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Angel Island (California)

Coordinates: 37°52′N 122°26′W / 37.86°N 122.43°W / 37.86; -122.43
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Angel Island
Aerial view of Angel Island in 2019
Angel Island is located in San Francisco Bay Area
Angel Island
Angel Island
Angel Island is located in California
Angel Island
Angel Island
Angel Island is located in the United States
Angel Island
Angel Island
Geography
LocationSan Francisco Bay
Coordinates37°52′N 122°26′W / 37.86°N 122.43°W / 37.86; -122.43
Area1.2 sq mi (3.1 km2)
Highest elevation788.76 ft (240.414 m)
Highest pointMount Caroline Livermore
Administration
United States
StateCalifornia
CountyMarin County
City and County of San Francisco
Demographics
Population12
Pop. density3.87/km2 (10.02/sq mi)
Reference no.529[1]

Angel Island is an island in San Francisco Bay. The entire island is included within Angel Island State Park, administered by California State Parks.[2] The island, a California Historical Landmark,[1] has been used by humans for a variety of purposes, including seasonal hunting and gathering by Indigenous peoples, water and timber supply for European ships, ranching by Mexicans, United States military installations, a United States Public Health Service Quarantine Station, and a U.S. Bureau of Immigration inspection and detention facility.[3]

The Angel Island Immigration Station, on the northeast corner of the island, which has been designated a National Historic Landmark, is where officials detained, inspected, and examined approximately one million immigrants, who primarily came from Asia.[4]

Geography

[edit]
Raccoon Strait with Angel Island at right

Angel Island is the second largest island in area of the San Francisco Bay (Alameda is the largest). On a clear day, Sonoma and Napa can be seen from the north side of the island; San Jose can be seen from the south side of the island. The highest point on the island, almost exactly at its center, is Mount Caroline Livermore, more commonly known as simply Mt Livermore, at a height of 788 feet (240 meters). This peak is named for Caroline Sealy Livermore.[5] The island is almost entirely in the city of Tiburon, in Marin County, although there is a small sliver (0.7%) at the eastern end of it (Fort McDowell) which extends into the territory of the City and County of San Francisco. The island is separated from the mainland of Marin County by Raccoon Strait, the depth of the water approximately 90 feet (27 m). The United States Census Bureau reported a land area of 3.107 square miles (8.05 square kilometers) and a population of 57 people as of the 2000 census.[6]

Geology

[edit]
Folded glaucophane-rich metasedimentary rocks on Kayak Beach, Angel Island

Angel Island emerged during the last Ice Age when the ocean, much lower and located miles to the west, shaped the landscape.[7] The rocks of Angel Island are part of the Franciscan Complex, an extensive belt of marine sedimentary and igneous rocks which were deformed and metamorphosed during the Mesozoic Era. Metamorphism of the Franciscan Complex occurred at high pressures and low temperatures, producing indicator minerals jadeite and glaucophane, characteristic of subduction zone metamorphism.[8] The rocks of Angel Island have been grouped with similar rocks displaying similar metamorphic minerals in the East Bay Hills and on the Tiburon Peninsula as the "Angel Island Nappe".[9] The island's form is roughly, featuring steep ridges radiating from the central peak of the Mount Caroline Livermore.[7] The rocks are diverse, including well-exposed serpentinite in the old quarry, sandstones and conglomerates containing clasts of glaucophane schist on Kayak Beach, meta-volcanics and cherts with dark blue amphibole and brown needles of stilpnomelane on Perles Beach.[10] However, their relationships to one another are not well understood.[10] The Franciscan Complex rocks are unconformably overlain by flat-lying sediments of the Colma Formation near Blunt Point on the south coast of the island.[10] These sandstones are only weakly consolidated and are eroding to provide a supply of sand to the south coast of the island, in contrast to the northern and western beaches which are dominated by pebbles and cobbles.[11] The shape of the hillslopes on Angel Island include the scars of prehistoric landslides and mass wasting, and deposits of eroded material may have been transported away from the island by currents in the San Francisco Bay.[11]

History

[edit]
Ayala Cove, Angel Island. Juan de Ayala anchored here in 1775. The cove is the current site of the Angel Island Ferry landing.

Until about 10,000 years ago, Angel Island was connected to the mainland; it was cut off by the rise in sea levels due to the end of the last ice age. From about 2,000 years ago, the island was a fishing and hunting site for Coast Miwok Native Americans. Similar evidence of Native American settlement is found on the nearby mainland of the Tiburon Peninsula upon Ring Mountain.[12] In 1775, the Spanish naval vessel San Carlos made the first European entry to the San Francisco Bay under the command of Juan de Ayala. Ayala anchored off Angel Island, and gave it its modern name (Isla de los Ángeles);[13] the bay where he anchored is now known as Ayala Cove.

In his book Two Years Before the Mast, published in 1841, Richard Henry Dana Jr. mentions in chapter 26, that in 1834 his sailing ship collected wood from "a small island, about two leagues from the Yerba Buena anchorage, called by us 'Wood Island' and by the Mexicans 'Isla de los Ángeles' and was covered with trees to the waters edge."

It is shown, labeled I. de los Angeles, on an 1850 survey map of the San Francisco Bay Area made by Cadwalader Ringgold[14] and an 1854 map of the area by Henry Lange.[15] Quarry operations began in the 1850s on the east side of the island near Quarry Point, with quarried stones used in the construction of a new fortress on Alcatraz Island, a new Navy shipyard on Mare Island, and a bank in San Francisco. In 1867, General McDowell took control of the quarry and used it for Army construction at Fort Point, the San Francisco Presidio, and on Angel Island itself.[16]

Battery Ledyard, near Point Knox, was active between 1899 and 1915.

Like much of the California coast, Angel Island was subsequently used for cattle ranching. In 1863, during the American Civil War, the U.S. Army was concerned about Confederate naval raiders attacking San Francisco. It decided to construct artillery batteries on Angel Island, first at Stuart (or Stewart) Point and then Point Knox. Col. René Edward De Russy was the Chief Engineer; James Terry Gardiner was the engineer tasked with designing and supervising the work.[17] The Army established Fort Reynolds, which was garrisoned by Battery B, 3rd Artillery Regiment.[18] The post was named by Second Lieutenant John L. Tiernon, commander of Battery B, in honor of John F. Reynolds, a Union Army general who had been killed at the Battle of Gettysburg.[18] This portion of the island is now known as Camp Reynolds or the West Garrison, and it subsequently became an infantry garrison during the US campaigns against Native American peoples in the West.[19]

Fort McDowell

[edit]
The former Fort McDowell barracks

In the later 19th century, the army designated the entire island as "Fort McDowell" and developed further facilities there, including what is now called the East Garrison or Fort McDowell. A quarantine station was opened in Ayala Cove (which at the time was known as Hospital Cove) in 1891. During the Spanish–American War the island served as a discharge depot for returning troops. It continued to serve as a transit station throughout the first half of the 20th century, with troops engaged in World War I embarking and returning there. During the war, the post was commanded by Colonel George K. McGunnegle, who reached the mandatory retirement age of 64 in 1918 but remained on duty until the end of the war.[20] After the war, the disembarkation center was commanded by William P. Burnham, who had commanded the 82nd Division in France during the war.

On 6 May 1932 the Army created the San Francisco Port of Embarkation as a command which included the Overseas Replacement and Discharge Service at Fort McDowell, Fort Mason and the Pacific Army Transport Service ships and facilities.[21]

In 1938, hearings concerning charges of membership in the Communist political party against labor leader Harry Bridges were held on Angel Island before Dean James Landis of Harvard Law School. After eleven weeks of testimony that filled nearly 8,500 pages, Landis found in favor of Bridges. The decision was accepted by the United States Department of Labor and Bridges was freed.[22]

During World War II, the need for troops in the Pacific far exceeded prior needs. The facilities on Angel Island were expanded and further processing was done at Fort Mason in San Francisco. Prior to the war, the infrastructure had been expanded, including building the Army ferry USAT General Frank M. Coxe, which transported troops to and from Angel Island on a regular schedule. Fort McDowell was used as a detention station for Japanese, German and Italian immigrant residents of Hawaii arrested as potential fifth columnists (despite a lack of supporting evidence or access to due process).[23] These internees were later transferred to inland Department of Justice and Army camps. Japanese and German prisoners of war were also held on the island, supplanting immigration needs, which were curtailed during the war years.

After World War II ended, the reorganization of the San Francisco Port of Embarkation did not include Fort McDowell, and the post was decommissioned on August 28, 1946.[24]

In 1954 a Nike missile station was installed on the island.[25] The missile magazines were constructed above Point Blunt on the island's southeast corner, and the top of Mount Ida (now Mount Caroline Livermore) was flattened to make way for a helipad and the associated radar and tracking station (IFC). The missiles were removed in 1962, when the military left the island. The missile launch pad still exists, but the station atop Mount Caroline Livermore was restored to its original contours in 2006.[26]

Quarantine station

[edit]
Quarantine Station, Officers' Quarters, Angel Island State Park

The bubonic plague posed such a threat to the U.S. that Angel Island opened as a quarantine station in 1891 to screen Asian passengers and their baggage prior to landing on U.S. soil.[27] The construction of this federally funded quarantine station was completed in 1890 at a cost of approximately $99,000.[28] The compound contained many separate buildings including detention barracks, disinfection facilities, convalescence quarters, and an isolation hospital that was known as the "leper's house".[28] Even with the new construction, the facilities were lacking in cleanliness, staffing and adequate space.[29]

In response to the death of Wong Chut King, a Chinese immigrant who worked in a rat-infested lumberyard in Chinatown, the San Francisco Health Board quickly quarantined the local area to neutralize possible disease-causing agents.[27] Persons suspected of having any contact with this sickness were sent to isolation facilities.[27] After more deaths, tissue samples were sent to Angel Island for testing to determine if they harbored Yersinia pestis, the bacteria responsible for spreading the bubonic plague. At this time, the plague was difficult to diagnose due to other diseases which could mask the presence of plague.[27] The culture was tested on animals for four days, and Y. pestis was confirmed. Bacteriologist Joseph J. Kinyoun, who was stationed at Angel Island in 1899, believed that the plague would spread throughout San Francisco's Chinatown.[27][30]

Immigration station

[edit]
Main article: United States Immigration Station, Angel Island
Angel Island detention barracks

The construction of the Angel Island immigration station began in 1905 but was not used until 1910.[31] This zone was known as China Cove. It was built for controlling Chinese entry into the United States.[32] From 1910 to 1940, Angel Island served as an immigration station processing immigrants from 84 countries, mostly from China, Japan, Russia and South Asia (in that order).[32] The purpose of the immigration station was to investigate Chinese who had been denied entry from the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882. Immigrants had to prove that they had husbands or fathers who were U.S. citizens in order not to be deported.[33]

The immigration station at Angel Island was predominantly used to inspect, disinfect, and detain Chinese, Japanese, and other Asian immigrants who sailed across the Pacific Ocean.[29] In addition to standard medical examinations, Chinese immigrants were inspected for parasitic diseases, and the tests for intestinal parasites required a stool specimen.[29] Immigrants described the examination and disinfection process as brutal, humiliating, and indecent.[27] Passengers who were found to be sick were sent to the hospital in the immigration station until they could pass a medical examination and an immigration hearing.[28] Investigation processes determined the length of time an immigrant would stay at the station[34] and Chinese immigrants could be detained for a period as short as two weeks to as long as two years.[35] A person's racial identity and social class determined the intensity of the examination imposed, resulting in fewer white Europeans and American citizens being subjected to the inspections.[29]

A fire destroyed the administration building in 1940, and subsequent immigration processing took place in San Francisco. On November fifth of 1940, the last gathering of around 200 immigrants, including around 150 Chinese, were exchanged from Angel Island to brief quarters in San Francisco.[32]

In 1964, the Chinese American community successfully lobbied the State of California to designate the immigration station as a State Landmark. Today, the Angel Island Immigration Station is a federally designated National Historic Landmark. The detention barrack was renovated by the California State Parks, which reopened February 16, 2009. Docent tours for school groups can be made by appointment. After sitting vacant since World War II, the hospital near the detention barrack was renovated, at a cost of $15 million from a variety of federal, state and private sources, and opened as a museum in 2022.[36]

Angel Island State Park

[edit]
Aerial view of Angel Island (center), near the Tiburon Peninsula (California) (lower left), including Belvedere, with Richmond, Albany, Berkeley, Emeryville (left to right at top) in the background
Angel Island State Park
Angel island features

In 1955, the State Park Commission authorized California State Parks to purchase 38 acres (15 ha) around Ayala Cove, marking the birth of Angel Island State Park. Additional acreage was purchased four years later, in 1959. The last federal Department of Defense personnel withdrew in 1962, turning over the entire island as a state park in December of the same year.

There is one active United States Coast Guard lighthouse on the island at Point Blunt. The lighthouse at Point Stuart has been disestablished.

Ecology

[edit]

The island's native plant communities include coastal grassland and coastal scrub, mostly on the island's south- and west-facing slopes and ridge tops, and evergreen woodland – predominantly of Coast Live Oak (Quercus agrifolia), bay (Umbellularia californica), toyon (Heteromeles arbutifolia), and madrone (Arbutus menziesii), with California Hazelnut (Corylus cornuta) and Western Sword Fern (Polystichum munitum) in the understory – on the eastern and northern portions of the island sheltered from the westerly winds from the Golden Gate.[37]

It is thought that the Coast Miwoks used regular fires to expand the grassland and shrublands at the expense of the woodlands. Commodities from continents worldwide have seamlessly merged into the environment through livestock transportation and Spanish missionaries' seed cultivation.[38] The grasslands and shrublands provided edible seeds and bulbs, and supported larger numbers of deer and small game.[37]

The Angel Island Mole, Scapanus latimanus insularis, is a subspecies of broad-footed mole endemic to Angel Island.[39]

The military had planted 24 acres of Bluegum Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus) on the island for windbreaks, beautification, timber, and erosion control. By the mid-1980s, the area covered by eucalyptus had expanded to 86 acres. In the 1980s, California State Parks undertook environmental studies to remove most of the Eucalyptus from the island, in order to restore native flora and reduce fire danger. The proposal generated controversy and received much local media coverage, and was approved to begin in 1990. Eucalyptus were removed from 80 acres between 1990 and 1997, and nursery-grown native plants were planted in the cleared areas. Six acres of historically significant eucalyptus trees were retained.[40]

As elsewhere in California, intensive cattle grazing in the 19th century allowed annual grasses introduced from Southern Europe to replace the native perennial grasses.[37] Before European colonization, the Angel Island area maintained a diverse oak woodland ecosystem consisting of coast live oak, California Bay, and madrone. Additionally, grasslands and coastal scrub primarily covered shrubbery in the South and West portions.[38] Ongoing removal of non-native plants, including French broom (Genista monspessulana), Italian thistle (Carduus pycnocephalus) and Ice plant (Carpobrotus edulis), continues in an effort to restore the original evergreen woodland, perennial grassland, and coastal scrub plant communities.[40]

In addition to the eucalyptus, plantings from the military period of Monterey Pine (Pinus radiata), Cork Oak (Quercus suber), Australian Blackwood (Acacia melanoxylon), Canary Island Date Palm (Phoenix canariensis), Century Plant (Agave americana), Japanese Redwood (Cryptomeria japonica), Incense Cedar (Calocedrus decurrens), Deodar Cedar (Cedrus deodara), Coast Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens), Giant Sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum), Norfolk Island Pine (Araucaria heterophylla), Monkey puzzle tree (Araucaria araucana) and others can be found in and around the former military bases and immigration station.[37]

Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) were reintroduced to the island by the army in 1915 for hunting. In the absence of predators, the deer population expanded and overgrazed the island. The deer population is now managed annually by California State Parks and the Department of Fish and Game.[41]

In 2002, the summit of Mount Caroline Livermore, which had been flattened in the 1950s to build the Nike missile radar and tracking installation, was re-contoured to resemble its original appearance, and increased 16 feet in height as a result. The access road up the west side of the mountain was removed, and replaced with a winding trail up the east side.[42]

2008 fire

[edit]
The fire on October 13, 2008

On October 12, 2008, at approximately 9 p.m. PDT, a fire visible from all around the San Francisco Bay broke out on the island and spread to an estimated 100 acres (40 ha) within an hour.[43] By 8 a.m. the next morning, the fire had scorched 250 acres (100 ha) – a third of the island – and was 20 percent contained.

Firefighters ran around from the mainland and helicopters dropped water and fire retardants to protect the historical buildings and extinguish the fire that was fully contained by October 14, 2008, at approximately 7 p.m.[44] 380 of the island's 740 acres (300 ha) were burned in the fire.[45] With the exception of one abandoned water tank, no structures were lost in the fire.[46]

Firefighting efforts were coordinated from the USCGC Sockeye.[47]

In portions of the evergreen woodlands, the fire burned through quickly, consuming the understory, but leaving the trees mostly undamaged.[46] The fire burned several stands of Monterey Pine (Pinus radiata) originally planted by the U.S. Army, which will be restored to native evergreen woodlands.[41]

Prior fires include one in 2005 that burned 25 acres (10 ha), and a smaller 2–3-acre blaze in 2004.[46]

Access

[edit]
Ayala Cove Ferry Terminal

Access to the island is only by boat at Ayala Cove Ferry Terminal. There is ferry service to the island from San Francisco or from Tiburon. The Angel Island-Tiburon Ferry operates daily from Tiburon to the island. Golden Gate Ferry operates ferries to the San Francisco Ferry Building.[48] During the off-season (October–March), all ferries run a reduced schedule. All ferry fares include park admission. Private boats can also access the island. The California State Park Annual Day Use Pass can be used to pay day use dock fees for private boats, but it is not accepted from visitors coming via the public ferries.

Bicycles can be brought on the ferry or rented seasonally on land and used on the island's main roads. Electric scooters and Segways can also be rented. Due to the terrain, roller skates, roller blades, skateboards, kick scooters, and personal Segway scooters are prohibited.

Dogs (except service dogs) are not allowed.

Wood fires are prohibited. Charcoal fires are allowed, but charcoal is not available for purchase on the island.

There are 11 environmental campsites, including an ADA site, 9 numbered sites (each site accommodating up to 8 people), and a kayak-accessible group site (holds up to 20 people).

Night travel on the island is prohibited in some areas for reasons of park security and public safety.

Metal detectors, while allowed, are not recommended, because digging or disturbing the soil or ground in the park is prohibited.

Electrical infrastructure

[edit]

Angel Island is served by PG&E via two 12 kV undersea cables which cross Raccoon Strait from Tiburon.[49][page needed] As of mid-2015, peak electrical load is approximately 100 kW.[49][page needed] One cable is out of service and the other is deteriorating.[49][page needed] Instead of replacing the cables, PG&E is investigating using the island for a distributed energy resources microgrid pilot project.[49][page needed]

See also

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References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b "Angel Island". Office of Historic Preservation, California State Parks. Retrieved 2012-10-09.
  2. ^ "Angel Island SP". CA State Parks. California Department of Parks and Recreation. Retrieved 19 September 2021.
  3. ^ DeGeorgey, Alex (2016). "Contributions to San Francisco Bay prehistory : archaeological investigations at CA-MRN-44/H, Angel Island State Park, Marin County, California". Publications in Cultural Heritage (33). Retrieved 19 September 2021.
  4. ^ The National Register of Historic Places (16 August 2007). "Celebrating Asian Heritage". National Park Service. Archived from the original on 8 June 2010. Retrieved 11 June 2010.
  5. ^ Wood, Jim (August 27, 2008). "The Inspirational Beginnings of the Marin Conservation League". marinmagazine.com. Retrieved April 24, 2021.
  6. ^ "Detailed Tables: Block Group 3, Census Tract 1242, Marin County; and Block 1068, Block Group 1, Census Tract 179.02, San Francisco County" (Document). United States Census Bureau, American FactFinder. 2000.
  7. ^ a b "Natural History « Angel Island Conservancy". Retrieved 2023-10-25.
  8. ^ Bloxam, T. W. (1960). "Jadeite-rocks and glaucophane-schists from Angel Island, San Francisco Bay, California". American Journal of Science. 258 (8): 555–573. Bibcode:1960AmJS..258..555B. doi:10.2475/ajs.258.8.555.
  9. ^ Wakabayashi, John (1992-01-01). "Nappes, Tectonics of Oblique Plate Convergence, and Metamorphic Evolution Related to 140 Million Years of Continuous Subduction, Franciscan Complex, California". The Journal of Geology. 100 (1): 19–40. Bibcode:1992JG....100...19W. doi:10.1086/629569. ISSN 0022-1376. S2CID 140552742.
  10. ^ a b c Wahrhaftig, Clyde (1984). A streetcar to subduction (2nd ed.). Washington, D. C.: American Geophysical Union. pp. 45–54. ISBN 0-87590-234-0.
  11. ^ a b Keller, Barry R. (2009). "Literature Review of Unconsolidated Sediment in San Francisco Bay and Nearby Pacific Ocean Coast". San Francisco Estuary and Watershed Science. 7. California Bay-Delta Authority Science Program and the John Muir Institute of the Environment: 27. doi:10.15447/sfews.2009v7iss1art2. S2CID 127295654.
  12. ^ C. Michael Hogan (2008). "Ring Mountain - Carving in United States in The West". The Megalithic Portal. Archived from the original on 10 June 2011. Retrieved 11 June 2010.
  13. ^ William Bright; Erwin Gustav Gudde (30 November 1998). 1500 California place names: their origin and meaning. University of California Press. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-520-21271-8. Archived from the original on 28 June 2011. Retrieved 20 January 2012.
  14. ^ Ringgold, Cadwalader; Stuart, Fred D.; Everett, Chas.; Harrison (1850). "General Chart embracing Surveys of the Farallones Entrance to the Bay of San Francisco, Bays of San Francisco and San Pablo, Straits of Carquines and Suisun Bay, and the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers, to the Cities of Sacramento and San Joaquin, California". David Rumsey Map Collection. San Francisco Common Council. Retrieved 25 February 2021.
  15. ^ Lange, Henry (1854). "Bai San Francisco und Vereinigung des Sacramento mit dem San Joaquin". David Rumsey Map Collection. George Westermann. Retrieved 25 February 2021.
  16. ^ "The Quarries". angelisland.org. Angel Island Conservancy. Retrieved 31 July 2024. Early sketches of the area around Quarry Point show a substantial hill, more than one hundred feet high, on the site of the quarry. By the time the quarry operations ceased the hill was completely gone – it had been quarried away.
  17. ^ Personal Letter of James T. Gardiner to his mother, San Francisco, November 7, 1863, New York State Library
  18. ^ a b Soennichsen, John (2005). Miwoks to Missiles. Tiburon, California: Angel Island Association. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-9667-3522-2.
  19. ^ John Soennichsen (13 January 2008). "Historic California Posts: Fort McDowell (Camp Reynolds, Post of Angel Island)". The California State Military Museum. Archived from the original on 13 June 2010. Retrieved 11 June 2010.
  20. ^ "Col. To Be Retired And Recalled To Army". San Francisco Examiner. San Francisco, CA. June 23, 1918. p. 4 – via Newspapers.com.
  21. ^ Clay, Steven E. (2011). U. S. Army Order Of Battle 1919–1941 (PDF). Volume 4. The Services: Quartermaster, Medical, Military Police, Signal Corps, Chemical Warfare, And Miscellaneous Organizations, 1919–41. Vol. 4. Fort Leavenworth, KS: Combat Studies Institute Press. ISBN 9780984190140. LCCN 2010022326.
  22. ^ Justin O'Brien (13 November 2014). The Triumph, Tragedy and Lost Legacy of James M Landis: A Life on Fire. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 84–. ISBN 978-1-78225-439-3.
  23. ^ "Fort McDowell/Angel Island" Archived 2015-04-25 at the Wayback Machine Densho Encyclopedia (accessed 13 Jun 2014)
  24. ^ "Fort McDowell (aka East Garrison)". angelisland.org. Angel Island Conservancy. Retrieved 31 July 2024.
  25. ^ "Abandoned & Little-Known Airfields: San Francisco area". www.airfields-freeman.com. Archived from the original on 2009-05-18.
  26. ^ Hanrahan, Michael, 2009. A Visitor's Guide to Angel Island State Park. p. 37. Way Out There Press.
  27. ^ a b c d e f Risse. G., (2012). Plague, fear, and politics in San Francisco's Chinatown. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press
  28. ^ a b c Lucaccini, Luigi. "The Public Health Service on Angel Island". Public Health Reports. 111 (January/February 1996): 92–94.
  29. ^ a b c d Markel, Howard; Stern, Alexandra (1999). "Which face? Whose nation?: Immigration, public health, and the construction of disease at America's ports and borders, 1891-1928". The American Behavioral Scientist. 42 (9): 1314–1331. doi:10.1177/00027649921954921. hdl:2027.42/67824. S2CID 143588478.
  30. ^ Craddock, Susan (2004). City of Plagues: Disease, Poverty and Deviance in San Francisco. St. Paul: University of Minnesota Press.
  31. ^ "Immigration Station". California Department of Parks and Recreation. Archived from the original on 2017-10-23.
  32. ^ a b c "United States Immigration Station (USIS) « Angel Island Conservancy". angelisland.org. Archived from the original on 2014-09-16.
  33. ^ "Immigrant Journeys of Chinese Americans". Angel Island. Archived from the original on 2018-01-26.
  34. ^ "Immigration Station". California Department of Parks and Rec. Archived from the original on 2017-10-23.
  35. ^ "Immigration Station". California State Parks and Rec. Archived from the original on 2011-09-07.
  36. ^ Sokoloff, Larry (May 24, 2022). "New Angel Island Immigration Museum Reveals History Of Anti-Asian Segregation". sfgate.com. Bay City News Foundation. Retrieved July 31, 2024.
  37. ^ a b c d Wheeler, Thomas. "Historic Landscapes of the Angel Island Coastal Fortifications". California Department of Parks and Recreation. Accessed 9 September 2013 Angel Island Landscapes Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine
  38. ^ a b "Angel Island Landscapes". CA State Parks. Retrieved 2023-10-25.
  39. ^ Collins, Paul W. "Angel Island mole, Scapanus latimanus insularis" in Bolster, B.C. (ed.) Terrestrial Mammal Species of Special Concern in California, 1998. Accessed 8 September 2013. "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-12-20. Retrieved 2013-11-11.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  40. ^ a b Boyd, David, 1997. "Eucalyptus Removal on Angel Island". California Exotic Pest Plant Council 1997 Symposium Proceedings
  41. ^ a b California State Parks, 2012. Angel Island State Park Interpretation Master Plan. "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-12-17. Retrieved 2013-11-11.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  42. ^ "Mount Livermore." Angel Island Conservancy. Accessed 8 September 2013 Mount Livermore – Angel Island Conservancy Archived 2016-02-15 at the Wayback Machine
  43. ^ Adam Jackson (13 October 2008). "Angel Island San Francisco on Fire! (links)". Adam and Laura Go West. Archived from the original on October 16, 2008. Retrieved 11 June 2010.
  44. ^ Demian Bulwa; Kevin Fagan; Jim Doyle (14 October 2008). "Wildfire transforms Angel Island". The San Francisco Chronicle. Archived from the original on January 5, 2009. Retrieved 11 June 2010.
  45. ^ Mark Prado (15 October 2008). "Burned Angel Island to reopen Monday; public will have limited access". The Marin Independent Journal. Archived from the original on 2 October 2013. Retrieved 8 September 2013.
  46. ^ a b c Mark Prado; Jennifer Upshaw (13 October 2008). "All-out attack as firefighters work to save Angel Island". The Marin Independent Journal. Archived from the original on 22 March 2012. Retrieved 11 June 2010.
  47. ^ "Angel Island Fires". Dvidshub. 2008-10-13. Archived from the original on 2016-01-30. Retrieved 2016-01-29.
  48. ^ "Getting There". Angel Island Conservancy. Retrieved 24 October 2022.
  49. ^ a b c d "Pacific Gas and Electric Company Electrical Distribution Resources Plan". California Public Utilities Commission. 1 July 2015. Archived from the original on 6 March 2016. Retrieved 5 March 2016.

Further reading

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