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change in text-Ramanuja to Rāmānuja (long vowel ā), also correct back- jpg, external links- w Ramanuja
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{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2014}}
{{Infobox Hindu leader
{{Infobox Hindu leader
| name = Ramanuja
| name = Rāmānuja, <small>{{lang-ta|இராமானுஜர்}}</small>.
| image = Ramanujacharya.jpg
| image = Ramanujacharya.jpg
| birth_date = 1017 CE
| birth_date = 1017 CE
| birth_place = [[Sriperumbudur]], [[Tamil Nadu]], India
| birth_place = [[Sriperumbudur]], [[Tamil Nadu]], India
| birth_name = Iḷayāḻvār{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}
| birth_name = Iḷaiyāḻvār{{citation needed|date=February 2016}},
<small>{{lang-ta|இளையாழ்வார்}}</small>.
| death_date = 1137 CE
| death_date = 1137 CE
| death_place = [[Sri Rangam]], [[Tamil Nadu]], India
| death_place = [[Sri Rangam]], [[Tamil Nadu]], India
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}}
}}
{{Hindu philosophy}}
{{Hindu philosophy}}
'''Ramanuja''' (traditionally, 1017–1137 CE) was a Hindu theologian, philosopher, and one of the most important exponents of the [[Sri Vaishnavism]] tradition within [[Hinduism]].{{Sfn|C. J. Bartley|2013|pp=1–4, 52–53, 79}}<ref name="Sydnor2012p20"/> He was born in a [[Tamil Brahmin]] family in the village of [[Sriperumbudur]], Tamil Nadu.<ref name=mishraegr/> His philosophical foundations for devotionalism were influential to the [[Bhakti movement]].{{Sfn|C. J. Bartley|2013|pp=1–4, 52–53, 79}}<ref name="M-WRamanuja"/><ref name="KulkeRothermund2004p149">{{cite book|author1=Hermann Kulke|author2=Dietmar Rothermund|title=A History of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RoW9GuFJ9GIC&pg=PA149|year=2004|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-32920-0|page=149}}</ref>
'''Rāmānuja''' (traditionally, 1017–1137 CE) was a Hindu theologian, philosopher, and one of the most important exponents of the [[Sri Vaishnavism]] tradition within [[Hinduism]].{{Sfn|C. J. Bartley|2013|pp=1–4, 52–53, 79}}<ref name="Sydnor2012p20"/> He was born in a [[Tamil Brahmin]] family in the village of [[Sriperumbudur]], Tamil Nadu.<ref name=mishraegr/> His philosophical foundations for devotionalism were influential to the [[Bhakti movement]].{{Sfn|C. J. Bartley|2013|pp=1–4, 52–53, 79}}<ref name="M-WRāmānuja"/><ref name="KulkeRothermund2004p149">{{cite book|author1=Hermann Kulke|author2=Dietmar Rothermund|title=A History of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RoW9GuFJ9GIC&pg=PA149|year=2004|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-32920-0|page=149}}</ref>


Ramanuja's [[guru]] was Yadava Prakasha, a scholar who was a part of the more ancient [[Advaita Vedanta]] monastic tradition.<ref name=olivellehsarp10>{{cite book| author=Patrick Olivelle| title=The Samnyasa Upanisads : Hindu Scriptures on Asceticism and Renunciation: Hindu Scriptures on Asceticism and Renunciation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fB8uneM7q1cC&pg=PA10|year=1992|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-536137-7|pages=10–11, 17–18}}</ref> Sri Vaishnava tradition holds that Ramanuja disagreed with his guru and the non-dualistic Advaita Vedanta, and instead followed in the footsteps of Indian [[Alvars]] tradition, the scholars [[Nathamuni]] and [[Yamunacharya]].{{Sfn|C. J. Bartley|2013|pp=1–4, 52–53, 79}} Ramanuja is famous as the chief proponent of [[Vishishtadvaita]] subschool of [[Vedanta]],{{Sfn|C. J. Bartley|2013|pp=1-2}}{{Sfn|Carman|1974|p=24}} and his disciples were likely authors of texts such as the [[Shatyayaniya Upanishad]].<ref name=olivellehsarp10/> Ramanuja himself wrote influential texts, such as [[bhasya]] on the ''[[Brahma Sutras]]'' and the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', all in Sanskrit.{{Sfn|Carman|1994|pp=82-87 with footnotes}}
Rāmānuja's [[guru]] was Yadava Prakasha, a scholar who was a part of the more ancient [[Advaita Vedanta]] monastic tradition.<ref name=olivellehsarp10>{{cite book| author=Patrick Olivelle| title=The Samnyasa Upanisads : Hindu Scriptures on Asceticism and Renunciation: Hindu Scriptures on Asceticism and Renunciation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fB8uneM7q1cC&pg=PA10|year=1992|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-536137-7|pages=10–11, 17–18}}</ref> Sri Vaishnava tradition holds that Rāmānuja disagreed with his guru and the non-dualistic Advaita Vedanta, and instead followed in the footsteps of Indian [[Alvars]] tradition, the scholars [[Nathamuni]] and [[Yamunacharya]].{{Sfn|C. J. Bartley|2013|pp=1–4, 52–53, 79}} Rāmānuja is famous as the chief proponent of [[Vishishtadvaita]] subschool of [[Vedanta]],{{Sfn|C. J. Bartley|2013|pp=1-2}}{{Sfn|Carman|1974|p=24}} and his disciples were likely authors of texts such as the [[Shatyayaniya Upanishad]].<ref name=olivellehsarp10/> Rāmānuja himself wrote influential texts, such as [[bhasya]] on the ''[[Brahma Sutras]]'' and the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', all in Sanskrit.{{Sfn|Carman|1994|pp=82-87 with footnotes}}


His Vishishtadvaita (qualified [[monism]]) philosophy has competed with the [[Dvaita]] (theistic dualism) philosophy of [[Madhvacharya]], and [[Advaita Vedanta|Advaita]] (monism) philosophy of [[Adi Shankara]], together the three most influential Vedantic philosophies of the 2nd millennium.<ref name=williamindichcav1>{{cite book|author=William M. Indich|title=Consciousness in Advaita Vedanta|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7ykZjWOiBMoC|year=1995|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1251-2|pages=1–2, 97–102}}</ref><ref name=brucesullivan239>{{cite book|author=Bruce M. Sullivan|title=The A to Z of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xU4ZdatgRysC|year=2001|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-8108-4070-6|page=239}}</ref> Ramanuja presented the epistemic and soteriological importance of bhakti, or the devotion to a personal God (Vishnu in Ramanuja's case) as a means to spiritual liberation. His theories assert that there exists a plurality and distinction between [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (soul) and [[Brahman]] (metaphysical, ultimate reality), while he also affirmed that there is unity of all souls and that the individual soul has the potential to realize identity with the Brahman.{{Sfn|C. J. Bartley|2013|pp=1-2, 9-10, 76-79, 87-98}}<ref name=brucesullivan239/><ref>{{cite book|author=Sean Doyle|title=Synthesizing the Vedanta: The Theology of Pierre Johanns, S.J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-S7DJLnkwG4C|year=2006|publisher=Peter Lang|isbn=978-3-03910-708-7|pages=59–62}}</ref>
His Vishishtadvaita (qualified [[monism]]) philosophy has competed with the [[Dvaita]] (theistic dualism) philosophy of [[Madhvacharya]], and [[Advaita Vedanta|Advaita]] (monism) philosophy of [[Adi Shankara]], together the three most influential Vedantic philosophies of the 2nd millennium.<ref name=williamindichcav1>{{cite book|author=William M. Indich|title=Consciousness in Advaita Vedanta|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7ykZjWOiBMoC|year=1995|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1251-2|pages=1–2, 97–102}}</ref><ref name=brucesullivan239>{{cite book|author=Bruce M. Sullivan|title=The A to Z of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xU4ZdatgRysC|year=2001|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-8108-4070-6|page=239}}</ref> Rāmānuja presented the epistemic and soteriological importance of bhakti, or the devotion to a personal God (Vishnu in Rāmānuja's case) as a means to spiritual liberation. His theories assert that there exists a plurality and distinction between [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (soul) and [[Brahman]] (metaphysical, ultimate reality), while he also affirmed that there is unity of all souls and that the individual soul has the potential to realize identity with the Brahman.{{Sfn|C. J. Bartley|2013|pp=1-2, 9-10, 76-79, 87-98}}<ref name=brucesullivan239/><ref>{{cite book|author=Sean Doyle|title=Synthesizing the Vedanta: The Theology of Pierre Johanns, S.J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-S7DJLnkwG4C|year=2006|publisher=Peter Lang|isbn=978-3-03910-708-7|pages=59–62}}</ref>


== Biography ==
== Biography ==
{{Vaishnavism}}
{{Vaishnavism}}
The details of historic Ramanuja are unknown. His followers in the Vaishnava tradition wrote hagiographies, some of which were composed in centuries after his death, and which the tradition believes to be true.<ref name="Sydnor2012p20">{{cite book|author=Jon Paul Sydnor|title=Ramanuja and Schleiermacher: Toward a Constructive Comparative Theology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ae4FBAAAQBAJ|year=2012|publisher=Casemate|isbn=978-0227680247|pages=20–22 with footnote 32}}</ref>{{Sfn|Keith E. Yandell | 2001| pp=7, 148}}
The details of historic Rāmānuja are unknown. His followers in the Vaishnava tradition wrote hagiographies, some of which were composed in centuries after his death, and which the tradition believes to be true.<ref name="Sydnor2012p20">{{cite book|author=Jon Paul Sydnor|title=Rāmānuja and Schleiermacher: Toward a Constructive Comparative Theology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ae4FBAAAQBAJ|year=2012|publisher=Casemate|isbn=978-0227680247|pages=20–22 with footnote 32}}</ref>{{Sfn|Keith E. Yandell | 2001| pp=7, 148}}


The traditional hagiographies of Ramanuja state he was born in a [[Brahmin]] family, to mother Kantimathi and father Kesava Somayaji,<ref name=mishraegr/> in a village near modern [[Chennai]].{{Sfn|Jones |Ryan |2006| p=352}} They place his life in the period of 1017–1137 CE, yielding a lifespan of 120 years.{{Sfn|Carman|1994|pp=45, 80}} These dates have been questioned by modern scholarship, based on temple records and regional literature of 11th- and 12th-century outside the Sri Vaishnava tradition, and modern era scholars suggest that Ramanuja may have lived between 1077-1157.{{Sfn|Carman|1974|pp=27-28, 45}}<ref name=mishraegr>{{cite book|title=Ramanuja (ca. 1077–ca. 1157) in ''Encyclopedia of Global Religion'' (Editors: Mark Juergensmeyer & Wade Clark Roof) |last=Mishra |first =Patit Paban| year=2012|doi=10.4135/9781412997898.n598}}</ref>{{Sfn|Jones |Ryan |2006| p=352}}
The traditional hagiographies of Rāmānuja state he was born in a [[Brahmin]] family, to mother Kantimathi and father Kesava Somayaji,<ref name=mishraegr/> in a village near modern [[Chennai]].{{Sfn|Jones |Ryan |2006| p=352}} They place his life in the period of 1017–1137 CE, yielding a lifespan of 120 years.{{Sfn|Carman|1994|pp=45, 80}} These dates have been questioned by modern scholarship, based on temple records and regional literature of 11th- and 12th-century outside the Sri Vaishnava tradition, and modern era scholars suggest that Rāmānuja may have lived between 1077-1157.{{Sfn|Carman|1974|pp=27-28, 45}}<ref name=mishraegr>{{cite book|title=Rāmānuja (ca. 1077–ca. 1157) in ''Encyclopedia of Global Religion'' (Editors: Mark Juergensmeyer & Wade Clark Roof) |last=Mishra |first =Patit Paban| year=2012|doi=10.4135/9781412997898.n598}}</ref>{{Sfn|Jones |Ryan |2006| p=352}}


Ramanuja married, moved to [[Kanchipuram]], studied in an Advaita Vedanta monastery with Yadava Prakasa as his guru.<ref name="M-WRamanuja"/><ref name=olivellehsarp10/><ref name=jabvanbuirhtp>J.A.B. van Buitenen (2008), [http://www.britannica.com/biography/Ramanuja Ramanuja - Hindu theologian and Philosopher], Encyclopedia Britannica</ref> Ramanuja and his guru frequently disagreed in interpreting Vedic texts, particularly the [[Upanishad]]s.<ref name=mishraegr/> Ramanuja and Yadava Prakasa separated, and thereafter Ramanuja continued his studies on his own.<ref name="Sydnor2012p20"/><ref name=jabvanbuirhtp/>
Rāmānuja married, moved to [[Kanchipuram]], studied in an Advaita Vedanta monastery with Yadava Prakasa as his guru.<ref name="M-WRāmānuja"/><ref name=olivellehsarp10/><ref name=jabvanbuirhtp>J.A.B. van Buitenen (2008), [http://www.britannica.com/biography/Rāmānuja Rāmānuja - Hindu theologian and Philosopher], Encyclopedia Britannica</ref> Rāmānuja and his guru frequently disagreed in interpreting Vedic texts, particularly the [[Upanishad]]s.<ref name=mishraegr/> Rāmānuja and Yadava Prakasa separated, and thereafter Rāmānuja continued his studies on his own.<ref name="Sydnor2012p20"/><ref name=jabvanbuirhtp/>


He attempted to meet another famed Vedanta scholar of 11th-century Yamunacharya, but Sri Vaishnava tradition holds that the latter died before the meeting and they never met.<ref name="Sydnor2012p20"/> However, some hagiographies assert that the corpse of Yamunacharya miraculously rose and named Ramanuja as the new leader of Sri Vaishnava sect previously led by Yamunacharya.<ref name="Sydnor2012p20"/> One hagiography states that after leaving Yadava Prakasa, Ramanuja was initiated into Sri Vaishnavism by Periya Nambi, also called Mahapurna, another Vedanta scholar. Ramanuja renounced his married life, and became a [[Sannyasa|Hindu monk]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Alkandavilli Govindāchārya|title=The Life of Râmânujâchârya: The Exponent of the Viśistâdvaita Philosophy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DOAoAAAAYAAJ |year=1906 |publisher=S. Murthy|pages=62–70}}</ref> However, states Katherine Young, the historical evidence on whether Ramanuja led a married life or did renounce and become a monk is uncertain.<ref name=kathyoungvp287/>
He attempted to meet another famed Vedanta scholar of 11th-century Yamunacharya, but Sri Vaishnava tradition holds that the latter died before the meeting and they never met.<ref name="Sydnor2012p20"/> However, some hagiographies assert that the corpse of Yamunacharya miraculously rose and named Rāmānuja as the new leader of Sri Vaishnava sect previously led by Yamunacharya.<ref name="Sydnor2012p20"/> One hagiography states that after leaving Yadava Prakasa, Rāmānuja was initiated into Sri Vaishnavism by Periya Nambi, also called Mahapurna, another Vedanta scholar. Rāmānuja renounced his married life, and became a [[Sannyasa|Hindu monk]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Alkandavilli Govindāchārya|title=The Life of Râmânujâchârya: The Exponent of the Viśistâdvaita Philosophy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DOAoAAAAYAAJ |year=1906 |publisher=S. Murthy|pages=62–70}}</ref> However, states Katherine Young, the historical evidence on whether Rāmānuja led a married life or did renounce and become a monk is uncertain.<ref name=kathyoungvp287/>


Ramanuja became the priest at the Varadaraja ([[Vishnu]]) Srirangam temple at [[Kanchipuram]], where he began to teach that [[moksha]] (liberation and release from samsara) is to be achieved not with metaphysical, ''nirguna'' [[Brahman]] but with the help of personal god and ''saguna'' Vishnu.<ref name=jabvanbuirhtp/><ref name="Sydnor2012p87">{{cite book|author=Jon Paul Sydnor|title=Ramanuja and Schleiermacher: Toward a Constructive Comparative Theology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ae4FBAAAQBAJ|year=2012|publisher=Casemate|isbn=978-0227680247|pages=84–87}}</ref> Ramanuja has long enjoyed foremost authority in the Sri Vaishnava tradition.{{Sfn|Carman|1994|p=82 with footnotes}} He reformed the Srirangam temple complex, undertook India-wide tours and expanded the reach of his organization.{{Sfn|Carman|1994|p=82 with footnotes}}
Rāmānuja became the priest at the Varadaraja ([[Vishnu]]) Srirangam temple at [[Kanchipuram]], where he began to teach that [[moksha]] (liberation and release from samsara) is to be achieved not with metaphysical, ''nirguna'' [[Brahman]] but with the help of personal god and ''saguna'' Vishnu.<ref name=jabvanbuirhtp/><ref name="Sydnor2012p87">{{cite book|author=Jon Paul Sydnor|title=Rāmānuja and Schleiermacher: Toward a Constructive Comparative Theology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ae4FBAAAQBAJ|year=2012|publisher=Casemate|isbn=978-0227680247|pages=84–87}}</ref> Rāmānuja has long enjoyed foremost authority in the Sri Vaishnava tradition.{{Sfn|Carman|1994|p=82 with footnotes}} He reformed the Srirangam temple complex, undertook India-wide tours and expanded the reach of his organization.{{Sfn|Carman|1994|p=82 with footnotes}}


===Biography===
===Biography===
A number of traditional biographies of Ramanuja are known, some written in 12th century, but some written centuries later such as the 17th or 18th century, particularly after the split of the {{IAST|Śrīvaiṣṇava}} community into the [[Vadakalais|{{IAST|Vadakalais}}]] and [[Teṉkalais|{{IAST|Teṉkalais}}]], where each community created its own version of Ramanuja's biography.<ref name=kathyoungvp287>{{cite book|author=Katherine Young|editor=Steven Rosen|title=Vaiṣṇavī|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xBEiXtey-9UC|year=1996|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1437-0|pages=286–288}}</ref> The ''{{IAST|Muvāyirappaṭi Guruparamparāprabhāva}}'' by Brahmatantra Svatantra Jīyar represents the earliest {{IAST|Vadakalai}} biography, and reflects the {{IAST|Vadakalai}} view of the succession following Ramanuja. ''{{IAST|Ārāyirappaṭi Guruparamparāprabhāva}}'', on the other hand, represents the Tenkalai biography.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} Other late biographies include the ''Yatirajavaibhavam'' by Andhrapurna.<ref name=kathyoungvp287/>
A number of traditional biographies of Rāmānuja are known, some written in 12th century, but some written centuries later such as the 17th or 18th century, particularly after the split of the {{IAST|Śrīvaiṣṇava}} community into the [[Vadakalais|{{IAST|Vadakalais}}]] and [[Teṉkalais|{{IAST|Teṉkalais}}]], where each community created its own version of Rāmānuja's biography.<ref name=kathyoungvp287>{{cite book|author=Katherine Young|editor=Steven Rosen|title=Vaiṣṇavī|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xBEiXtey-9UC|year=1996|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1437-0|pages=286–288}}</ref> The ''{{IAST|Muvāyirappaṭi Guruparamparāprabhāva}}'' by Brahmatantra Svatantra Jīyar represents the earliest {{IAST|Vadakalai}} biography, and reflects the {{IAST|Vadakalai}} view of the succession following Rāmānuja. ''{{IAST|Ārāyirappaṭi Guruparamparāprabhāva}}'', on the other hand, represents the Tenkalai biography.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} Other late biographies include the ''Yatirajavaibhavam'' by Andhrapurna.<ref name=kathyoungvp287/>


Modern scholarship has questioned the reliability of these hagiographies.{{Sfn|Keith E. Yandell | 2001| pp=149-150}} Scholars question their reliability because of claims which are impossible to verify, or whose historical basis is difficult to trace with claims such as Ramanuja learned the [[Vedas]] when he was an eight-day-old baby, he communicated with God as an adult, that he won philosophical debates with Buddhists, Advaitins and others because of supernatural means such as turning himself into "his divine self Sesa" to defeat the Buddhists, or God appearing in his dream when he prayed for arguments to answer Advaita scholars.{{Sfn|Keith E. Yandell | 2001| pp=149-150}} According to [[J. A. B. van Buitenen]], the hagiographies are "legendary biographies about him, in which a pious imagination has embroidered historical details".<ref name=jabvanbuirhtp/>
Modern scholarship has questioned the reliability of these hagiographies.{{Sfn|Keith E. Yandell | 2001| pp=149-150}} Scholars question their reliability because of claims which are impossible to verify, or whose historical basis is difficult to trace with claims such as Rāmānuja learned the [[Vedas]] when he was an eight-day-old baby, he communicated with God as an adult, that he won philosophical debates with Buddhists, Advaitins and others because of supernatural means such as turning himself into "his divine self Sesa" to defeat the Buddhists, or God appearing in his dream when he prayed for arguments to answer Advaita scholars.{{Sfn|Keith E. Yandell | 2001| pp=149-150}} According to [[J. A. B. van Buitenen]], the hagiographies are "legendary biographies about him, in which a pious imagination has embroidered historical details".<ref name=jabvanbuirhtp/>


== Historical background ==
== Historical background ==
Ramanuja was nurtured in the Tamil culture, in a stable society ruled by a strong Hindu Cholas dynasty.{{Sfn|Carman|1994|p=80}} This period was one of pluralistic beliefs, where Vaishnava, Shaiva, Smarta traditions, Buddhism and Jainism thrived together. In Hindu monastic tradition, Advaita Vedanta had been dominant,<ref name=olivellehsarp10/> and Ramanuja's guru Yadava Prakasha belonged to this tradition.<ref name=jabvanbuirhtp/> Prior to Ramanuja, the [[Srivaishnavite|Sri Sampradaya]] was already an established organization under Yamunacharya, and bhakti songs and devotional ideas already a part of south Indian culture because of the twelve [[Alvars]].<ref name="Sydnor2012p10">{{cite book| author=Jon Paul Sydnor| title=Ramanuja and Schleiermacher: Toward a Constructive Comparative Theology| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ae4FBAAAQBAJ| year=2012| publisher=Casemate|isbn=978-0227680247|pages=10–11}}</ref> Ramanuja's fame grew because he was considered the first thinker in centuries that disputed Shankara's theories, and offered an alternate interpretation of Upanishadic scriptures.{{Sfn|Carman|1994|p=80}}
Rāmānuja was nurtured in the Tamil culture, in a stable society ruled by a strong Hindu Cholas dynasty.{{Sfn|Carman|1994|p=80}} This period was one of pluralistic beliefs, where Vaishnava, Shaiva, Smarta traditions, Buddhism and Jainism thrived together. In Hindu monastic tradition, Advaita Vedanta had been dominant,<ref name=olivellehsarp10/> and Rāmānuja's guru Yadava Prakasha belonged to this tradition.<ref name=jabvanbuirhtp/> Prior to Rāmānuja, the [[Srivaishnavite|Sri Sampradaya]] was already an established organization under Yamunacharya, and bhakti songs and devotional ideas already a part of south Indian culture because of the twelve [[Alvars]].<ref name="Sydnor2012p10">{{cite book| author=Jon Paul Sydnor| title=Rāmānuja and Schleiermacher: Toward a Constructive Comparative Theology| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ae4FBAAAQBAJ| year=2012| publisher=Casemate|isbn=978-0227680247|pages=10–11}}</ref> Rāmānuja's fame grew because he was considered the first thinker in centuries that disputed Shankara's theories, and offered an alternate interpretation of Upanishadic scriptures.{{Sfn|Carman|1994|p=80}}


Some hagiographies, composed centuries after Ramanuja's death, state that he was expelled by a Chola king Kulottunga II,<ref name=kvraman15/> Ramanuja then moved to another kingdom for 12 years, converted a Jain king to Hinduism after miraculously healing his daughter, and later returned on his own to Tamil Nadu. However, verifiable historical evidence for these legends have been lacking, and epigraphical evidence establishes that Kulottunga II came to power in 1133 CE, while Ramanuja died in 1137 CE according to sources that claim Ramanuja was expelled.<ref name=kvraman15>{{cite book |author=K.V. Raman|title=Sri Varadarajaswami Temple, Kanchi: A Study of Its History, Art and Architecture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=myK8ZYEIu4YC |year=2003 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |isbn=978-81-7017-026-6|page=15}}</ref> According to John Carman, Ramanuja and his Srivaiṣṇava disciples lived under the relatively stable and non-sectarian climate of the Chola empire, before its decline in the late 12th and 13th centuries.{{Sfn|Carman|1974|p=27}}
Some hagiographies, composed centuries after Rāmānuja's death, state that he was expelled by a Chola king Kulottunga II,<ref name=kvraman15/> Rāmānuja then moved to another kingdom for 12 years, converted a Jain king to Hinduism after miraculously healing his daughter, and later returned on his own to Tamil Nadu. However, verifiable historical evidence for these legends have been lacking, and epigraphical evidence establishes that Kulottunga II came to power in 1133 CE, while Rāmānuja died in 1137 CE according to sources that claim Rāmānuja was expelled.<ref name=kvraman15>{{cite book |author=K.V. Raman|title=Sri Varadarajaswami Temple, Kanchi: A Study of Its History, Art and Architecture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=myK8ZYEIu4YC |year=2003 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |isbn=978-81-7017-026-6|page=15}}</ref> According to John Carman, Rāmānuja and his Srivaiṣṇava disciples lived under the relatively stable and non-sectarian climate of the Chola empire, before its decline in the late 12th and 13th centuries.{{Sfn|Carman|1974|p=27}}


== Writings ==
== Writings ==
The Sri Vaisnava tradition attributes nine Sanskrit texts to Ramanuja – ''Vedarthasangraha'' (literally, "Summary of the Vedas meaning"), ''Sri Bhasya'' (a review and commentary on the ''[[Brahma Sutras]]''), ''Bhagavad Gita Bhashya'' (a review and commentary on the ''Bhagavad Gita''), and the minor works titled ''Vedantapida'', ''Vedantasara'', ''Gadya Traya'' (which is a compilation of three texts called the ''[[Saranagati Gadyam]]'', ''[[Sriranga Gadyam]]'' and the ''[[Vaikunta Gadyam]]''), and ''Nitya Grantham''.
The Sri Vaisnava tradition attributes nine Sanskrit texts to Rāmānuja – ''Vedarthasangraha'' (literally, "Summary of the Vedas meaning"), ''Sri Bhasya'' (a review and commentary on the ''[[Brahma Sutras]]''), ''Bhagavad Gita Bhashya'' (a review and commentary on the ''Bhagavad Gita''), and the minor works titled ''Vedantapida'', ''Vedantasara'', ''Gadya Traya'' (which is a compilation of three texts called the ''[[Saranagati Gadyam]]'', ''[[Sriranga Gadyam]]'' and the ''[[Vaikunta Gadyam]]''), and ''Nitya Grantham''.


Some modern scholars have questioned the authenticity of all but the three of the largest works credited to Ramanuja – Shri Bhashya, Vedarthasangraha and the Bhagavad Gita Bhashya.<ref>Robert Lester (1966), Ramanuja and Shri Vaishnavism: the Concept of Prapatti or Sharanagati, History of Religion, Volume 5, Issue 2, pages 266-282</ref><ref name="Sydnor2012p3">{{cite book|author=Jon Paul Sydnor|title=Ramanuja and Schleiermacher: Toward a Constructive Comparative Theology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ae4FBAAAQBAJ| year=2012| publisher=Casemate|isbn=978-0227680247|pages=3–4}}</ref>
Some modern scholars have questioned the authenticity of all but the three of the largest works credited to Rāmānuja – Shri Bhashya, Vedarthasangraha and the Bhagavad Gita Bhashya.<ref>Robert Lester (1966), Rāmānuja and Shri Vaishnavism: the Concept of Prapatti or Sharanagati, History of Religion, Volume 5, Issue 2, pages 266-282</ref><ref name="Sydnor2012p3">{{cite book|author=Jon Paul Sydnor|title=Rāmānuja and Schleiermacher: Toward a Constructive Comparative Theology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ae4FBAAAQBAJ| year=2012| publisher=Casemate|isbn=978-0227680247|pages=3–4}}</ref>


==Philosophy==
==Philosophy==
[[File:Shri Ramanujar pics 2.jpg|200px|thumb|right|The figure of Ramanujacharya inside the [[Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam]].]]
[[File:Shri Ramanujar pics 2.jpg|200px|thumb|right|The figure of Rāmānujacharya inside the [[Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam]].]]
Ramanuja's philosophical foundation was qualified [[monism]], and is called ''Vishishtadvaita'' in the Hindu tradition.<ref name=brucesullivan239/><ref name=joeschultz81/> His ideas are one of three subschools in [[Vedanta]], the other two are known as Adi Shankara's Advaita (absolute monism) and Madhvacharya's Dvaita (dualism).<ref name=brucesullivan239/>
Rāmānuja's philosophical foundation was qualified [[monism]], and is called ''Vishishtadvaita'' in the Hindu tradition.<ref name=brucesullivan239/><ref name=joeschultz81/> His ideas are one of three subschools in [[Vedanta]], the other two are known as Adi Shankara's Advaita (absolute monism) and Madhvacharya's Dvaita (dualism).<ref name=brucesullivan239/>


Ramanuja accepted that the Vedas are a reliable source of knowledge, then critiqued other schools of Hindu philosophy, including Advaita Vedanta, as having failed in interpreting all of the Vedic texts.<ref name=shyamriep/> He asserted, in his ''Sri Bhasya'', that ''purvapaksin'' (previous schools) selectively interpret those Upanishadic passages that support their monistic interpretation, and ignore those passages that support the pluralism interpretation.<ref name=shyamriep/> There is no reason, stated Ramanuja, to prefer one part of a scripture and not other, the whole of the scripture must be considered on par.<ref name=shyamriep/>{{Sfn|Carman|1994|p=86}} One cannot, according to Ramanuja, attempt to give interpretations of isolated portions of any scripture. Rather, the scripture must be considered one integrated corpus, expressing a consistent doctrine.<ref name=shyamriep/> The Vedic literature, asserted Ramanuja, mention both plurality and oneness, therefore the truth must incorporate pluralism and monism, or qualified monism.<ref name=shyamriep>Shyam Ranganathan (2011), [http://www.iep.utm.edu/ramanuja/ Rāmānuja (c. 1017 - c. 1137)], IEP, York University</ref>
Rāmānuja accepted that the Vedas are a reliable source of knowledge, then critiqued other schools of Hindu philosophy, including Advaita Vedanta, as having failed in interpreting all of the Vedic texts.<ref name=shyamriep/> He asserted, in his ''Sri Bhasya'', that ''purvapaksin'' (previous schools) selectively interpret those Upanishadic passages that support their monistic interpretation, and ignore those passages that support the pluralism interpretation.<ref name=shyamriep/> There is no reason, stated Rāmānuja, to prefer one part of a scripture and not other, the whole of the scripture must be considered on par.<ref name=shyamriep/>{{Sfn|Carman|1994|p=86}} One cannot, according to Rāmānuja, attempt to give interpretations of isolated portions of any scripture. Rather, the scripture must be considered one integrated corpus, expressing a consistent doctrine.<ref name=shyamriep/> The Vedic literature, asserted Rāmānuja, mention both plurality and oneness, therefore the truth must incorporate pluralism and monism, or qualified monism.<ref name=shyamriep>Shyam Ranganathan (2011), [http://www.iep.utm.edu/Rāmānuja/ Rāmānuja (c. 1017 - c. 1137)], IEP, York University</ref>


This method of scripture interpretation distinguishes Ramanuja from Adi Shankara.{{Sfn|Carman|1994|p=86}} Shankara's exegetical approach ''Samanvayat Tatparya Linga'' with ''Anvaya-Vyatireka'',{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=46–53}} states that for proper understanding all texts must be examined in their entirety and then their intent established by six characteristics, which includes studying what is stated by the author to be his goal, what he repeats in his explanation, then what he states as conclusion and whether it can be [[epistemology|epistemically]] verified.<ref>Mayeda & Tanizawa (1991), Studies on Indian Philosophy in Japan, 1963–1987, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 41, No. 4, pages 529–535</ref><ref>Michael Comans (1996), Śankara and the Prasankhyanavada, Journal of Indian Philosophy, Vol. 24, No. 1, pages 49–71</ref> Not everything in any text, states Shankara, has equal weight and some ideas are the essence of any expert's textual testimony.{{Sfn|Carman|1994|p=86}} This philosophical difference in scriptural studies, helped Shankara conclude that the [[Principal Upanishads]] primarily teach monism with teachings such as ''Tat tvam asi'', while helping Ramanuja conclude that qualified monism is at the foundation of Hindu spirituality.<ref name=shyamriep/>{{Sfn|Carman|1994|pp=86-88}}<ref>Julius Lipner (1986), The Face of Truth: A Study of Meaning and Metaphysics in the Vedantic Theology of Ramanuja, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0887060397, pages 120-123</ref>
This method of scripture interpretation distinguishes Rāmānuja from Adi Shankara.{{Sfn|Carman|1994|p=86}} Shankara's exegetical approach ''Samanvayat Tatparya Linga'' with ''Anvaya-Vyatireka'',{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=46–53}} states that for proper understanding all texts must be examined in their entirety and then their intent established by six characteristics, which includes studying what is stated by the author to be his goal, what he repeats in his explanation, then what he states as conclusion and whether it can be [[epistemology|epistemically]] verified.<ref>Mayeda & Tanizawa (1991), Studies on Indian Philosophy in Japan, 1963–1987, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 41, No. 4, pages 529–535</ref><ref>Michael Comans (1996), Śankara and the Prasankhyanavada, Journal of Indian Philosophy, Vol. 24, No. 1, pages 49–71</ref> Not everything in any text, states Shankara, has equal weight and some ideas are the essence of any expert's textual testimony.{{Sfn|Carman|1994|p=86}} This philosophical difference in scriptural studies, helped Shankara conclude that the [[Principal Upanishads]] primarily teach monism with teachings such as ''Tat tvam asi'', while helping Rāmānuja conclude that qualified monism is at the foundation of Hindu spirituality.<ref name=shyamriep/>{{Sfn|Carman|1994|pp=86-88}}<ref>Julius Lipner (1986), The Face of Truth: A Study of Meaning and Metaphysics in the Vedantic Theology of Rāmānuja, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0887060397, pages 120-123</ref>


===Comparison with other Vedanta schools===
===Comparison with other Vedanta schools===
[[File:Ramanuja embracing Lord Varadaraj.jpg|thumb|right|Ramanujacharya depicted with Vaishnava [[Tilaka]] and Varadraja (Vishnu) statue.]]
[[File:Ramanuja embracing Lord Varadaraj.jpg|thumb|right|Rāmānujacharya depicted with Vaishnava [[Tilaka]] and Varadraja (Vishnu) statue.]]
Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita shares the theistic devotionalism ideas with [[Madhvacharya]]'s Dvaita.{{Sfn|Sharma|1994|p=11-17, 372}} Both schools assert that Jiva (human souls) and Brahman (as Vishnu) are different, a difference that is never transcended.<ref name=staffordbetty215>Stafford Betty (2010), Dvaita, Advaita, and Viśiṣṭādvaita: Contrasting Views of Mokṣa, Asian Philosophy: An International Journal of the Philosophical Traditions of the East, Volume 20, Issue 2, pages 215-224</ref><ref>Edward Craig (2000), Concise Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415223645, pages 517-518</ref> God Vishnu alone is independent, all other gods and beings are dependent on Him, according to both Madhvacharya and Ramanuja.{{Sfn|Sharma|1994|p=373}} However, in contrast to Madhvacharya's views, Ramanuja asserts "qualified non-dualism",{{Sfn|Stoker|2011}} that souls share the same essential nature of Brahman,{{Sfn|Stoker|2011}} and that there is a universal sameness in the quality and degree of bliss possible for human souls, and every soul can reach the bliss state of God Himself.<ref name=staffordbetty215/>{{Sfn|Sharma|1994|pp=373-374}} While the 13th- to 14th-century Madhvacharya asserted both "qualitative and quantitative pluralism of souls", Ramanuja asserted "qualitative monism and quantitative pluralism of souls", states Sharma.{{Sfn|Sharma|1994|p=374}}
Rāmānuja's Vishishtadvaita shares the theistic devotionalism ideas with [[Madhvacharya]]'s Dvaita.{{Sfn|Sharma|1994|p=11-17, 372}} Both schools assert that Jiva (human souls) and Brahman (as Vishnu) are different, a difference that is never transcended.<ref name=staffordbetty215>Stafford Betty (2010), Dvaita, Advaita, and Viśiṣṭādvaita: Contrasting Views of Mokṣa, Asian Philosophy: An International Journal of the Philosophical Traditions of the East, Volume 20, Issue 2, pages 215-224</ref><ref>Edward Craig (2000), Concise Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415223645, pages 517-518</ref> God Vishnu alone is independent, all other gods and beings are dependent on Him, according to both Madhvacharya and Rāmānuja.{{Sfn|Sharma|1994|p=373}} However, in contrast to Madhvacharya's views, Rāmānuja asserts "qualified non-dualism",{{Sfn|Stoker|2011}} that souls share the same essential nature of Brahman,{{Sfn|Stoker|2011}} and that there is a universal sameness in the quality and degree of bliss possible for human souls, and every soul can reach the bliss state of God Himself.<ref name=staffordbetty215/>{{Sfn|Sharma|1994|pp=373-374}} While the 13th- to 14th-century Madhvacharya asserted both "qualitative and quantitative pluralism of souls", Rāmānuja asserted "qualitative monism and quantitative pluralism of souls", states Sharma.{{Sfn|Sharma|1994|p=374}}


Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita school and [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]]'s Advaita school are both nondualism Vedanta schools,<ref name=jabvanbuirhtp/><ref name=cetternonplu/> both are premised on the assumption that all souls can hope for and achieve the state of blissful liberation; in contrast, Madhvacharya believed that some souls are eternally doomed and damned.{{Sfn|Sharma|1994|pp=374-375}}{{Sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=361-362}} Shankara's theory posits that only Brahman and causes are metaphysical unchanging reality, while the empirical world ([[Maya (illusion)|Maya]]) and observed effects are changing, illusive and of relative existence.<ref name="Sydnor2012p87"/><ref name=joeschultz81/> Spiritual liberation to Shankara is the full comprehension and realization of oneness of one's unchanging Atman (soul) as the same as Atman in everyone else as well as being identical to the ''nirguna'' Brahman.<ref name=williamindichcav1/><ref name=cetternonplu>{{cite book|author=Christopher Etter|title=A Study of Qualitative Non-Pluralism| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jW2pcWpXY8wC| year=2006| publisher=iUniverse|isbn=978-0-595-39312-1|pages=57–60, 63–65}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Roy W. Perrett|title=Philosophy of Religion: Indian Philosophy| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=edhYAQAAQBAJ| year=2013| publisher=Routledge| isbn=978-1-135-70322-6| pages=247–248}}</ref> In contrast, Ramanuja's theory posits both Brahman and the world of matter are two different absolutes, both metaphysically real, neither should be called false or illusive, and ''saguna'' Brahman with attributes is also real.<ref name=joeschultz81/> God, like man, states Ramanuja, has both soul and body, and all of the world of matter is the glory of God's body.<ref name=jabvanbuirhtp/> The path to Brahman (Vishnu), asserted Ramanuja, is devotion to godliness and constant remembrance of the beauty and love of personal god (''saguna'' Brahman, Vishnu), one which ultimately leads one to the oneness with ''nirguna'' Brahman.<ref name=jabvanbuirhtp/><ref name="Sydnor2012p87"/><ref name=joeschultz81/>
Rāmānuja's Vishishtadvaita school and [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]]'s Advaita school are both nondualism Vedanta schools,<ref name=jabvanbuirhtp/><ref name=cetternonplu/> both are premised on the assumption that all souls can hope for and achieve the state of blissful liberation; in contrast, Madhvacharya believed that some souls are eternally doomed and damned.{{Sfn|Sharma|1994|pp=374-375}}{{Sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=361-362}} Shankara's theory posits that only Brahman and causes are metaphysical unchanging reality, while the empirical world ([[Maya (illusion)|Maya]]) and observed effects are changing, illusive and of relative existence.<ref name="Sydnor2012p87"/><ref name=joeschultz81/> Spiritual liberation to Shankara is the full comprehension and realization of oneness of one's unchanging Atman (soul) as the same as Atman in everyone else as well as being identical to the ''nirguna'' Brahman.<ref name=williamindichcav1/><ref name=cetternonplu>{{cite book|author=Christopher Etter|title=A Study of Qualitative Non-Pluralism| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jW2pcWpXY8wC| year=2006| publisher=iUniverse|isbn=978-0-595-39312-1|pages=57–60, 63–65}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Roy W. Perrett|title=Philosophy of Religion: Indian Philosophy| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=edhYAQAAQBAJ| year=2013| publisher=Routledge| isbn=978-1-135-70322-6| pages=247–248}}</ref> In contrast, Rāmānuja's theory posits both Brahman and the world of matter are two different absolutes, both metaphysically real, neither should be called false or illusive, and ''saguna'' Brahman with attributes is also real.<ref name=joeschultz81/> God, like man, states Rāmānuja, has both soul and body, and all of the world of matter is the glory of God's body.<ref name=jabvanbuirhtp/> The path to Brahman (Vishnu), asserted Rāmānuja, is devotion to godliness and constant remembrance of the beauty and love of personal god (''saguna'' Brahman, Vishnu), one which ultimately leads one to the oneness with ''nirguna'' Brahman.<ref name=jabvanbuirhtp/><ref name="Sydnor2012p87"/><ref name=joeschultz81/>


== Influence ==
== Influence ==
[[Harold Coward]] describes Ramanuja as "the founding interpreter of [Sri Vaisnavite] scripture."<ref name="Coward">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UVsXcS3xPFsC|title= The Perfectibility of Human Nature in Eastern and Western Thought |first=Harold G. |last=Coward |authorlink=Harold Coward |pages=139–141 |publisher=State University of New York Press|location=Albany, NY |isbn=9780791473351 |year=2008}}</ref> Wendy Doniger calls him "probably the single most influential thinker of devotional Hinduism".<ref name="M-WRamanuja">{{cite book | title=Merriam-Webster's encyclopedia of world religions | last=Doniger | first=Wendy | year=1999 | publisher=Merriam-Webster | page=904 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZP_f9icf2roC | isbn=978-0-87779-044-0}}</ref> [[J. A. B. van Buitenen]] states Ramanuja was highly influential, by giving "bhakti an intellectual basis", and his efforts made [[bhakti]] the major force within different traditions within Hinduism.<ref name=jabvanbuirhtp/>
[[Harold Coward]] describes Rāmānuja as "the founding interpreter of [Sri Vaisnavite] scripture."<ref name="Coward">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UVsXcS3xPFsC|title= The Perfectibility of Human Nature in Eastern and Western Thought |first=Harold G. |last=Coward |authorlink=Harold Coward |pages=139–141 |publisher=State University of New York Press|location=Albany, NY |isbn=9780791473351 |year=2008}}</ref> Wendy Doniger calls him "probably the single most influential thinker of devotional Hinduism".<ref name="M-WRāmānuja">{{cite book | title=Merriam-Webster's encyclopedia of world religions | last=Doniger | first=Wendy | year=1999 | publisher=Merriam-Webster | page=904 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZP_f9icf2roC | isbn=978-0-87779-044-0}}</ref> [[J. A. B. van Buitenen]] states Rāmānuja was highly influential, by giving "bhakti an intellectual basis", and his efforts made [[bhakti]] the major force within different traditions within Hinduism.<ref name=jabvanbuirhtp/>


[[File:Srirangamlong view.jpg|thumb|Major Vaishnava temples are associated with the Ramanuja's tradition, such as the above Srirangam Ranganatha temple in Tamil Nadu.<ref name=jabvanbuirhtp/>]]
[[File:Srirangamlong view.jpg|thumb|Major Vaishnava temples are associated with the Rāmānuja's tradition, such as the above Srirangam Ranganatha temple in Tamil Nadu.<ref name=jabvanbuirhtp/>]]
Modern scholars have compared the importance of Ramanuja in Hinduism to that of 13th-century scholar [[Thomas Aquinas]] in Christianity.<ref>{{cite journal| last1=Ganeri| first1=Martin| title=Knowledge and Love of God in Ramanuja and Aquinas| journal=Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies| volume=20| issue=1|year=2007 |doi=10.7825/2164-6279.1381}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| last1=Carman| first1=John B.| title=Loving God as a Devoted Servant| journal=Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies| volume=20| issue=1| year=2007| doi=10.7825/2164-6279.1384}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Sean Doyle|title=Synthesizing the Vedanta: The Theology of Pierre Johanns, S.J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-S7DJLnkwG4C|year=2006|publisher=Peter Lang|isbn=978-3-03910-708-7|pages=235–239}}</ref>
Modern scholars have compared the importance of Rāmānuja in Hinduism to that of 13th-century scholar [[Thomas Aquinas]] in Christianity.<ref>{{cite journal| last1=Ganeri| first1=Martin| title=Knowledge and Love of God in Rāmānuja and Aquinas| journal=Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies| volume=20| issue=1|year=2007 |doi=10.7825/2164-6279.1381}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| last1=Carman| first1=John B.| title=Loving God as a Devoted Servant| journal=Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies| volume=20| issue=1| year=2007| doi=10.7825/2164-6279.1384}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Sean Doyle|title=Synthesizing the Vedanta: The Theology of Pierre Johanns, S.J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-S7DJLnkwG4C|year=2006|publisher=Peter Lang|isbn=978-3-03910-708-7|pages=235–239}}</ref>


Ramanuja not only developed theories and published philosophical works, he organized a network of temples for Vishnu-Lakshmi worship.<ref name="M-WRamanuja"/> Ramanuja set up centers of studies for his philosophy during the 11th- and 12th-century, by traveling through India in that era, and these influenced generations of poet saints devoted to the Bhakti movement.<ref name="M-WRamanuja"/> Regional traditions assert that his visits, debates and discourses triggered conversion of Jains and Buddhists to Vaishnavism in Mysore and Deccan region.<ref name="M-WRamanuja"/><ref name=joeschultz81>{{cite book|author=Joseph P. Schultz|title=Judaism and the Gentile Faiths: Comparative Studies in Religion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dchpiP-9YQAC|year=1981|publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson University Press|isbn=978-0-8386-1707-6|pages=81–84}}</ref>
Rāmānuja not only developed theories and published philosophical works, he organized a network of temples for Vishnu-Lakshmi worship.<ref name="M-WRāmānuja"/> Rāmānuja set up centers of studies for his philosophy during the 11th- and 12th-century, by traveling through India in that era, and these influenced generations of poet saints devoted to the Bhakti movement.<ref name="M-WRāmānuja"/> Regional traditions assert that his visits, debates and discourses triggered conversion of Jains and Buddhists to Vaishnavism in Mysore and Deccan region.<ref name="M-WRāmānuja"/><ref name=joeschultz81>{{cite book|author=Joseph P. Schultz|title=Judaism and the Gentile Faiths: Comparative Studies in Religion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dchpiP-9YQAC|year=1981|publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson University Press|isbn=978-0-8386-1707-6|pages=81–84}}</ref>


The birthplace of Ramanuja near Chennai hosts a temple and is an active Vishishtadvaita school.<ref name=jabvanbuirhtp/> His doctrines inspire a lively intellectual tradition in southern, northern and eastern states of India, his monastery and temple traditions are carried on in the most important and large Vaishnava centres – the [[Ranganatha temple]] in [[Srirangam]], [[Tamil Nadu]], and the [[Venkateswara Temple, Tirumala]] in [[Tirupati]], [[Andhra Pradesh]].<ref name=jabvanbuirhtp/>
The birthplace of Rāmānuja near Chennai hosts a temple and is an active Vishishtadvaita school.<ref name=jabvanbuirhtp/> His doctrines inspire a lively intellectual tradition in southern, northern and eastern states of India, his monastery and temple traditions are carried on in the most important and large Vaishnava centres – the [[Ranganatha temple]] in [[Srirangam]], [[Tamil Nadu]], and the [[Venkateswara Temple, Tirumala]] in [[Tirupati]], [[Andhra Pradesh]].<ref name=jabvanbuirhtp/>


The [[Swaminarayan]] tradition of [[Gujarat]] also traces its acharya-parampara to Ramanuja through [[Ramananda]] (who according to legend was administered ''pancha-samskara''s by Ramanuja).{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}
The [[Swaminarayan]] tradition of [[Gujarat]] also traces its acharya-parampara to Rāmānuja through [[Ramananda]] (who according to legend was administered ''pancha-samskara''s by Rāmānuja).{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}


==Disciples==
==Disciples==
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==Names==
==Names==
He is also known as Sri Ramanujacharya, Udayavar, Ethirajar (Yatiraja, king of monks), Bhashyakarar, Godaagrajar, Thiruppavai Jeeyar, Emberumannar and Lakshmana Muni <ref>{{cite news|title=Sri Ramanuja's gift to the Lord|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-editorialfeatures/sri-ramanujas-gift-to-the-lord/article4233363.ece|accessdate=|newspaper=The Hindu|date=24 December 2012|location=India}}</ref>
He is also known as Sri Rāmānujacharya, Udayavar, Ethirajar (Yatiraja, king of monks), Bhashyakarar, Godaagrajar, Thiruppavai Jeeyar, Emberumannar and Lakshmana Muni <ref>{{cite news|title=Sri Rāmānuja's gift to the Lord|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-editorialfeatures/sri-Rāmānujas-gift-to-the-lord/article4233363.ece|accessdate=|newspaper=The Hindu|date=24 December 2012|location=India}}</ref>


==See also==
==See also==
*[[Hindu philosophy]]
*[[Hindu philosophy]]
*[[Subala Upanishad]] – a minor Upanishad repeatedly cited by Ramanuja, and influential to his ideas
*[[Subala Upanishad]] – a minor Upanishad repeatedly cited by Rāmānuja, and influential to his ideas
*[[Yoga (philosophy)]]
*[[Yoga (philosophy)]]
*[[Vishnuvardhana]] [[Vishnuvardhana]]
*[[Vishnuvardhana]]


== References ==
== References ==
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===Bibliography===
===Bibliography===
*{{cite book |last=Ayyangar |first=S. Krishnaswami |last2=Chariar, |first2=Rajagopala |last3=Rangacharya |first3=M |title=Sri Ramanujacharya: a sketch of his life and times and His Philosophical System |year=1911 |publisher=G. A. Natesan & Co.}}
*{{cite book |last=Ayyangar |first=S. Krishnaswami |last2=Chariar, |first2=Rajagopala |last3=Rangacharya |first3=M |title=Sri Rāmānujacharya: a sketch of his life and times and His Philosophical System |year=1911 |publisher=G. A. Natesan & Co.}}
*{{cite book|author=C. J. Bartley |title=The Theology of Ramanuja: Realism and Religion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9SpTAQAAQBAJ| year=2013| publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-85306-7| ref=harv|pages=1–4, 52–53, 79}}
*{{cite book|author=C. J. Bartley |title=The Theology of Rāmānuja: Realism and Religion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9SpTAQAAQBAJ| year=2013| publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-85306-7| ref=harv|pages=1–4, 52–53, 79}}
* {{Cite book|first=Edwin |last= Bryant| title=Krishna : A Sourcebook (Chapter 15 by Deepak Sarma)| publisher= Oxford University Press| year= 2007| isbn= 978-0195148923|ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|first=Edwin |last= Bryant| title=Krishna : A Sourcebook (Chapter 15 by Deepak Sarma)| publisher= Oxford University Press| year= 2007| isbn= 978-0195148923|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book | last=Carman | first=John | title=The Theology of Rāmānuja: An essay in interreligious understanding | publisher=Yale University Press | year=1974 |isbn= 978-0300015218 |ref=harv}}
*{{cite book | last=Carman | first=John | title=The Theology of Rāmānuja: An essay in interreligious understanding | publisher=Yale University Press | year=1974 |isbn= 978-0300015218 |ref=harv}}
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* {{cite book |last=Duraisingh |first=Christopher |title=Toward an Indian-Christian Theology, Rāmānuja's Significance a Study of the Significance of Rāmānuja's Theological Hermeneutics for an Indian-Christian Understanding of the Relation Between God and All-else |publisher= Harvard University Press |year=1979}}
* {{cite book |last=Duraisingh |first=Christopher |title=Toward an Indian-Christian Theology, Rāmānuja's Significance a Study of the Significance of Rāmānuja's Theological Hermeneutics for an Indian-Christian Understanding of the Relation Between God and All-else |publisher= Harvard University Press |year=1979}}
* {{Citation | last1 =Jones | first1 =Constance | last2 =Ryan | first2 =James D. | year =2006 | title =Encyclopedia of Hinduism | publisher =Infobase Publishing | ref=harv}}
* {{Citation | last1 =Jones | first1 =Constance | last2 =Ryan | first2 =James D. | year =2006 | title =Encyclopedia of Hinduism | publisher =Infobase Publishing | ref=harv}}
*{{cite book |last=Lott |first=Eric J. |authorlink=Eric J. Lott |title=God and the universe in the Vedāntic theology of Rāmānuja: a study in his use of the self-body analogy| publisher=Ramanuja Research Society |year=1976}}
*{{cite book |last=Lott |first=Eric J. |authorlink=Eric J. Lott |title=God and the universe in the Vedāntic theology of Rāmānuja: a study in his use of the self-body analogy| publisher=Rāmānuja Research Society |year=1976}}
*{{cite book |last=Govindacharya |first=A. |title=The Life of Rāmānuja |publisher=S. Murthy |year=1960}}
*{{cite book |last=Govindacharya |first=A. |title=The Life of Rāmānuja |publisher=S. Murthy |year=1960}}
*{{cite book |last=Mayeda |first=Sengaku |year=2006 |title=A thousand teachings : the Upadeśasāhasrī of Śaṅkara |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-2771-4 |ref=harv}}
*{{cite book |last=Mayeda |first=Sengaku |year=2006 |title=A thousand teachings : the Upadeśasāhasrī of Śaṅkara |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-2771-4 |ref=harv}}
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*{{cite book |last=Sharma |first=Arvind |title={{IAST|Viśiṣṭādvaita Vedānta}}: A study |publisher=Heritage Publishers |year=1978}}
*{{cite book |last=Sharma |first=Arvind |title={{IAST|Viśiṣṭādvaita Vedānta}}: A study |publisher=Heritage Publishers |year=1978}}
* {{cite book|last=Sharma |first=Chandradhar |title=A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy|year= 1994|publisher= Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=81-208-0365-5 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Sharma |first=Chandradhar |title=A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy|year= 1994|publisher= Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=81-208-0365-5 |ref=harv}}
*{{cite book |last=Aiyengar |first=C.&nbsp;R. Srinivasa |publisher=R. Venkateshwar |date=n.d. |title=The Life and Teachings of Sri Ramanujacharya}}
*{{cite book |last=Aiyengar |first=C.&nbsp;R. Srinivasa |publisher=R. Venkateshwar |date=n.d. |title=The Life and Teachings of Sri Rāmānujacharya}}
*{{cite web|title=Madhva (1238-1317) |first= Valerie| last= Stoker| publisher= Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|year=2011 |accessdate=2 February 2016| url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/madhva/ | ref=harv}}
*{{cite web|title=Madhva (1238-1317) |first= Valerie| last= Stoker| publisher= Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|year=2011 |accessdate=2 February 2016| url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/madhva/ | ref=harv}}
*{{cite book |last=Subramanian |first=T. N. |title=South Indian Temple Inscriptions |journal=Madras Government Oriental Series, no. 157 |volume=3 |issue=2 |year=1957 |pages=145–60}}
*{{cite book |last=Subramanian |first=T. N. |title=South Indian Temple Inscriptions |journal=Madras Government Oriental Series, no. 157 |volume=3 |issue=2 |year=1957 |pages=145–60}}
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{{Wikiquote}}
{{Wikiquote}}
'''Biographies'''
'''Biographies'''
* [http://www.iep.utm.edu/r/ramanuja.htm Biography and works], The Internet encyclopaedia of Philosophy
* [http://www.iep.utm.edu/r/Ramanuja.htm Biography and works], The Internet encyclopaedia of Philosophy
* [http://sanskrit.org/?p=95 Biography of Ramanuja], ''Sanskrit.org''
* [http://sanskrit.org/?p=95 Biography of Ramanuja], ''Sanskrit.org''


'''Works'''
'''Works'''
* [http://faculty.washington.edu/kpotter/ckeyt/txt3.htm Bibliography of Ramanuja's works, Item 637], Karl Potter, University of Washington
* [http://faculty.washington.edu/kpotter/ckeyt/txt3.htm Bibliography of Ramanuja's works, Item 637], Karl Potter, University of Washington
* [http://www.bharatadesam.com/spiritual/brahma_sutra/sribhashya_ramanuja/vedanta_sutra_commentary_ramanujaindex.php Sri Bhashya: Ramanuja's commentary on Vedanta Sutras], translated By George Thibaut (1904)
* [http://www.bharatadesam.com/spiritual/brahma_sutra/sribhashya_Ramanuja/vedanta_sutra_commentary_Ramanujaindex.php Sri Bhashya: Ramanuja's commentary on Vedanta Sutras], translated By George Thibaut (1904)
* {{Gutenberg author | id=Ramanuja | name=Ramanuja}}
* {{Gutenberg author | id=Ramanuja | name=Ramanuja}}
* {{Internet Archive author |search=("Ramanujacharya" OR "Ramanuja" OR "Udayavar" OR "Ethirajar" OR "Emberumannar" OR "Lakshmana Muni")}}
* {{Internet Archive author |search=("Ramanujacharya" OR "Ramanuja" OR "Udayavar" OR "Ethirajar" OR "Emberumannar" OR "Lakshmana Muni")}}


'''Others'''
'''Others'''
* [http://www.ramanuja.org/ Ramanuja.org]
* [http://www.Ramanuja.org/ Ramanuja.org]


{{Hindudharma}}
{{Hindudharma}}

Revision as of 06:32, 1 February 2017

Rāmānuja, Tamil: இராமானுஜர்.
File:Ramanujacharya.jpg
Personal
Born
Iḷaiyāḻvār[citation needed], Tamil: இளையாழ்வார்.

1017 CE
Sriperumbudur, Tamil Nadu, India
Died1137 CE
Sri Rangam, Tamil Nadu, India
Organization
PhilosophyVishishtadvaita
HonorsEmberumaar, Udayavar, Yatiraja (king of sannyasis)
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Rāmānuja (traditionally, 1017–1137 CE) was a Hindu theologian, philosopher, and one of the most important exponents of the Sri Vaishnavism tradition within Hinduism.[1][2] He was born in a Tamil Brahmin family in the village of Sriperumbudur, Tamil Nadu.[3] His philosophical foundations for devotionalism were influential to the Bhakti movement.[1][4][5]

Rāmānuja's guru was Yadava Prakasha, a scholar who was a part of the more ancient Advaita Vedanta monastic tradition.[6] Sri Vaishnava tradition holds that Rāmānuja disagreed with his guru and the non-dualistic Advaita Vedanta, and instead followed in the footsteps of Indian Alvars tradition, the scholars Nathamuni and Yamunacharya.[1] Rāmānuja is famous as the chief proponent of Vishishtadvaita subschool of Vedanta,[7][8] and his disciples were likely authors of texts such as the Shatyayaniya Upanishad.[6] Rāmānuja himself wrote influential texts, such as bhasya on the Brahma Sutras and the Bhagavad Gita, all in Sanskrit.[9]

His Vishishtadvaita (qualified monism) philosophy has competed with the Dvaita (theistic dualism) philosophy of Madhvacharya, and Advaita (monism) philosophy of Adi Shankara, together the three most influential Vedantic philosophies of the 2nd millennium.[10][11] Rāmānuja presented the epistemic and soteriological importance of bhakti, or the devotion to a personal God (Vishnu in Rāmānuja's case) as a means to spiritual liberation. His theories assert that there exists a plurality and distinction between Atman (soul) and Brahman (metaphysical, ultimate reality), while he also affirmed that there is unity of all souls and that the individual soul has the potential to realize identity with the Brahman.[12][11][13]

Biography

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Closeup of Vishnu, seated in the lotus position on a lotus. From depiction of the poet Jayadeva bowing to Vishnu, Gouache on paper Pahari, The very picture of devotion, bare-bodied, head bowed, legs crossed and hands folded, Jayadeva stands at left, with the implements of worship placed before the lotus-seat of Vishnu who sits there, blessing the poet.
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The details of historic Rāmānuja are unknown. His followers in the Vaishnava tradition wrote hagiographies, some of which were composed in centuries after his death, and which the tradition believes to be true.[2][14]

The traditional hagiographies of Rāmānuja state he was born in a Brahmin family, to mother Kantimathi and father Kesava Somayaji,[3] in a village near modern Chennai.[15] They place his life in the period of 1017–1137 CE, yielding a lifespan of 120 years.[16] These dates have been questioned by modern scholarship, based on temple records and regional literature of 11th- and 12th-century outside the Sri Vaishnava tradition, and modern era scholars suggest that Rāmānuja may have lived between 1077-1157.[17][3][15]

Rāmānuja married, moved to Kanchipuram, studied in an Advaita Vedanta monastery with Yadava Prakasa as his guru.[4][6][18] Rāmānuja and his guru frequently disagreed in interpreting Vedic texts, particularly the Upanishads.[3] Rāmānuja and Yadava Prakasa separated, and thereafter Rāmānuja continued his studies on his own.[2][18]

He attempted to meet another famed Vedanta scholar of 11th-century Yamunacharya, but Sri Vaishnava tradition holds that the latter died before the meeting and they never met.[2] However, some hagiographies assert that the corpse of Yamunacharya miraculously rose and named Rāmānuja as the new leader of Sri Vaishnava sect previously led by Yamunacharya.[2] One hagiography states that after leaving Yadava Prakasa, Rāmānuja was initiated into Sri Vaishnavism by Periya Nambi, also called Mahapurna, another Vedanta scholar. Rāmānuja renounced his married life, and became a Hindu monk.[19] However, states Katherine Young, the historical evidence on whether Rāmānuja led a married life or did renounce and become a monk is uncertain.[20]

Rāmānuja became the priest at the Varadaraja (Vishnu) Srirangam temple at Kanchipuram, where he began to teach that moksha (liberation and release from samsara) is to be achieved not with metaphysical, nirguna Brahman but with the help of personal god and saguna Vishnu.[18][21] Rāmānuja has long enjoyed foremost authority in the Sri Vaishnava tradition.[22] He reformed the Srirangam temple complex, undertook India-wide tours and expanded the reach of his organization.[22]

Biography

A number of traditional biographies of Rāmānuja are known, some written in 12th century, but some written centuries later such as the 17th or 18th century, particularly after the split of the Śrīvaiṣṇava community into the Vadakalais and Teṉkalais, where each community created its own version of Rāmānuja's biography.[20] The Muvāyirappaṭi Guruparamparāprabhāva by Brahmatantra Svatantra Jīyar represents the earliest Vadakalai biography, and reflects the Vadakalai view of the succession following Rāmānuja. Ārāyirappaṭi Guruparamparāprabhāva, on the other hand, represents the Tenkalai biography.[citation needed] Other late biographies include the Yatirajavaibhavam by Andhrapurna.[20]

Modern scholarship has questioned the reliability of these hagiographies.[23] Scholars question their reliability because of claims which are impossible to verify, or whose historical basis is difficult to trace with claims such as Rāmānuja learned the Vedas when he was an eight-day-old baby, he communicated with God as an adult, that he won philosophical debates with Buddhists, Advaitins and others because of supernatural means such as turning himself into "his divine self Sesa" to defeat the Buddhists, or God appearing in his dream when he prayed for arguments to answer Advaita scholars.[23] According to J. A. B. van Buitenen, the hagiographies are "legendary biographies about him, in which a pious imagination has embroidered historical details".[18]

Historical background

Rāmānuja was nurtured in the Tamil culture, in a stable society ruled by a strong Hindu Cholas dynasty.[24] This period was one of pluralistic beliefs, where Vaishnava, Shaiva, Smarta traditions, Buddhism and Jainism thrived together. In Hindu monastic tradition, Advaita Vedanta had been dominant,[6] and Rāmānuja's guru Yadava Prakasha belonged to this tradition.[18] Prior to Rāmānuja, the Sri Sampradaya was already an established organization under Yamunacharya, and bhakti songs and devotional ideas already a part of south Indian culture because of the twelve Alvars.[25] Rāmānuja's fame grew because he was considered the first thinker in centuries that disputed Shankara's theories, and offered an alternate interpretation of Upanishadic scriptures.[24]

Some hagiographies, composed centuries after Rāmānuja's death, state that he was expelled by a Chola king Kulottunga II,[26] Rāmānuja then moved to another kingdom for 12 years, converted a Jain king to Hinduism after miraculously healing his daughter, and later returned on his own to Tamil Nadu. However, verifiable historical evidence for these legends have been lacking, and epigraphical evidence establishes that Kulottunga II came to power in 1133 CE, while Rāmānuja died in 1137 CE according to sources that claim Rāmānuja was expelled.[26] According to John Carman, Rāmānuja and his Srivaiṣṇava disciples lived under the relatively stable and non-sectarian climate of the Chola empire, before its decline in the late 12th and 13th centuries.[27]

Writings

The Sri Vaisnava tradition attributes nine Sanskrit texts to Rāmānuja – Vedarthasangraha (literally, "Summary of the Vedas meaning"), Sri Bhasya (a review and commentary on the Brahma Sutras), Bhagavad Gita Bhashya (a review and commentary on the Bhagavad Gita), and the minor works titled Vedantapida, Vedantasara, Gadya Traya (which is a compilation of three texts called the Saranagati Gadyam, Sriranga Gadyam and the Vaikunta Gadyam), and Nitya Grantham.

Some modern scholars have questioned the authenticity of all but the three of the largest works credited to Rāmānuja – Shri Bhashya, Vedarthasangraha and the Bhagavad Gita Bhashya.[28][29]

Philosophy

The figure of Rāmānujacharya inside the Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam.

Rāmānuja's philosophical foundation was qualified monism, and is called Vishishtadvaita in the Hindu tradition.[11][30] His ideas are one of three subschools in Vedanta, the other two are known as Adi Shankara's Advaita (absolute monism) and Madhvacharya's Dvaita (dualism).[11]

Rāmānuja accepted that the Vedas are a reliable source of knowledge, then critiqued other schools of Hindu philosophy, including Advaita Vedanta, as having failed in interpreting all of the Vedic texts.[31] He asserted, in his Sri Bhasya, that purvapaksin (previous schools) selectively interpret those Upanishadic passages that support their monistic interpretation, and ignore those passages that support the pluralism interpretation.[31] There is no reason, stated Rāmānuja, to prefer one part of a scripture and not other, the whole of the scripture must be considered on par.[31][32] One cannot, according to Rāmānuja, attempt to give interpretations of isolated portions of any scripture. Rather, the scripture must be considered one integrated corpus, expressing a consistent doctrine.[31] The Vedic literature, asserted Rāmānuja, mention both plurality and oneness, therefore the truth must incorporate pluralism and monism, or qualified monism.[31]

This method of scripture interpretation distinguishes Rāmānuja from Adi Shankara.[32] Shankara's exegetical approach Samanvayat Tatparya Linga with Anvaya-Vyatireka,[33] states that for proper understanding all texts must be examined in their entirety and then their intent established by six characteristics, which includes studying what is stated by the author to be his goal, what he repeats in his explanation, then what he states as conclusion and whether it can be epistemically verified.[34][35] Not everything in any text, states Shankara, has equal weight and some ideas are the essence of any expert's textual testimony.[32] This philosophical difference in scriptural studies, helped Shankara conclude that the Principal Upanishads primarily teach monism with teachings such as Tat tvam asi, while helping Rāmānuja conclude that qualified monism is at the foundation of Hindu spirituality.[31][36][37]

Comparison with other Vedanta schools

File:Ramanuja embracing Lord Varadaraj.jpg
Rāmānujacharya depicted with Vaishnava Tilaka and Varadraja (Vishnu) statue.

Rāmānuja's Vishishtadvaita shares the theistic devotionalism ideas with Madhvacharya's Dvaita.[38] Both schools assert that Jiva (human souls) and Brahman (as Vishnu) are different, a difference that is never transcended.[39][40] God Vishnu alone is independent, all other gods and beings are dependent on Him, according to both Madhvacharya and Rāmānuja.[41] However, in contrast to Madhvacharya's views, Rāmānuja asserts "qualified non-dualism",[42] that souls share the same essential nature of Brahman,[42] and that there is a universal sameness in the quality and degree of bliss possible for human souls, and every soul can reach the bliss state of God Himself.[39][43] While the 13th- to 14th-century Madhvacharya asserted both "qualitative and quantitative pluralism of souls", Rāmānuja asserted "qualitative monism and quantitative pluralism of souls", states Sharma.[44]

Rāmānuja's Vishishtadvaita school and Shankara's Advaita school are both nondualism Vedanta schools,[18][45] both are premised on the assumption that all souls can hope for and achieve the state of blissful liberation; in contrast, Madhvacharya believed that some souls are eternally doomed and damned.[46][47] Shankara's theory posits that only Brahman and causes are metaphysical unchanging reality, while the empirical world (Maya) and observed effects are changing, illusive and of relative existence.[21][30] Spiritual liberation to Shankara is the full comprehension and realization of oneness of one's unchanging Atman (soul) as the same as Atman in everyone else as well as being identical to the nirguna Brahman.[10][45][48] In contrast, Rāmānuja's theory posits both Brahman and the world of matter are two different absolutes, both metaphysically real, neither should be called false or illusive, and saguna Brahman with attributes is also real.[30] God, like man, states Rāmānuja, has both soul and body, and all of the world of matter is the glory of God's body.[18] The path to Brahman (Vishnu), asserted Rāmānuja, is devotion to godliness and constant remembrance of the beauty and love of personal god (saguna Brahman, Vishnu), one which ultimately leads one to the oneness with nirguna Brahman.[18][21][30]

Influence

Harold Coward describes Rāmānuja as "the founding interpreter of [Sri Vaisnavite] scripture."[49] Wendy Doniger calls him "probably the single most influential thinker of devotional Hinduism".[4] J. A. B. van Buitenen states Rāmānuja was highly influential, by giving "bhakti an intellectual basis", and his efforts made bhakti the major force within different traditions within Hinduism.[18]

Major Vaishnava temples are associated with the Rāmānuja's tradition, such as the above Srirangam Ranganatha temple in Tamil Nadu.[18]

Modern scholars have compared the importance of Rāmānuja in Hinduism to that of 13th-century scholar Thomas Aquinas in Christianity.[50][51][52]

Rāmānuja not only developed theories and published philosophical works, he organized a network of temples for Vishnu-Lakshmi worship.[4] Rāmānuja set up centers of studies for his philosophy during the 11th- and 12th-century, by traveling through India in that era, and these influenced generations of poet saints devoted to the Bhakti movement.[4] Regional traditions assert that his visits, debates and discourses triggered conversion of Jains and Buddhists to Vaishnavism in Mysore and Deccan region.[4][30]

The birthplace of Rāmānuja near Chennai hosts a temple and is an active Vishishtadvaita school.[18] His doctrines inspire a lively intellectual tradition in southern, northern and eastern states of India, his monastery and temple traditions are carried on in the most important and large Vaishnava centres – the Ranganatha temple in Srirangam, Tamil Nadu, and the Venkateswara Temple, Tirumala in Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh.[18]

The Swaminarayan tradition of Gujarat also traces its acharya-parampara to Rāmānuja through Ramananda (who according to legend was administered pancha-samskaras by Rāmānuja).[citation needed]

Disciples

Names

He is also known as Sri Rāmānujacharya, Udayavar, Ethirajar (Yatiraja, king of monks), Bhashyakarar, Godaagrajar, Thiruppavai Jeeyar, Emberumannar and Lakshmana Muni [53]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c C. J. Bartley 2013, pp. 1–4, 52–53, 79.
  2. ^ a b c d e Jon Paul Sydnor (2012). Rāmānuja and Schleiermacher: Toward a Constructive Comparative Theology. Casemate. pp. 20–22 with footnote 32. ISBN 978-0227680247.
  3. ^ a b c d Mishra, Patit Paban (2012). Rāmānuja (ca. 1077–ca. 1157) in Encyclopedia of Global Religion (Editors: Mark Juergensmeyer & Wade Clark Roof). doi:10.4135/9781412997898.n598.
  4. ^ a b c d e f Doniger, Wendy (1999). Merriam-Webster's encyclopedia of world religions. Merriam-Webster. p. 904. ISBN 978-0-87779-044-0.
  5. ^ Hermann Kulke; Dietmar Rothermund (2004). A History of India. Routledge. p. 149. ISBN 978-0-415-32920-0.
  6. ^ a b c d Patrick Olivelle (1992). The Samnyasa Upanisads : Hindu Scriptures on Asceticism and Renunciation: Hindu Scriptures on Asceticism and Renunciation. Oxford University Press. pp. 10–11, 17–18. ISBN 978-0-19-536137-7.
  7. ^ C. J. Bartley 2013, pp. 1–2.
  8. ^ Carman 1974, p. 24.
  9. ^ Carman 1994, pp. 82-87 with footnotes.
  10. ^ a b William M. Indich (1995). Consciousness in Advaita Vedanta. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 1–2, 97–102. ISBN 978-81-208-1251-2.
  11. ^ a b c d Bruce M. Sullivan (2001). The A to Z of Hinduism. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 239. ISBN 978-0-8108-4070-6.
  12. ^ C. J. Bartley 2013, pp. 1–2, 9–10, 76–79, 87–98.
  13. ^ Sean Doyle (2006). Synthesizing the Vedanta: The Theology of Pierre Johanns, S.J. Peter Lang. pp. 59–62. ISBN 978-3-03910-708-7.
  14. ^ Keith E. Yandell 2001, pp. 7, 148.
  15. ^ a b Jones & Ryan 2006, p. 352.
  16. ^ Carman 1994, pp. 45, 80.
  17. ^ Carman 1974, pp. 27–28, 45.
  18. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l J.A.B. van Buitenen (2008), Rāmānuja - Hindu theologian and Philosopher, Encyclopedia Britannica
  19. ^ Alkandavilli Govindāchārya (1906). The Life of Râmânujâchârya: The Exponent of the Viśistâdvaita Philosophy. S. Murthy. pp. 62–70.
  20. ^ a b c Katherine Young (1996). Steven Rosen (ed.). Vaiṣṇavī. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 286–288. ISBN 978-81-208-1437-0.
  21. ^ a b c Jon Paul Sydnor (2012). Rāmānuja and Schleiermacher: Toward a Constructive Comparative Theology. Casemate. pp. 84–87. ISBN 978-0227680247.
  22. ^ a b Carman 1994, p. 82 with footnotes.
  23. ^ a b Keith E. Yandell 2001, pp. 149–150.
  24. ^ a b Carman 1994, p. 80.
  25. ^ Jon Paul Sydnor (2012). Rāmānuja and Schleiermacher: Toward a Constructive Comparative Theology. Casemate. pp. 10–11. ISBN 978-0227680247.
  26. ^ a b K.V. Raman (2003). Sri Varadarajaswami Temple, Kanchi: A Study of Its History, Art and Architecture. Abhinav Publications. p. 15. ISBN 978-81-7017-026-6.
  27. ^ Carman 1974, p. 27.
  28. ^ Robert Lester (1966), Rāmānuja and Shri Vaishnavism: the Concept of Prapatti or Sharanagati, History of Religion, Volume 5, Issue 2, pages 266-282
  29. ^ Jon Paul Sydnor (2012). Rāmānuja and Schleiermacher: Toward a Constructive Comparative Theology. Casemate. pp. 3–4. ISBN 978-0227680247.
  30. ^ a b c d e Joseph P. Schultz (1981). Judaism and the Gentile Faiths: Comparative Studies in Religion. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. pp. 81–84. ISBN 978-0-8386-1707-6.
  31. ^ a b c d e f Shyam Ranganathan (2011), Rāmānuja (c. 1017 - c. 1137), IEP, York University
  32. ^ a b c Carman 1994, p. 86.
  33. ^ Mayeda 2006, pp. 46–53.
  34. ^ Mayeda & Tanizawa (1991), Studies on Indian Philosophy in Japan, 1963–1987, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 41, No. 4, pages 529–535
  35. ^ Michael Comans (1996), Śankara and the Prasankhyanavada, Journal of Indian Philosophy, Vol. 24, No. 1, pages 49–71
  36. ^ Carman 1994, pp. 86–88.
  37. ^ Julius Lipner (1986), The Face of Truth: A Study of Meaning and Metaphysics in the Vedantic Theology of Rāmānuja, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0887060397, pages 120-123
  38. ^ Sharma 1994, p. 11-17, 372.
  39. ^ a b Stafford Betty (2010), Dvaita, Advaita, and Viśiṣṭādvaita: Contrasting Views of Mokṣa, Asian Philosophy: An International Journal of the Philosophical Traditions of the East, Volume 20, Issue 2, pages 215-224
  40. ^ Edward Craig (2000), Concise Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415223645, pages 517-518
  41. ^ Sharma 1994, p. 373.
  42. ^ a b Stoker 2011.
  43. ^ Sharma 1994, pp. 373–374.
  44. ^ Sharma 1994, p. 374.
  45. ^ a b Christopher Etter (2006). A Study of Qualitative Non-Pluralism. iUniverse. pp. 57–60, 63–65. ISBN 978-0-595-39312-1.
  46. ^ Sharma 1994, pp. 374–375.
  47. ^ Bryant 2007, pp. 361–362.
  48. ^ Roy W. Perrett (2013). Philosophy of Religion: Indian Philosophy. Routledge. pp. 247–248. ISBN 978-1-135-70322-6.
  49. ^ Coward, Harold G. (2008). The Perfectibility of Human Nature in Eastern and Western Thought. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. pp. 139–141. ISBN 9780791473351.
  50. ^ Ganeri, Martin (2007). "Knowledge and Love of God in Rāmānuja and Aquinas". Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies. 20 (1). doi:10.7825/2164-6279.1381.
  51. ^ Carman, John B. (2007). "Loving God as a Devoted Servant". Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies. 20 (1). doi:10.7825/2164-6279.1384.
  52. ^ Sean Doyle (2006). Synthesizing the Vedanta: The Theology of Pierre Johanns, S.J. Peter Lang. pp. 235–239. ISBN 978-3-03910-708-7.
  53. ^ "Sri Rāmānuja's gift to the Lord". The Hindu. India. 24 December 2012.

Bibliography

  • Ayyangar, S. Krishnaswami; Chariar,, Rajagopala; Rangacharya, M (1911). Sri Rāmānujacharya: a sketch of his life and times and His Philosophical System. G. A. Natesan & Co.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  • C. J. Bartley (2013). The Theology of Rāmānuja: Realism and Religion. Routledge. pp. 1–4, 52–53, 79. ISBN 978-1-136-85306-7. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Bryant, Edwin (2007). Krishna : A Sourcebook (Chapter 15 by Deepak Sarma). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195148923. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Carman, John (1974). The Theology of Rāmānuja: An essay in interreligious understanding. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300015218. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Carman, John B. (1994). Majesty and Meekness: A Comparative Study of Contrast and Harmony in the Concept of God. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 978-0802806932. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Devamani, B. S. (1990). The Religion of Rāmānuja: A Christian Appraisal. Christian Literature Society.
  • Duraisingh, Christopher (1979). Toward an Indian-Christian Theology, Rāmānuja's Significance a Study of the Significance of Rāmānuja's Theological Hermeneutics for an Indian-Christian Understanding of the Relation Between God and All-else. Harvard University Press.
  • Jones, Constance; Ryan, James D. (2006), Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Infobase Publishing {{citation}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Lott, Eric J. (1976). God and the universe in the Vedāntic theology of Rāmānuja: a study in his use of the self-body analogy. Rāmānuja Research Society.
  • Govindacharya, A. (1960). The Life of Rāmānuja. S. Murthy.
  • Mayeda, Sengaku (2006). A thousand teachings : the Upadeśasāhasrī of Śaṅkara. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-2771-4. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Rao, T. A. Gopinatha (1923). Sir Subrahmanya Ayyar Lectures on the History of Śrī Vaiṣṇavas. University of Madras, Government Press.
  • Raghavachar, S. S. (2010). Vedartha Sangraha. Advaita Ashrama. ISBN 978-81-7505-118-8.
  • Sampatkumaran, M. R. (1985). The Gītābhāṣya of Rāmānuja. Bombay: Ananthacharya Indological Research Institute.
  • Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta (1955). A History of South India: From Prehistoric Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar. Oxford University Press.
  • Sharma, Arvind (1978). Viśiṣṭādvaita Vedānta: A study. Heritage Publishers.
  • Sharma, Chandradhar (1994). A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-0365-5. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Aiyengar, C. R. Srinivasa (n.d.). The Life and Teachings of Sri Rāmānujacharya. R. Venkateshwar.
  • Stoker, Valerie (2011). "Madhva (1238-1317)". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 2 February 2016. {{cite web}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Subramanian, T. N. (1957). South Indian Temple Inscriptions. Vol. 3. pp. 145–60. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
  • Barua, Ankur (2010). "God's Body at Work: Rāmānuja and Panentheism". International Journal of Hindu Studies. 14 (1): 1–30.
  • Keith E. Yandell (2001). Faith and Narrative. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-535128-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
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