomadic raiding

See also: Sudanese nomadic conflicts and Cattle raiding

Those from the Murle and the Lou Nuer are largely nomadic cattle herders. Cattle are used as food and are used as a store of wealth. It takes 20 cows to buy a bride, if a young man hopes to marry, which encourages to cattle raiding. Violence between the two groups go back generations, exacerbated by tensions over land and water. The attacks often target an entire village, burning them in their round thatched huts. Militias frequently abduct children during cattle raids, who are then raised as their own. This is seen as a method, notably among the Murle, to increase the numbers of the small minority group. In past generations, attacks used machetes and sticks. However, after decades of civil war, the region is awash with guns, and young men are now armed with high-powered weapons.[5]

South Sudan Democratic Movement

The South Sudan Democratic Movement (SSDM) is a rebel group founded in 2010 by George Athor after he lost a contested election. The group also incorporates and supports other factions as part of a broad coalition of those who complain of neglect by the Dinka dominated SPLA. This notably includes those composed of ethnic minorities such as the Murle people who lead the Cobra faction and the Shilluk people who lead the Upper Nile Faction.

Murle-Nuer fighting

Uror Massacre (2011)

On 18 August 2011, an attack in Uror County, northern Jonglei was reportedly launched by Murle tribesmen after armed groups infiltrated into the Peiri and Pulchuol Districts (Payams) at about 5 a.m. The attack is believed to have been a revenge operation against the Lou Nuer tribe after an attack on the Murle the previous June in Pibor County. At least 640 people were killed and the attackers burned down over 3,400 houses and the hospital ran by Médecins Sans Frontières. An initial estimate showed that 38,000 heads of cattle were stolen and 208 children were kidnapped.[6]

Pibor massacre (2011-2012)

Nuer White Army flag
Main article: Pibor massacre

By 25 December 2011, the Nuer White Army released a statement stating its intent to "wipe out the entire Murle tribe on the face of the earth as the only solution to guarantee long-term security of Nuer’s cattle" and attack United Nations and SPLA personnel if they interfered.[7] The United Nations Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS) deployed peacekeepers to Pibor on 30 December in an effort to avert an attack by 6,000 armed Lou Nuer youths. United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon and UNMISS head Hilde Johnson called on Lou Nuer and Murle fighters alike to lay down their arms and allow the government of South Sudan to work with them toward a lasting solution to the crisis.[8] Activists, including Minority Rights Group International, warned of genocide in the conflict.[9]

At 3 pm on 31 December between 3–6,000 Lou Nuer tribesmen attacked a part of Pibor not protected by the UN peacekeepers.[10][11] Houses were reported to have been set on fire and much of the town, including the airport and main hospital, were occupied.[10] The Lou Nuer were said to have pursued members of the Murle who were fleeing southwards.[12] The South Sudanese government promised to send more army personnel and 2,000 police to the town to reinforce the 800 troops already there.[12][13] The healthcare charity Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) said that it lost contact with 130 of its staff who were forced to flee into the bush due to the attack.[12] MSF said that a hospital and two outreach clinics were overrun, with some reports stating that the hospital had been set on fire.[14] Looting was said to have taken place at MSF facilities.[14]

By 2 January, the majority of the Lou Nuer forces were said to have left Pibor and started to move to the southeast with a UN spokesman saying they were "almost certainly looking for cattle".[15] The UN said that it had successfully held the main part of Pibor alongside South Sudanese army troops.[15] The UN was advising people in the area to "disperse into the bush for their safety".[15] Estimates for the number of displaced ranged up to 50,000, and more than 30 were killed with as many as 80 left injured. The SPLA dispatched 3,000 soldiers and 800 police to support the government's garrison in Pibor.[16] On 5 January, Joshua Konyi, the commissioner of Pibor County and a Murle, estimated that 2,182 women and children and 959 men were killed, 1,293 children were abducted, and 375,186 cows were stolen.[17] The United Nations estimated a total death toll of 900 between December 2011 and February 2012 as a result of the Nuer-Murle clashes, prior to the South Sudanese government's disarmament campaign in March.[18][19]

Gambela raid (2016)

On 15 April 2016, Murle fighters in South Sudan crossed over to the Gambela Region in Ethiopia and killed at least 208 people, stole 2000 cattle and kidnapped at least 108 women and children from the Nuer tribe.[20][21] Ethiopian troops killed about 60 gunmen and crossed over the border with the South Sudanese government's permission to track the kidnappers in what some felt is the spilling over of fighting into Ethiopia.[22]

Shilluk-Dinka fighting

Shilluk disarmament campaign (2010)

Many from the Shilluk people contend that the Dinka as well as the Dinka and Nuer soldiers from the Sudan People’s Liberation Army committed abuses in an attempt to disarm them in the summer of 2010. The SPLA burned scores of villages, raped hundreds of women and girls and killed an untold number of civilians in the Shilluk Kingdom.[4] Over 10,000 people were displaced in the midst of the rainy season and sent fleeing into the forest, often naked, without bedding, shelter or food, with many children dying from hunger and cold. Civilians alleging torture by the SPLA claim fingernails being torn out, burning plastic bags dripped on children to make their parents hand over weapons and villagers burned alive in their huts if rebels were suspected of spending the night there. The United Nations Human Rights Council reported many of these violations, and the frustrated director of one Juba-based international aid agency called them "human rights abuses off the Richter scale".[4]

Agwelek forces rebellion

John Uliny from the Shilluk people lead the Upper Nile faction of the South Sudan Democratic Movement in rebellion. In March 2011, in clashes between the Uliny's Upper Nile faction and the SPLA North of Malakal, the SSDM claimed that the SPLA killed 168 civilians and named six villages that they the SPLA burned down.[23] Human Rights Watch later confirmed that over 60 ethnic Shilluk were killed, and more than 7,000 displaced. The official United Nations report counted 62 dead, 70 injured and 7,625 displaced, but how many people were actually killed is unknown.[24]

Uliny entered into peace talks and accepted an amnesty by the government in 2013. However, during the civil war, after Kiir's floated the idea of carving new states which would give Kiir's Dinkas strong majorities and which the Shilluk felt would carve up their homeland, Uliny switched sides to fight with SPLO-IO in April 2015.[25] His forces were now known as the "Agwelek" army. On 16 May 2015, the Agwelek forces and elements of the SPLM-IO captured Upper Nile's capital, Malakal, as well as Anakdiar and areas around Fashoda.[26] The group said they want to run their affairs independently from others in Upper Nile State, and SPLM-IO backed away from claims that it is in charge of Olony's group and stated that Olony's interests simply coincides with theirs.[27] SPLM-IO said they understood the feeling from the Shilluk community that they wanted a level of independence and that that was the reason the SPLM-IO last year created Fashoda state for the Shilluk kingdom and appointed Tijwog Aguet, a Shilluk, as governor.[28]

During the civil war, those sheltering in the United Nations' "protection of civilian" (POC) sites are sometimes divided by ethnic groups to prevent fighting. In February 2016, fighting between Shilluk and Dinka youths at a POC site killed 18 people, including two Médecins Sans Frontières staff.[29]

Tiger Forces rebellion (2015-present)

As the predominantly Shilluk Agwelek forces joined, in July 2016, with the SPLM-IO, which entered the peace agreement with the government, some Shilluk felt dissatisfied. After the establishment of the new states, a new group made up of mostly Shilluk formed the "Tiger Faction New Forces" (TFNF), led by General Yoanes Okij, alleging that the new states gives power over Shilluk lands to the Dinka.[30] They rejected joining the SPLM-IO or the peace agreement and called the for restoration of the original 1956 borders of the Shilluk territories.[31]

Murle-Dinka fighting

Sudanese Civil Wars

As early as 1963, during the First Sudanese Civil War, Khartoum began arming the Murle tribe, traditional enemies of both Dinka and Nuer, to fight the southern rebellion. Sometimes, whole tribal territories became affiliated with one side or the other, and the vicious north-south war became a defining factor in relations between tribes, infusing old hostilities with a new, political dimension. With the peace deal in 2005, tribal militias chose to either be absorbed into the SPLA or head north and join the armed forces there. Most chose to join their former SPLA enemies as a matter of survival. Others, like fighters from the Murle tribe, chose to join the northern army. Today, there are many Murle army officers in Khartoum, and they say the tribe is being punished for that.[4]

Cobra faction rebellion

The Greater Pibor Administrative Area (highlighted) created as part of a peace agreement between the government and the largely Murle rebel group, the Cobra Faction, in 2014.
The flag of the Murle dominated Cobra Faction; a splinter of the wider SSDA, led by David Yau Yau and then by Khalid Boutros.

David Yau Yau, led a Murle dominated faction of the South Sudan Democratic Movement (SSDM) known as the Cobra faction against the government in 2010. He signed a ceasefire with the GoSS in June 2011, which integrated him and his militia with the SPLA. However, he defected again in April 2012 citing SPLA abuses in Pibor county in the March–October 2012 disarmament campaign and now claimed to be fighting for a separate state for the Murle.[32] During the Civil War in January 2014, the government signed a peace agreement called the Greater Pibor Administrative Area peace agreement with the Cobra Faction which created in May that year the semi-autonomous area called the Greater Pibor Administrative Area (GPAA) to increase the minority populations within its borders and David Yau Yau was appointed chief administrator, equivalent to state governor.[33][34] Not all Cobra faction general were satisfied and a splinter group called the Greater Pibor Forces formed alleging that the SPLM were inciting the Murle to attack the Lou Nuer as a form of divide and rule. Further, on Christmas Eve 2015, Salvar Kiir announced an increase in the number of states from 10 to 28 and then, five days later, swore in all new governors appointed by him.[25] The new borders give Kiir's Dinkas a majority in strategic locations.[25] This replaced the GPAA with Boma State and replaced Yau Yau with Baba Medan Konya, angering the Cobra faction. In September 2016, the Cobra faction, now led by Khalid Boutros declared war against the government.[35]

Dinka-Nuer fighting

Second Sudanese Civil War

During the Second Sudanese Civil War, several factions split from the SPLA often along ethnic lines and were funded and armed by Khartoum.[36] The most notable was SPLA-Nasir founded in 1991 by Riek Machar as an attempt by the Nuer to replace John Garang.

The South Sudan Liberation Movement (SSLA) was formed in 1999 as a Nuer dominated faction in the Civil War.

Bor massacre (1991)

Main article: Bor massacre

As a result of the infighting, more southerners died at each other's hands than were killed by northerners during the war.[36] In the Bor massacre in 1991, an estimated 2000 civilians were killed by SPLA-Nasir and the Nuer White Army and another estimated 25,000 died from the resulting famine in the following years.[37]

South Sudanese Civil War

SSLM flag

In April 2011, The SSLA, now led by Peter Gadet, announces its formation as a rebel army fighting against the main SPLA forces.[38] In 2011, SSLA clash with tribal cattle herders in Warrap State, south of Abyei. Southern authorities accuse the rebels of being backed by al-Bashir's Khartoum government, and say that the rebels are mobilizing the Misseriya against the SPLA in Unity State.[38]

In 2013, after a year of escalating changes in government and in the party, including the dismissal of Vice-President Riek Machar and the entire cabinet in June, fighting between Nuer and Dinka SPLA soldiers broke out in Juba on December, igniting the South Sudanese Civil War. A rebellion rapidly spread around the country, with defected troops loyal to Machar and the SSLA taking over Bentiu, Malakal and Bor.[39][40] Immediately after the initial mutiny, eyewitness accounts also cite SPLM Dinka troops assisted by guides in house to house searches to Nuer homes and killing civilians in Juba.[41] Similar door to door searches of members of the Nuer ethnicity have been reported in the government held capital city of the Upper Nile State, Malakal.[42]

Bentiu massacre (2014)

Main article: 2014 Bentiu massacre

During the South Sudanese Civil War, forces identified by the UN as SPLM-IO massacred about 200 mostly non-Nuer civilians in April 2014.

Fertit-Dinka fighitng

File:Catholic Cathedral in Wau, South Sudan.jpg
The Catholic Cathedral of Wau town, where many Fertit sought protection during the clashes.

Second Sudanese Civil War

See also: 1998 Sudan famine

During the Second Sudanese Civil War, many from the non-Dinka, non-Luo and non-Arab Fertit, which refers to the various Bantu groups in the Bahr el Ghazal region such as the Banda and Binga,[43] fought on behalf of the central government in Khartoum against the SPLA.[44] Fertit militias often attacked Dinka civilians, with the police force in Wau, composed of Dinkas, fighting for the Dinka.[45]

Another group traditionally inhabiting the Bahr El Ghazal are the Jur people. In March 2011, a clash between Dinka pastoralists of Lakes State[46] and Jur farmers from Western Equatoria over land issues left 7 people dead and 5 injured. This happened following a similar clash over pasture that killed 10 people the previous month.[47] The two communities signed a memorandum of understanding in September 2011.

South Sudanese Civil War

See also: 2016 Wau clashes

In 2016, about a year after the Compromise Peace Agreement was signed, groups of ethnic Dinka youth and the SPLA targeted members of the Fertit in Wau, killing dozens and forcing more than 120,000 to flee their homes.[48]

Equatorians-Dinka fighting

South Sudanese Civil War

See also: Arrow Boys

After the Compromise Peace Agreement, some observers felt that the government was holding on to the peace deal to maintain international aid while backing campaigns to increase Dinka control over land and resources traditionally held by other groups. In Western Equatoria, After Dinka cattle herders, allegedly backed by the SPLA, occupied farmland, Zande youth rose up into armed groups, notably the Arrow Boys.[1]

For most of the South Sudanese Civil War, the fighting was focused in the Greater Upper Nile region. After the clashes in Juba in 2016, the fighting largely shifted to the previously safe haven of Equatoria, where the bulk of SPLM-IO forces went for shelter.[49] Accounts point to both sides targeting civilians on ethnic lines between the Dinka and the dozens of ethnic groups among the Equatorians who are historically in conflict with the Dinka, such as the Karo, who include the Bari.[50] Witnesses report Dinka soldiers threatening villagers that they will kill all Kakwa, another Karo people, for their alleged support to Machar and killing Pojulu people while sparing those who they find can speak Dinka.[51] A UN investigation said rape was being used a tool of ethnic cleansing[52] and Adama Dieng, the U.N.'s Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide, warned of genocide after visiting areas of fighting in Yei.[53]

Among the refugees fleeing the violence are a few Dinkas as well and they faced violence among Equatorians in the refugee camps as retribution.[51]

Dinka-Arab fighting

See also: Abyei

In January 2011, clashes between nomadic Misseriya Arabs and the Dinka people killed 'dozens' in Abyei preceding the independence referendum. A source of tension was reportedly the delay in holding a separate referendum for the Abyei region. The Dinkas largely supported South Sudan's independence during the Second Sudanese Civil War.[54] In February,at a market in Abyei, three people are killed and 300 sought refuge in a United Nations (UNMIS) mission compound.[54] In the same month, in Todach, Abyei, ten people died when armed militias stormed a police post. Southern Sudan officials reported some of the attackers were Misseriya, but claimed the attack itself was connected to a Khartoum government-sponsored militia. In March, another militia attack in an Abyei town kills 30 people, as militia burned hundreds of dwellings and close to 25,000 people flee the town in Abyei, migrating south.[54] The United Nations then sent in 100 peacekeepers.[55] The armed forces of northern and southern Sudan deployed heavy weapons to the region.[55] In April, Sudan's president, Omar al-Bashir, issued a statement saying he will not accept South Sudan's independence as voted in the January referendum unless the north takes control over the oil-rich Abyei region. A draft proposal from the south claims Abyei.[55] In May, Sudan's tanks enter Abyei, in an attempt to clear out southern forces. The UN, US and UK condemn this move.[55] By the end of the month, the African Union discloses a tentative agreement is reached, establishing a preliminary 20-kilometre ceasefire line and demilitarized region in Abyei.[56] By June, the UN reports that 146,000 people had been displaced in the Abyei region, on the disputed border zone.[57]

Inter-Dinka fighting

In March 2011, an armed clash over a land dispute in Twic East County, Jonglei between members of the Ayual and Dachuek Dinka, killed 22 people, including one SPLA officer.[58]

Inter-Nuer fighting

Second Sudanese Civil War

See also: 2009 Sobat River ambush

During the Second Sudanese Civil War, The Luo Nuer and the Jikany Nuer were in open confict, particular around Nasir in Nasir County, from the SPLA split in 1994 to around the end of the war in 2004.[59]

South Sudanese Civil War

During the South Sudanese Civil War, the Dinka dominated SPLA recruited militias and young men from the Jikany Nuer and Bul Nuer in Unity state to take back areas held by the Nuer dominated SPLM-IO.[60]

See also

References

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  51. ^ a b "US seeks sanctions on South Sudan rebel leader, army chief". washington post. 19 November 2016.
  52. ^ "UN:Rape used as a tool of ethnic cleansing in South Sudan". CBS news. 2 December 2016.
  53. ^ "Hatred spills beyond South Sudan along with refugees". Reuters. 15 December 2016.
  54. ^ a b c IRIN, AllAfrica (18 March 2011). "Sudan: Timeline Since the Referendum". allAfrica.com. Retrieved 2 January 2012.
  55. ^ a b c d Cutler, David (23 May 2011). "Timeline: Sudan's disputed Abyei region". Reuters. Retrieved 7 January 2012.
  56. ^ Gettleman, Jeffrey; Josh Kron (31 May 2011). "North and South Sudan Tentatively Agree to Demilitarize Disputed Border". The New York Times. Retrieved 7 January 2012.
  57. ^ Mazen, Maram (17 June 2011). "Sudan's Abyei Clashes Displace 113,000 People, UN Reports". BusinessWeek. Retrieved 7 January 2012.[dead link]
  58. ^ AFP, Khartoum (5 March 2011). "'22 killed in south Sudan land dispute'". The Hindustan Times. Archived from the original on 21 October 2012. Retrieved 5 January 2012. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  59. ^ Small Arms Survey (2010). Small Arms Survey 2010: Gangs, Groups, and Guns. Cambridge University Press. p. 288. ISBN 0-521-14684-4. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  60. ^ McNeish, Hannah (28 September 2015). "South Sudan:women and girls raped as 'wages' for government-allied fighters". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 21 December 2016. Retrieved 13 December 2016. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
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