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Linux range of use

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Besides the Linux distributions designed for general-purpose use on desktops and servers, distributions may be specialized for different purposes including computer architecture support, embedded systems, stability, security, localization to a specific region or language, targeting of specific user groups, support for real-time applications, or commitment to a given desktop environment. Furthermore, some distributions deliberately include only free software. As of 2015, over four hundred Linux distributions are actively developed, with about a dozen distributions being most popular for general-purpose use.[1]

Desktop

Visible software components of the Linux desktop stack include the display server, widget engines, and some of the more widespread widget toolkits. There are also components not directly visible to end-users, including D-Bus and PulseAudio.
See also: Desktop environment, Linux adoption: Measuring desktop adoption, and Criticism of desktop Linux

The popularity of Linux on standard desktop computers and laptops has been increasing over the years.[2] Most modern distributions include a graphical user environment, with, as of February 2015, the three most popular environments being the KDE Plasma Desktop, Xfce and GNOME.[3][4][5]

No single official Linux desktop exists: rather desktop environments and Linux distributions select components from a pool of free and open-source software with which they construct a GUI implementing some more or less strict design guide. GNOME, for example, has its human interface guidelines as a design guide, which gives the human–machine interface an important role, not just when doing the graphical design, but also when considering people with disabilities, and even when focusing on security.[6]

The collaborative nature of free software development allows distributed teams to perform language localization of some Linux distributions for use in locales where localizing proprietary systems would not be cost-effective. For example, the Sinhalese language version of the Knoppix distribution became available significantly before Microsoft translated Windows XP into Sinhalese.[7] In this case the Lanka Linux User Group played a major part in developing the localized system by combining the knowledge of university professors, linguists, and local developers.

Performance and applications

The performance of Linux on the desktop has been a controversial topic;[8] for example in 2007 Con Kolivas accused the Linux community of favoring performance on servers. He quit Linux kernel development out of frustration with this lack of focus on the desktop, and then gave a "tell all" interview on the topic.[9] Since then a significant amount of development has focused on improving the desktop experience. Projects such as systemd and Upstart (deprecated in 2014) aim for a faster boot time; the Wayland and Mir projects aim at replacing X11 while enhancing desktop performance, security and appearance.[10]

Many popular applications are available for a wide variety of operating systems. For example, Mozilla Firefox, OpenOffice.org/LibreOffice and Blender have downloadable versions for all major operating systems. Furthermore, some applications initially developed for Linux, such as Pidgin, and GIMP, were ported to other operating systems (including Windows and macOS) due to their popularity. In addition, a growing number of proprietary desktop applications are also supported on Linux,[11] such as Autodesk Maya and The Foundry's Nuke in the high-end field of animation and visual effects; see the list of proprietary software for Linux for more details. There are also several companies that have ported their own or other companies' games to Linux, with Linux also being a supported platform on both the Steam and Desura digital-distribution services.[12]

Many other types of applications available for Microsoft Windows and macOS also run on Linux. Commonly, either a free software application will exist which does the functions of an application found on another operating system, or that application will have a version that works on Linux, such as with Skype and some video games like Dota 2 and Team Fortress 2. Furthermore, the Wine project provides a Windows compatibility layer to run unmodified Windows applications on Linux. It is sponsored by commercial interests including CodeWeavers, which produces a commercial version of the software. Since 2009, Google has also provided funding to the Wine project.[13][14] CrossOver, a proprietary solution based on the open-source Wine project, supports running Windows versions of Microsoft Office, Intuit applications such as Quicken and QuickBooks, Adobe Photoshop versions through CS2, and many games such as World of Warcraft. In other cases, where there is no Linux port of some software in areas such as desktop publishing[15] and professional audio,[16][17][18] there is equivalent software available on Linux. It is also possible to run applications written for Android on other versions of Linux using Anbox.

Components and installation

Besides externally visible components, such as X window managers, a non-obvious but quite central role is played by the programs hosted by freedesktop.org, such as D-Bus or PulseAudio; both major desktop environments (GNOME and KDE) include them, each offering graphical front-ends written using the corresponding toolkit (GTK or Qt). A display server is another component, which for the longest time has been communicating in the X11 display server protocol with its clients; prominent software talking X11 includes the X.Org Server and Xlib. Frustration over the cumbersome X11 core protocol, and especially over its numerous extensions, has led to the creation of a new display server protocol, Wayland.

Installing, updating and removing software in Linux is typically done through the use of package managers such as the Synaptic Package Manager, PackageKit, and Yum Extender. While most major Linux distributions have extensive repositories, often containing tens of thousands of packages, not all the software that can run on Linux is available from the official repositories. Alternatively, users can install packages from unofficial repositories, download pre-compiled packages directly from websites, or compile the source code by themselves. All these methods come with different degrees of difficulty; compiling the source code is in general considered a challenging process for new Linux users, but it is hardly needed in modern distributions and is not a method specific to Linux.

Netbooks

Linux distributions have also become popular in the netbook market, with many devices such as the Asus Eee PC and Acer Aspire One shipping with customized Linux distributions installed.[19]

In 2009, Google announced its ChromeOS as a minimal Linux-based operating system, using the Chrome browser as the main user interface. ChromeOS initially did not run any non-web applications, except for the bundled file manager and media player. A certain level of support for Android applications was added in later versions.[20] As of 2018, Google added the ability to install any Linux software in a container,[21] enabling ChromeOS to be used like any other Linux distribution. Netbooks that shipped with the operating system, termed Chromebooks, started appearing on the market in June 2011.[22]

Servers, mainframes and supercomputers

Broad overview of the LAMP software bundle, displayed here together with Squid. A high-performance and high-availability web server solution providing security in a hostile environment.

Linux distributions have long been used as server operating systems, and have risen to prominence in that area; Netcraft reported in September 2006, that eight of the ten (other two with "unknown" OS) most reliable internet hosting companies ran Linux distributions on their web servers,[23] with Linux in the top position. In June 2008, Linux distributions represented five of the top ten, FreeBSD three of ten, and Microsoft two of ten;[24] since February 2010, Linux distributions represented six of the top ten, FreeBSD three of ten, and Microsoft one of ten,[25] with Linux in the top position.

Linux distributions are the cornerstone of the LAMP server-software combination (Linux, Apache, MariaDB/MySQL, Perl/PHP/Python) which is one of the more common platforms for website hosting.[26]

Linux distributions have become increasingly common on mainframes, partly due to pricing and the open-source model.[27] In December 2009, computer giant IBM reported that it would predominantly market and sell mainframe-based Enterprise Linux Server.[28] At LinuxCon North America 2015, IBM announced LinuxONE, a series of mainframes specifically designed to run Linux and open-source software.[29][30]

Linux distributions are also dominant as operating systems for supercomputers.[31] As of November 2017, all supercomputers on the 500 list run some variant of Linux.[32]

Smart devices

Android smartphones
In-car entertainment system of the Tesla Model S is based on Ubuntu.[33][34]

Several operating systems for smart devices, such as smartphones, tablet computers, home automation, smart TVs (Samsung and LG Smart TVs use Tizen and WebOS, respectively),[35] and in-vehicle infotainment (IVI) systems[36] (for example Automotive Grade Linux), are based on Linux. Major platforms for such systems include Android, Firefox OS, Mer and Tizen.

Android has become the dominant mobile operating system for smartphones, running on 79.3% of units sold worldwide during the second quarter of 2013.[37][needs update] Android is also used on tables, smart TVs, and in-vehicle navigation systems.

Although Android is based on a modified version of the Linux kernel, commentators disagree on whether the term "Linux distribution" applies to it, and whether it is "Linux" according to the common usage of the term. Android is a Linux distribution according to the Linux Foundation,[38] Google's open-source chief Chris DiBona,[39] and several journalists.[40][41] Others, such as Google engineer Patrick Brady, say that Android is not Linux in the traditional Unix-like Linux distribution sense; Android does not include the GNU C Library (it uses Bionic as an alternative C library) and some other components typically found in Linux distributions.[42] Ars Technica wrote that "Although Android is built on top of the Linux kernel, the platform has very little in common with the conventional desktop Linux stack".[42]

Cellphones and PDAs running Linux on open-source platforms became more common from 2007; examples include the Nokia N810, Openmoko's Neo1973, and the Motorola ROKR E8. Continuing the trend, Palm (later acquired by HP) produced a new Linux-derived operating system, webOS, which is built into its line of Palm Pre smartphones.

Nokia's Maemo, one of the earliest mobile operating systems, was based on Debian.[43] It was later merged with Intel's Moblin, another Linux-based operating system, to form MeeGo.[44] The project was later terminated in favor of Tizen, an operating system targeted at mobile devices as well as IVI. Tizen is a project within The Linux Foundation. Several Samsung products are already running Tizen, Samsung Gear 2 being the most significant example.[45] Samsung Z smartphones will use Tizen instead of Android.[46]

As a result of MeeGo's termination, the Mer project forked the MeeGo codebase to create a basis for mobile-oriented operating systems.[47] In July 2012, Jolla announced Sailfish OS, their own mobile operating system built upon Mer technology.

The PinePhone running Plasma Mobile on postmarketOS

Mozilla's Firefox OS consists of the Linux kernel, a hardware abstraction layer, a web-standards-based runtime environment and user interface, and an integrated web browser.[48]

Canonical has released Ubuntu Touch, aiming to bring convergence to the user experience on this mobile operating system and its desktop counterpart, Ubuntu. The operating system also provides a full Ubuntu desktop when connected to an external monitor.[49]

The Librem 5 is a smartphone developed by Purism. By default, it runs the company-made Linux-based PureOS, but it can also run other Linux distributions.[50] Like Ubuntu Touch, PureOS is designed with convergence in mind, allowing desktop programs to run on the smartphone. An example of this is the desktop version of Mozilla Firefox.[51]

Another smartphone is the PinePhone, made by the computer manufacturer Pine64. The PinePhone can run a variety of Linux-based operating systems such as Ubuntu Touch and postmarketOS.[52]

Embedded devices

See also: Embedded Linux and Linux devices
A ubiquitous router running on the Linux kernel

Due to its low cost and ease of customization, Linux is often used in embedded systems. In the non-mobile telecommunications equipment sector, the majority of customer-premises equipment (CPE) hardware runs some Linux-based operating system. OpenWrt is a community-driven example upon which many of the OEM firmware releases are based.

For example, the TiVo digital video recorder also uses a customized Linux,[53] as do several network firewalls and routers from such makers as Cisco/Linksys. The Korg OASYS, the Korg KRONOS, the Yamaha Motif XS/Motif XF music workstations,[54] Yamaha S90XS/S70XS, Yamaha MOX6/MOX8 synthesizers, Yamaha Motif-Rack XS tone generator module, and Roland RD-700GX digital piano also run Linux. Linux is also used in stage lighting control systems, such as the WholeHogIII console.[55]

Gaming

Main article: Linux gaming

In the past, there were few games available for Linux. In recent years, more games have been released with support for Linux (especially Indie games), with the exception of a few AAA title games. Android, a mobile platform which uses the Linux kernel, has gained much developer interest and is one of the main platforms for mobile game development along with iOS operating system by Apple for iPhone and iPad devices.

On February 14, 2013, Valve released a Linux version of Steam, a gaming distribution platform on PC.[56] Many Steam games were ported to Linux.[57] On December 13, 2013, Valve released SteamOS, a gaming-oriented OS based on Debian, for beta testing, and had plans to ship Steam Machines as a gaming and entertainment platform.[58] Valve has also developed VOGL, an OpenGL debugger intended to aid video game development,[59] as well as porting its Source game engine to desktop Linux.[60] As a result of Valve's effort, several prominent games such as DotA 2, Team Fortress 2, Portal, Portal 2 and Left 4 Dead 2 are now natively available on desktop Linux.

On July 31, 2013, Nvidia released Shield as an attempt to use Android as a specialized gaming platform.[61]

Some Linux users play Windows-based games using Wine or CrossOver Linux.

Steam Deck, a handheld gaming console running Linux-based operating system

On August 22, 2018, Valve released their own fork of Wine called Proton, aimed at gaming. It features some improvements over the vanilla Wine such as Vulkan-based DirectX 11 and 12 implementations, Steam integration, better full screen and game controller support and improved performance for multi-threaded games.[62]

In 2021, ProtonDB, an online aggregator of games supporting Linux, stated that 78% of the top thousand games on Steam were able to run on Linux using either Proton or a native port.[63]

On February 25, 2022, Valve released Steam Deck, a handheld gaming console running Arch Linux-based operating system SteamOS 3.0.[64][65]

Specialized uses

Due to the flexibility, customizability and free and open-source nature of Linux, it becomes possible to highly tailor Linux towards a specific purpose. There are two main methods to assemble a specialized Linux distribution: building from scratch or from a general-purpose distribution as a base. The distributions often used for this purpose include Debian, Fedora, Ubuntu (which is itself based on Debian), Arch Linux, Gentoo, and Slackware. In contrast, Linux distributions built from scratch do not have general-purpose bases; instead, they focus on the JeOS philosophy by including only necessary components and avoiding resource overhead caused by components considered redundant in the distribution's use cases.

Home theater PC

A home theater PC (HTPC) is a PC that is mainly used as an entertainment system, especially a home theater system. It is normally connected to a television, and often an additional audio system.

OpenELEC, a Linux distribution that incorporates the media center software Kodi, is an OS tuned specifically for an HTPC. Having been built from the ground up adhering to the JeOS principle, the OS is very lightweight and very suitable for the confined usage range of an HTPC.

There are also special editions of Linux distributions that include the MythTV media center software, such as Mythbuntu, a special edition of Ubuntu.

Digital security

Kali Linux is a Debian-based Linux distribution designed for digital forensics and penetration testing. It comes preinstalled with several software applications for penetration testing and identifying security exploits.[66] The Ubuntu derivative BackBox provides pre-installed security and network analysis tools for ethical hacking.
The Arch-based BlackArch includes over 2100 tools for pentesting and security researching.[67]

There are many Linux distributions created with privacy, secrecy, network anonymity and information security in mind, including Tails, Tin Hat Linux and Tinfoil Hat Linux. Lightweight Portable Security is a distribution based on Arch Linux and developed by the United States Department of Defense. Tor-ramdisk is a minimal distribution created solely to host the network anonymity software Tor.

System rescue

Linux Live CD sessions have long been used as a tool for recovering data from a broken computer system and for repairing the system. Building upon that idea, several Linux distributions tailored for this purpose have emerged, most of which use GParted as a partition editor, with additional data recovery and system repair software:

In space

SpaceX uses multiple redundant flight computers in a fault-tolerant design in its Falcon 9 rocket. Each Merlin engine is controlled by three voting computers, with two physical processors per computer that constantly check each other's operation. Linux is not inherently fault-tolerant (no operating system is, as it is a function of the whole system including the hardware), but the flight computer software makes it so for its purpose.[68] For flexibility, commercial off-the-shelf parts and system-wide "radiation-tolerant" design are used instead of radiation hardened parts.[68] As of July 2019, SpaceX has conducted over 76 launches of the Falcon 9 since 2010, out of which all but one have successfully delivered their primary payloads to the intended orbit, and has used it to transport astronauts to the International Space Station. The Dragon 2 crew capsule also uses Linux.[69]

Windows was deployed as the operating system on non-mission critical laptops used on the space station, but it was later replaced with Linux. Robonaut 2, the first humanoid robot in space, is also Linux-based.[70]

The Jet Propulsion Laboratory has used Linux for a number of years "to help with projects relating to the construction of unmanned space flight and deep space exploration"; NASA uses Linux in robotics in the Mars rover, and Ubuntu Linux to "save data from satellites".[71]

Education

Linux distributions have been created to provide hands-on experience with coding and source code to students, on devices such as the Raspberry Pi. In addition to producing a practical device, the intention is to show students "how things work under the hood".[72]

The Ubuntu derivatives Edubuntu and The Linux Schools Project, as well as the Debian derivative Skolelinux, provide education-oriented software packages. They also include tools for administering and building school computer labs and computer-based classrooms, such as the Linux Terminal Server Project (LTSP).

Others

Instant WebKiosk and Webconverger are browser-based Linux distributions often used in web kiosks and digital signage. Thinstation is a minimalist distribution designed for thin clients. Rocks Cluster Distribution is tailored for high-performance computing clusters.

There are general-purpose Linux distributions that target a specific audience, such as users of a specific language or geographical area. Such examples include Ubuntu Kylin for Chinese language users and BlankOn targeted at Indonesians. Profession-specific distributions include Ubuntu Studio for media creation and DNALinux for bioinformatics. There is also a Muslim-oriented distribution of the name Sabily that consequently also provides some Islamic tools. Certain organizations use slightly specialized Linux distributions internally, including GendBuntu used by the French National Gendarmerie, Goobuntu used internally by Google, and Astra Linux developed specifically for the Russian army.

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Q1.List the features of linux os.

Linux is an open-source and free operating system whose core component is the Linux kernel. Its design and characteristics are similar to the Unix operating system. For that reason, it is called a Unix-like operating system. It creates a connection between the hardware and the user and executes the applications.

Free Operating System, Open-source operating System, Flexibility ,Customizability ,Stability ,Lightweight , Portability, Graphical User Interface, Multiuser and Multitask support, Well Structure File System, Security , Accessible Update

Q2. What are the various linux distributions.

There are numerous Linux distributions, each with its own unique features, focus, and target audience. Some popular Linux distributions include:

Ubuntu ,Debian , CentOS ,Fedora ,Arch Linux ,openSUSE , Linux Mint ,Elementary OS

Q3.Explain the following llinux commands:

cat: This command is short for "concatenate" and is used to display the contents of one or more files to the standard output

rm: The "rm" command stands for "remove" and is used to delete files or directories from the file system.

mv: This command stands for "move" and is used to move files or directories from one location to another.

cp: The "cp" command stands for "copy" and is used to copy files or directories from one location to another.

mkdir: This command stands for "make directory" and is used to create new directories (folders) in the file system.

cd: The "cd" command stands for "change directory" and is used to change the current working directory in the terminal.

date: This command is used to display or set the system date and time.

time: The "time" command is used to measure the execution time of a command or program.

bc: This command stands for "basic calculator" and is a command-line calculator with support for mathematical expressions and functions.

history: The "history" command is used to display a list of previously executed commands in the terminal session.

Q5.How to create Users in linux.

In Linux, you can create users using the `useradd` command followed by the username. Here's a basic guide to create a user:

1. Open a terminal window.

. Use the `useradd` command followed by the username you want to create. For example, to create a user named "john", you would type:

  sudo useradd john

. Optionally, you can set a password for the new user using the `passwd` command:

  sudo passwd john

  You'll be prompted to enter and confirm the password for the user.

. Once the user is created, you can switch to that user using the `su` command followed by the username:

  su - john

  You'll be prompted to enter the password for the user.

. To switch back to your original user, simply type:

  Exit

Q6.How do you set file permission in linux. Explain with an example.

In Linux, file permissions can be set using the `chmod` command. The `chmod` command allows you to specify permissions for the owner of the file, the group associated with the file, and other users.

Here's how you can set file permissions using `chmod` with an example:

1.   Open a terminal window.

2.   . Use the `chmod` command followed by the permission mode and the filename. The permission mode consists of three digits, each representing the permissions for the owner, group, and others, respectively.

  - The first digit represents the owner's permissions.

  - The second digit represents the group's permissions.

  - The third digit represents the permissions for others.

  Each digit can be calculated by adding the numeric values of the permissions:

   Read (r) = 4 , Write (w) = 2 ,Execute (x) = 1

  For example:

  - `chmod 755 filename` gives the owner full permissions (read, write, execute), and read and execute permissions to the group and others.

  - `chmod 644 filename` gives the owner read and write permissions, and read-only permissions to the group and others.

. Here's a specific example:

  chmod 755 myfile.txt

  This command sets the permissions of the file "myfile.txt" so that the owner has read, write, and execute permissions (7), and the group and others have read and execute permissions (5).

. You can verify the permissions of the file using the `ls -l` command, which will display detailed information about the file, including its permissions.

Q7.What is a package and how to install it in linux.

In Linux, a package is a compressed archive file that contains software, along with metadata such as dependencies, version information, and installation scripts. Packages are used to distribute and install software on Linux systems efficiently.

There are several package management systems used in Linux distributions, such as:

Here's a general overview of how to install a package in Linux using the APT package manager (commonly used in Debian-based distributions like Ubuntu):

Update Package Lists: Before installing a new package, it's a good practice to update the local package lists to ensure you're installing the latest version of the software. You can do this by running:

  sudo apt updat

Search for the Package: If you're not sure about the exact name of the package you want to installE, you can search for it using:

  apt search package_name

Install the Package: Once you've found the package you want to install, you can install it using

  sudo apt install package_name

Replace `package_name` with the name of the package you want to install.

Provide Administrator Privileges: You'll likely need to provide your password to authorize the installation process since you're using the `sudo` command to run the installation with administrative privileges.

Follow On-Screen Instructions: Depending on the package and its dependencies, you may be prompted to confirm the installation or make choices during the installation process. Follow any on-screen instructions to complete the installation.

Verify Installation: Once the installation is complete, you can verify that the package was installed successfully by running:

  dpkg -l | grep package_name

Replace `package_name` with the name of the package you installed. This command will list all installed packages matching the specified name.

Q8.Explain compress and uncompress files in linux os.

In Linux, you can compress and uncompress files using various compression utilities. Two commonly used utilities for this purpose are `gzip` and `gunzip`, which are used to compress and uncompress files respectively using the gzip compression algorithm.

Here's how you can compress and uncompress files using `gzip` and `gunzip`:

Compressing Files with gzip (`gzip`):

Compress a Single File:

  To compress a single file, you can use the `gzip` command followed by the name of the file you want to compress.

  This will compress `file.txt` and create a compressed file named `file.txt.gz`.

Compress Multiple Files:

  You can also compress multiple files at once by providing a list of file names as arguments to the `gzip` command.

Uncompressing Files with gunzip (`gunzip`):

Uncompress a Single File

  To uncompress a single compressed file, you can use the `gunzip` command followed by the name of the compressed file you want to uncompress.

Uncompress Multiple Files:

  Similar to compressing, you can uncompress multiple compressed files at once by providing a list of file names as arguments to the `gunzip` command.

Additionally, you can combine the `tar` command with `gzip` to create compressed archives of directories or multiple files.

  This command will create a compressed archive named `archive.tar.gz` containing the contents of the `directory` directory.

  This command will uncompress and extract the contents of the `archive.tar.gz` compressed archive.

Q9Explain file attributes in linux.

In Linux, file attributes determine various permissions and properties associated with files and directories. These attributes control who can access, modify, or execute a file, as well as other properties such as ownership and timestamps. The main file attributes in Linux are:

Permission Bits:

  Permission bits define who can read, write, or execute a file. There are three types of permission bits: **user**, **group**, and **others**. Each type has three permission settings: **read (r)**, **write (w)**, and **execute (x)**. These permissions are represented by characters in the file's permission string.

Ownership:

  Every file in Linux is associated with an owner and a group. The owner is usually the user who created the file, while the group determines which users belong to a specific group that has access to the file.

Timestamps:

  Every file has three timestamps associated with it:

Access Time (atime)**: The last time the file was accessed.

Modification Time (mtime)**: The last time the file's contents were modified.

Change Time (ctime)**: The last time the file's metadata (permissions, ownership, etc.) was changed.

File Type:

  Linux recognizes different file types, such as regular files, directories, symbolic links, devices, sockets, and named pipes.

Extended Attributes:

  Extended attributes provide additional metadata beyond the standard file attributes.

ACLs (Access Control Lists):

  ACLs allow for more granular control over file permissions by defining access rules beyond the standard user, group, and others permissions.

Q10. Write the differences between linux ,mac and windows os.

key differences between Linux, macOS, and Windows operating systems:

Kernel and Core System:

Linux: Linux is built around the Linux kernel, which is open-source and free to use. It comes in many distributions (distros), each with its package management system and user interface.

  - macOS: macOS is based on the Unix-like Darwin kernel, developed by Apple. It is proprietary and only runs on Apple hardware.

  - Windows: Windows is developed by Microsoft and runs on the Windows NT kernel. It is also proprietary and is the most widely used desktop operating system.

User Interface:

  - Linux: Linux offers a variety of desktop environments (DEs) like GNOME, KDE, XFCE, etc., each with its look and feel. Some distributions offer a choice of DE during installation.

  - macOS: macOS has a unified user interface called Aqua, known for its sleek design and ease of use.

  - Windows: Windows provides a customizable desktop environment with a Start menu, taskbar, and window management features.

Software Ecosystem:

  - Linux: Linux offers a vast array of open-source software available through package managers like APT, YUM, or Pacman. It also supports running Windows software through compatibility layers like Wine.

  - macOS: macOS has a robust software ecosystem with access to the Mac App Store and third-party software. It also supports running Unix and Linux software through tools like Homebrew or MacPorts.

  - Windows: Windows has the largest software ecosystem, with compatibility for a wide range of applications and games. It has the Microsoft Store for apps and supports running Linux software through Windows Subsystem for Linux (WSL).

QB3. Explain BASH and its functions.

The. Linux Bash is also known as 'Bourne-again Shell.' It is a command language

interpreter for the Linux based system. It is a replacement of Bourne shell (sh). It was developed

under the GNU Project and written by Brian Fox. Nowadays, Bash is the default user shell of

most of the Linux distributions.

The Bash is a command language interpreter as well as a programming language. It

supports variables, functions, and flow control, like other programming languages. It can also

read and execute the commands from a file, which is called a shell script.

o It provides command-line editing

o It contains unlimited size command history

o It provides Job Control

o It facilitates with Shell Functions and Aliases

o It provides the indexed arrays of unlimited size

o It contains integer arithmetic in any base from 2 to 64

4. Explain the following linux commands:

i. head: used to display the first part of the file

ii. tail: used to display the last ten lines of one or more files

iii. wc (with all options): counting the lines, words and characters in a file

options: 1. -l: prints the number of lines present in the file

2. -w: prints the number of words present in the file

3. -c: displays count of bytes present in the file

4. -m: displays count of characters from a file

5. -version: displays the version of wc which is currently running on your system

iv. cmp: used to compare the 2 files byte to byte and helps you to find out whether

the 2 files are identical or not

v. sudo: allows you to run programs with the security privileges of another user

vi. bc: used for command line calculator

vii. tar: compresses files in linux

viii. pwd: prints the working directory


ix. grep: used for searching and manipulating text patterns within files

x. cut: for cutting out the sections from each line of files

xi. ls –l: used to list information about files and directories within the file system

QB5. Differentiate between soft link and hard link.

Soft Link

Soft Link is an alias to the original file similar to the shortcut feature in the Windows OS.

It contains the location to the original file but not the contents.

Soft Links have different Inode values pointing to the original value.

Links can be established across filesystem.

The link becomes inaccessible when the original file is removed.

Soft links can link both to a file or a directory.

Hard Link

Hard Link is the exact replica of the original file it is pointing to.

It contains the actual contents of the file.

Hard Links share the same Inode value pointing to the same file location.

Links cannot be established outside the filesystem.

Changes in the hard linked file will reflect in the other files.

Hard links can only link to a file, not a directory.

QB6. Explain the backup and recovery tools available in linux.

• Tar: this unix like command creates and manipulates file archives

• Rsync: tool for file synchronization and backups

• Dd: data duplicator creates disc images and backups

• Cpio: tool creates and extracts archives

• Dump and restore: backup at the file system level

QB7. Explain setting file permissions in detail

To change file and directory permissions, use the command chmod (change mode). The owner of

a file can change the permissions for user (u), group (g), or others (o) by adding (+) or

subtracting (-) the read, write, and execute permissions.

Access class

u (user)

g (group)

o (other)

a (all: u, g, and o)

Operator

+ (add access)

- (remove access)

= (set exact access)

Access Type

r (read)

w (write)

x (execute)

QB8. List the tools for system monitoring.

• Top: top command displays the linux processes

• Vmstat: virtual memory statistics

• W: to find out who is logged on and what they are doing

• Uptime: tells the linux system has been running

• Ps: displays the linux processes

QB9. Explain different types of users.

In linux, there are three different user types:

• Root: the main user account in linux. It is automatically created during

installation. It has the highest privilege in the system. It can do any

administrative work and can access any service.

• Regular: normal user account. During installation one regular user is created

automatically. After installation, we can create as many regular user account

as required. It has moderate privilege. It is used for routine works

• Service: these accounts are created by installation packages whey they are

installed. These accounts are used by services to run processes and execute

the functions. These are neither intended nor should be used for routine work

See also

References

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