Fish and chips: Difference between revisions
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{{Redirect|Fish n' chips|other topics|Fish 'n' Chips (disambiguation)}} |
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Thats alot of damage {{about|sweet bananas|the genus to which banana plants belong|Musa (genus)|starchier bananas used in cooking|Cooking banana|other uses|Banana (disambiguation)}} |
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{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2017}} |
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{{pp-semi-indef}} |
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{{Infobox prepared food |
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{{pp-move-indef}} |
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| name = Fish and chips |
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{{short description|edible fruit}} |
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| image = Fish and chips.jpg |
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{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2018}} |
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| image_size = 275px |
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{{taxobox |
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| caption = Fish and chips in a polystyrene take-away container |
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|name = Banana |
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| alternate_name = Fish supper / Fish ‘n’ Chips |
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|image = Banana and cross section.jpg |
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| country = [[England]] |
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|image_caption = Peeled, whole, and cross section |
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| region = |
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|image_width=250px |
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| creator = |
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|regnum = [[Plantae]] |
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| course = Main dish |
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|unranked_divisio = [[Angiosperms]] |
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| served = Hot |
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|unranked_classis = [[Monocots]] |
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| main_ingredient = Battered and [[fried fish]] with [[French fries#England|deep-fried chips]] |
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|unranked_ordo = [[Commelinids]] |
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| variations = |
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|ordo = [[Zingiberales]] |
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| calories = |
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|familia = [[Musaceae]] |
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| other = |
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|genus = [[Musa (genus)|Musa]] |
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|species = |
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|binomial = |
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|binomial_authority = |
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}} |
}} |
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{{British cuisine}} |
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[[File:Bananavarieties.jpg|thumb|Fruits of four different [[List of banana cultivars|banana cultivars]]]] |
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'''Fish and chips''' is a hot dish of [[English cuisine|English]] origin consisting of [[frying|fried]] [[Batter (cooking)|battered]] fish and hot potato [[French fries|chips]]. It is a common [[Take-out|take-away food]] and an early example of [[culinary fusion]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Black|first1=Les|title=New Ethnicites And Urban Cult|date=1996|publisher=Routledge|location=Oxford|isbn=1-85728-251-5|page=15}}<!--|accessdate=28 March 2016--></ref><ref name="alexander">{{cite news|last=Alexander |first=James |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8419026.stm |title=The unlikely origin of fish and chips |publisher=BBC News |date=18 December 2009 |accessdate=16 July 2013}}</ref> Fish and chips first appeared in the 1860s; by 1910 there were more than 25,000 [[fish and chip shop]]s across the [[UK]], and by the 1930s there were over 35,000.<ref name="alexander"/> Fish and chips are now a staple takeaway meal in numerous countries, particularly in English-speaking [[Commonwealth of Nations|commonwealth]] countries including [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]]. |
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A '''banana''' is an edible [[fruit]] – botanically a [[berry (botany)|berry]]<ref name=purdue1/><ref name=Armstrong/> – produced by several kinds of large [[herbaceous]] [[flowering plant]]s in the [[genus]] ''[[Musa (genus)|Musa]]''.<ref name=MW/> In some countries, [[Cooking banana|bananas used for cooking]] may be called "plantains", distinguishing them from '''dessert bananas'''. The fruit is variable in size, color, and firmness, but is usually elongated and curved, with soft flesh rich in [[starch]] covered with a rind, which may be green, yellow, red, purple, or brown when ripe. The fruits grow in clusters hanging from the top of the plant. Almost all modern edible seedless ([[Parthenocarpy|parthenocarp]]) bananas come from two wild species – ''[[Musa acuminata]]'' and ''[[Musa balbisiana]]''. The [[Binomial nomenclature|scientific names]] of most cultivated bananas are ''Musa acuminata'', ''Musa balbisiana'', and ''Musa'' × ''paradisiaca'' for the hybrid ''Musa acuminata'' × ''M. balbisiana'', depending on their [[genome|genomic]] constitution. The old scientific name ''Musa sapientum'' is no longer used. |
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''Musa'' species are native to tropical [[Indomalaya]] and [[Australia (continent)|Australia]], and are likely to have been first domesticated in [[Papua New Guinea]].<ref name=apscience/>{{sfn|Nelson|Ploetz|Kepler|2006}} They are grown in 135 countries,<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.promusa.org/Banana-producing+countries+portal | title=Where bananas are grown | publisher=ProMusa | date=2013 | accessdate=October 24, 2016 | deadurl=no | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161025111611/http://www.promusa.org/Banana-producing+countries+portal | archivedate=October 25, 2016 | df=mdy-all }}</ref> primarily for their fruit, and to a lesser extent to make [[fiber]], [[banana wine]], and [[banana beer]] and as [[ornamental plant]]s. The world's largest producers of bananas in 2016 were India and China, which together accounted for 28% of total production. |
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==History== |
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{{Main article|English cuisine}} |
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Worldwide, there is no sharp distinction between "bananas" and "plantains". Especially in the Americas and Europe, "banana" usually refers to soft, sweet, dessert bananas, particularly those of the [[#Cavendish|Cavendish group]], which are the main exports from banana-growing countries. By contrast, [[List of banana cultivars|''Musa'' cultivars]] with firmer, starchier fruit are called "plantains". In other regions, such as [[Southeast Asia]], many more kinds of banana are grown and eaten, so the binary distinction is not useful and is not made in local languages. |
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The tradition in England of fish battered and fried in oil may have come from Jewish immigrants from Spain and Portugal.<ref name="Roden 1996">{{cite book|first1=Claudia|last1=Roden|title=The Book of Jewish Food: An Odyssey from Samarkand to New York|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LIgrAAAAYAAJ|publisher=Knopf|date=1996 |isbn=9780394532585|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref name="alexander"/><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hosking|first1=Richard|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cfP6jHmSLnMC&pg=PT183 |title=Eggs in Cookery:Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium of Food and Cookery 2006|date=2007|publisher=Prospect Books|location=United Kingdom|isbn=978-1-903018-54-5|page=183}}<!--|accessdate=28 March 2016--></ref> Originally, [[Western Sephardim|Western Sephardic Jews]] settling in England as early as the 16th century would have prepared fried fish in a manner similar to ''[[pescado frito]]'', which is coated in [[flour]] then fried in oil.<ref name=marks>{{cite book | last = Marks | first = Gil | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ux2lGKCKVPYC&pg=PA82 |title = The world of Jewish cooking: more than 500 traditional recipes from Alsace to Yemen | publisher = Simon & Schuster | year = 1999 | isbn = 0-684-83559-2}}</ref> [[Charles Dickens]] mentions "fried fish warehouses" in ''[[Oliver Twist]]'' (1838),<ref>{{cite news|last=Alexander |first=James |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8419026.stm |title=The unlikely origin of fish and chips |publisher=BBC News |date=18 December 2009 |accessdate=16 July 2013}}</ref> and in 1845 [[Alexis Soyer]] in his first edition of ''A Shilling cookery for the People'', gives a recipe for "Fried fish, Jewish fashion", which is dipped in a batter of flour and water.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chip-Shop Fried Fish|url=http://www.foodsofengland.co.uk/chipshopfriedfish.htm|website=The Foods of England Project|accessdate=23 June 2016}}</ref> |
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The term "banana" is also used as the common name for the plants that produce the fruit.<ref name=MW/> This can extend to other members of the genus ''Musa'', such as the [[Musa coccinea|scarlet banana]] (''Musa coccinea''), the [[Musa velutina|pink banana]] (''Musa velutina''), and the [[Fe'i banana]]s. It can also refer to members of the genus ''[[Ensete]]'', such as the [[Ensete glaucum|snow banana]] (''Ensete glaucum'') and the economically important [[Ensete ventricosum|false banana]] (''Ensete ventricosum''). Both genera are in the banana family, [[Musaceae]]. |
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[[File:BCLM fish+chips.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Fish and chips, served in a paper wrapper (greaseproof paper inner and ordinary paper outer), as a "takeaway"]] |
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The exact location of the first [[fish and chip shop]] is unclear. The earliest known shops were opened in the 1860s, in London by Joseph Malin<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2003/jan/19/foodanddrink.restaurants|title=Enduring Love |accessdate=19 January 2003 | work=The Guardian | location=London | first=Jay | last=Rayner | date=3 November 2005 | quote=In 1860 a Jewish immigrant from Eastern Europe called Joseph Malin opened the first business in London's East End selling fried fish alongside chipped potatoes which, until then, had been found only in the Irish potato shops.}}</ref> and in [[Mossley]], near [[Oldham]], Lancashire, by John Lees.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/10410058/Potted-histories-fish-and-chips.html|title=Potted histories: fish and chips|last=Hyslop|first=Leah|date=2013-10-30|access-date=2018-09-04|language=en-GB|issn=0307-1235}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.federationoffishfriers.co.uk/pages/history--599.htm|title=Federation of Fish Friers - Serving the Fish and Chips Industry - History|website=www.federationoffishfriers.co.uk|access-date=2018-09-04}}</ref> However, fried fish, as well as chips, had existed independently for at least fifty years, so the possibility that they had been combined at an earlier time cannot be ruled out.<ref name="Oxford Companion">{{cite book|first1=Alan|last1=Davidson|title=The Oxford Companion to Food|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bIIeBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA310|publisher=OUP Oxford|date=21 August 2014|isbn=9780191040726|via=Google Books}}</ref> |
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==Description== |
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Fish and chips became a stock meal among the working classes in England as a consequence of the rapid development of [[trawling|trawl fishing]] in the [[North Sea]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p039pr7c?intc_type=promo&intc_location=sport&intc_campaign=fishandchips&intc_linkname=radio4_fac_audioclip1|title=Did fish and chips come from the north of England?|publisher=BBC Radio 4}}</ref> and the development of railways which connected the ports to major industrial cities during the second half of the 19th century, so that fresh fish could be rapidly transported to the heavily populated areas.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.niagara.co.uk/fish_and_chips.htm |title=Fish and chips - A great English tradition |publisher= |date= |accessdate=22 June 2009 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080116221706/http://www.niagara.co.uk/fish_and_chips.htm |archivedate = 16 January 2008}}</ref> |
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{{multiple image| |
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|width=160 | height=170 |
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|align=center |
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|image1=Banana Tree 01.jpg |
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|caption1=Banana 'tree' showing fruit and inflorescence |
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|image2=M. acuminata x balbisiana.JPG |
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|caption2=Banana [[inflorescence]], partially opened |
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|image3=Banana three in Réunion.jpg |
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|caption3=Wild banana with flowers and stem growing in reverse direction seen in Réunion |
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|image4=M. acuminata x balbisiana female flower detail.jpg |
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|caption4=Female flowers have petals and other flower parts at the tip of the ovary |
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|image5=Wild banana from Kodagu.jpg |
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|caption5=Wild banana with flowers and stem growing in reverse direction seen in Kodagu, India |
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|image6=Banana corm.jpg |
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|alt6=Photo of a banana corm growing from loamy soil |
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|caption6=A banana corm, about {{convert|25|cm|in|abbr=on|0}} across |
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|image7=Banana farm Chinawal.jpg |
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|caption7=A banana farm in [[Chinawal]], India |
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}} |
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[[File:Baby Banana Plant.jpg|thumb|upright|Young banana plant]] |
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Deep-fried chips (slices or pieces of potato) as a dish may have first appeared in England in about the same period: the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' notes as its earliest usage of "chips" in this sense the mention in Charles Dickens' ''[[A Tale of Two Cities]]'' (1859): "Husky chips of potatoes, fried with some reluctant drops of oil".<ref>[http://www.dailymail.co.uk/home/books/article-2824164/The-batter-truth-British-favourite.html#ixzz4P36z4cJT "Why the fish supper hasn’t had its chips"]. ''Daily Mail''. Retrieved 4 October 2016</ref> |
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The banana plant is the largest [[herbaceous]] flowering plant.<ref name=PicqINIB00/> All the above-ground parts of a banana plant grow from a structure usually called a "[[corm]]".{{sfn|Stover|Simmonds|1987|pp=5–9}} Plants are normally tall and fairly sturdy, and are often mistaken for [[tree]]s, but what appears to be a trunk is actually a "false stem" or [[pseudostem]]. Bananas grow in a wide variety of soils, as long as the soil is at least 60 cm deep, has good drainage and is not compacted.{{sfn|Stover|Simmonds|1987|p=212}} The leaves of banana plants are composed of a "stalk" ([[petiole (botany)|petiole]]) and a blade ([[Leaf#General characteristics of leaves|lamina]]). The base of the petiole widens to form a sheath; the tightly packed sheaths make up the pseudostem, which is all that supports the plant. The edges of the sheath meet when it is first produced, making it tubular. As new growth occurs in the centre of the pseudostem the edges are forced apart.{{sfn|Stover|Simmonds|1987|pp=13–17}} Cultivated banana plants vary in height depending on the variety and growing conditions. Most are around {{convert|5|m|ft|abbr=on|0}} tall, with a range from 'Dwarf Cavendish' plants at around {{convert|3|m|ft|abbr=on|0}} to 'Gros Michel' at {{convert|7|m|ft|abbr=on|0}} or more.{{sfn|Nelson|Ploetz|Kepler|2006|p=26}}{{sfn|Ploetz|Kepler|Daniells|Nelson|2007|p=12}} Leaves are spirally arranged and may grow {{convert|2.7|m|ft}} long and {{convert|60|cm|ft|abbr=on}} wide.<ref name="purdue1"/> They are easily torn by the wind, resulting in the familiar frond look.<ref name=Greenearth/> |
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When a banana plant is mature, the corm stops producing new leaves and begins to form a flower spike or [[inflorescence]]. A stem develops which grows up inside the pseudostem, carrying the immature inflorescence until eventually it emerges at the top.{{sfn|Stover|Simmonds|1987|pp=9–13}} Each pseudostem normally produces a single inflorescence, also known as the "banana heart". (More are sometimes produced; an exceptional plant in the [[Philippines]] produced five.<ref name=ABS_CBN/>) After fruiting, the pseudostem dies, but offshoots will normally have developed from the base, so that the plant as a whole is [[perennial]]. In the plantation system of cultivation, only one of the offshoots will be allowed to develop in order to maintain spacing.{{sfn|Stover|Simmonds|1987|pp=244–247}} The inflorescence contains many [[bract]]s (sometimes incorrectly referred to as petals) between rows of flowers. The female flowers (which can develop into fruit) appear in rows further up the stem (closer to the leaves) from the rows of male flowers. The ovary is [[ovary (plants)|inferior]], meaning that the tiny petals and other flower parts appear at the tip of the ovary.{{sfn|Office of the Gene Technology Regulator|2008}} |
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The modern fish-and-chip shop ("chippy" or "chipper" in modern British slang<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/west_yorkshire/6126476.stm |title=Chippy smells of chips complaint|publisher=BBC News |date=7 November 2006 |accessdate=22 June 2009}}</ref><ref name="Hegarty 2009 17">{{Cite news |
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| last=Hegarty | first=Shane | title=How fish and chips enriched a nation | newspaper=The Irish Times | publication-place=Dublin, Ireland |
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| date=3 November 2009 | page=17 |
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| url=http://www.irishtimes.com |
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| postscript=<!--None--> }}</ref>) originated in the United Kingdom, although outlets selling fried food occurred commonly throughout Europe. Early fish-and-chip shops had only very basic facilities. Usually these consisted principally of a large cauldron of cooking fat, heated by a coal fire. The fish-and-chip shop later evolved into a fairly standard format, with the food served, in paper wrappings, to queuing customers, over a counter in front of the fryers. |
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By 1910, there were more than 25,000 fish and chip shops across the country, and in the 1920s there were more than 35,000 shops.<ref name="Mail">{{cite web | url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1275320/The-Portugese-gave-fried-fish-Belgians-invented-chips-150-years-ago-East-End-boy-united-create-The-Worlds-Greatest-Double-Act.html | title=The Portuguese gave us fried fish, the Belgians invented chips but 150 years ago an East End boy united them to create The World's Greatest Double Act | work=Daily Mail | accessdate=21 September 2011}}</ref> As a boy [[Alfred Hitchcock]] lived above a fish and chip shop in London, which was the family business.<ref>McGilligan, Patrick (2003). Alfred Hitchcock: A Life in Darkness and Light. p. 13. Regan Books.</ref> According to Professor John Walton, author of ''Fish and Chips and the British Working Class'', the British government made safeguarding supplies of fish and chips during [[World War I]] a priority: "The cabinet knew it was vital to keep families on the home front in good heart, unlike the German regime that failed to keep its people well fed".<ref name="alexander"/> |
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[[File:Bournemouth , Harry Ramsden's Fish and Chips - geograph.org.uk - 1289052.jpg|thumb|right|[[Harry Ramsden's]] fish and chip shop in Bournemouth, England. The restaurant chain has 45 franchised outlets throughout the UK and Ireland]] |
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In 1928, [[Harry Ramsden's|Harry Ramsden]] opened his first fish and chip shop in [[Guiseley]], West Yorkshire. On a single day in 1952, the shop served 10,000 portions of fish and chips, earning a place in the ''[[Guinness Book of Records]]''.<ref name="Mail"/> In [[George Orwell]]'s ''[[The Road to Wigan Pier]]'' (1937), which documents his experience of working class life in the north of England, the author considered fish and chips chief among the 'home comforts' which acted as a panacea to the working classes.<ref name="Mail"/> During [[World War II]], fish and chips remained one of the few foods in the United Kingdom [[Rationing in the United Kingdom|not subject to |
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rationing]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rls.org.uk/database/record.php?usi=000-000-001-467-L |title=Resources for Learning, Scotland: Rationing |publisher=Rls.org.uk |date=5 January 1998 |accessdate=22 June 2009}}</ref> Prime Minister [[Winston Churchill]] referred to the combination of fish and chips as "the good companions".<ref name="alexander"/> [[John Lennon]] enjoyed his fish and chips—a staple of the working class—smothered in ketchup.<ref name="alexander"/> |
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The banana fruits develop from the banana heart, in a large hanging cluster, made up of tiers (called "hands"), with up to 20 fruit to a tier. The hanging cluster is known as a bunch, comprising 3–20 [[wikt:tier#noun 2|tiers]], or commercially as a "banana stem", and can weigh {{convert|30|–|50|kg|lb}}. Individual banana fruits (commonly known as a banana or "finger") average {{convert|125|g|lb}}, of which approximately 75% is [[water]] and 25% dry matter (nutrient table, lower right). |
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British fish and chips were originally served in a wrapping of old newspapers but this practice has now largely ceased, with plain paper, cardboard, or plastic being used instead. In the United Kingdom, the Fish Labelling Regulations 2003<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si2003/20030461.htm|publisher=The Stationery Office|year=2003|accessdate=4 April 2009|title=Fish Labelling Regulations (England) 2003|postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}} (equivalent similarly-named legislation applies in other countries of the UK)</ref> and in Ireland the European Communities (Labelling of Fishery and Aquaculture Products) Regulations 2003 <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fsai.ie/uploadedFiles/S.I_No_320_of_2003.pdf |title=European Communities (Fish Labelling) Regulations, 2003 |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=16 October 2012}}</ref> respectively enact directive 2065/2001/EC, and generally mean that "fish" must be sold with the particular commercial name or species named; so, for example, "cod and chips" now appears on menus rather than the more vague "fish and chips". In the United Kingdom the [[Food Standards Agency]] guidance excludes [[caterer]]s from this;<ref>{{Cite journal |
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|url=http://www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/fish_lab_reg2003gn.pdf |
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|year=2003 |
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|accessdate=4 April 2009 |
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|publisher=[[Office of Public Sector Information]] |
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|title=Guidance Notes for England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland |
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|postscript={{inconsistent citations}} |
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|deadurl=yes |
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|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101019221532/http://www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/fish_lab_reg2003gn.pdf |
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|archivedate=19 October 2010 |
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|df= |
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}} (Section A.2)</ref> but several local Trading Standards authorities and others do say it cannot be sold merely as "fish and chips".<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.blackpool.gov.uk/NR/rdonlyres/9DA031F1-E2EA-4198-8CC6-23644A89D6B1/0/FOODLABELLINGFORCATERINGESTABLISHMENTS.pdf |
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|publisher=Blackpool Council|title=Food Labelling For Catering Establishments|accessdate=4 April 2009|postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.norfolk.gov.uk/consumption/groups/public/documents/general_resources/NCC048357.pdf|accessdate=4 April 2009|title=Business Advice Fact Sheet|publisher=Norfolk County Council|postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.ncass.org.uk/default.aspx?id=1039|publisher=Nationwide Caterers Association|accessdate=4 April 2009|date=|title=Labelling & Pricing|postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}}</ref> |
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The fruit has been described as a "leathery berry".<ref name=Smit77/> There is a protective outer layer (a [[Peel (fruit)|peel]] or skin) with numerous long, thin strings (the [[phloem]] [[Vascular bundle|bundles]]), which run lengthwise between the skin and the [[Eating|edible]] inner portion. The inner part of the common yellow dessert variety can be split lengthwise into three sections that correspond to the inner portions of the three [[carpel]]s by manually deforming the unopened fruit.<ref name=Wark04/> In cultivated varieties, the seeds are diminished nearly to non-existence; their remnants are tiny black specks in the interior of the fruit.<ref name=Simm62/> |
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===United Kingdom === |
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[[File:Oldham - first chip shop in UK.jpg|thumb|left|upright|A [[blue plaque]] in [[Oldham]] ([[Greater Manchester]]) in England marking the 1860s origins of the [[fish and chip shop]] and the [[fast food]] industry]] |
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Bananas are naturally slightly [[Radioactive decay|radioactive]],<ref name=Brod78/> more so than most other fruits, because of their potassium content and the small amounts of the isotope [[potassium-40]] found in naturally occurring potassium.<ref name=CassWu07/> The [[banana equivalent dose]] of radiation is sometimes used in nuclear communication to compare radiation levels and exposures.<ref name=ETR/> |
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A prominent meal in [[British culture]], the dish became popular in wider circles in London and South East England in the middle of the 19th century: [[Charles Dickens]] mentions a "fried fish warehouse" in ''[[Oliver Twist]]'', first published in 1838, while in the north of England a trade in deep-fried chipped potatoes developed. The first chip shop stood on the present site of [[Oldham]]'s Tommyfield Market.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Chaloner|first1=W. H.|last2=Henderson|first2=W. O.|title=Industry and Innovation: Selected Essays|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=1990|isbn=0-7146-3335-6}}</ref> It remains unclear exactly when and where these two trades combined to become the fish-and-chip shop industry we know. A Jewish immigrant, Joseph Malin, opened the first recorded combined fish-and-chip shop in London in 1860 or in 1865; a Mr Lees pioneered the concept in the North of England, in [[Mossley]], in 1863.<ref>{{cite web|author=Historic uk - the heritage accommodation guide |url=http://www.historic-uk.com/CultureUK/FishandChips.htm |title=Tradition Historic UK, Fish and Chips |publisher=Historic-uk.com |date= |accessdate=22 June 2009}}</ref> |
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==Etymology== |
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The concept of a fish restaurant, as opposed to take-away, was introduced by Samuel Isaacs (born 1856 in [[Whitechapel]], London; died 1939 in [[Brighton]], Sussex) who ran a thriving wholesale and retail fish business throughout London and the South of England in the latter part of the 19th century. Isaacs' first restaurant opened in London in 1896 serving fish and chips, bread and butter, and tea for nine pence,<ref>England Eats Out by John Burnett - Published by Pearson Education, 2004 {{ISBN|0-582-47266-0}}</ref> and its popularity ensured a rapid expansion of the chain. |
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The word banana is thought to be of West African origin, possibly from the [[Wolof language|Wolof]] word ''[[wikt:banaana|banaana]]'', and passed into English via Spanish or Portuguese.<ref name=OEtymD/> |
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==Taxonomy== |
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[[File:Fish n chips.jpg|thumb|right|Fish and chips traditionally wrapped in white paper and newspaper]] |
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[[File:Nedravazhakola.jpg|right|thumb|The ''Musa'' 'Nendran' [[cultivar]] grown widely in the [[India]]n state of [[Kerala]] is a member of the [[List of banana cultivars#AAB Group|AAB cultivar group]]]] |
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[[File:Bexhill (15356516442).jpg|thumb|right|Fish and chips in a box. ]] |
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The genus ''[[Musa (genus)|Musa]]'' was created by [[Carl Linnaeus]] in 1753.<ref name=WCSP_Musa/> The name may be derived from [[Antonius Musa]], physician to the Emperor [[Augustus]], or Linnaeus may have adapted the [[Arabic]] word for banana, ''[[wikt:موز|mauz]]''.<ref name=HyamPank95/> The old biological name ''[[Musa sapientum]]'' = "Muse of the wise" arose because of homophony in Latin with the classical [[Muses]]. |
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The restaurants were carpeted, had table service, tablecloths, flowers, china and cutlery, and made the trappings of upmarket dining affordable to the working classes for the first time. They were located in [[Tottenham Court Road]], [[St Pancras, London|St Pancras]], [[Strand, London|The Strand]], [[Hoxton]], [[Shoreditch]], [[Brixton]] and other London districts, as well as [[Clacton]], [[Brighton]], [[Ramsgate]], [[Margate]] and other seaside resorts in southern England. Menus were expanded in the early 20th century to include meat dishes and other variations as their popularity grew to a total of thirty restaurants. Sam Isaacs' trademark was the phrase "This is the [[Plaice]]", combined with a picture of the punned-upon fish in question. A glimpse of the old Brighton restaurant at No.1 Marine Parade can be seen in the background of [[Norman Wisdom]]'s 1955 film ''One Good Turn'' just as Wisdom/Pitkin runs onto the seafront; this is now the site of a [[Harry Ramsden's]] fish and chips restaurant. A [[blue plaque]] at Oldham's Tommyfield Market marks the first chips fried in England in 1860, and the origin of the fish and chip shop and fast food industries.<ref>[http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1275320/The-Portugese-gave-fried-fish-Belgians-invented-chips-150-years-ago-East-End-boy-united-create-The-Worlds-Greatest-Double-Act.html The Portuguese gave us fried fish, the Belgians invented chips but 150 years ago an East End boy united them to create The World's Greatest Double Act] ''Daily Mail'' (London). Retrieved 21 September 2011</ref> |
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''Musa'' is in the family [[Musaceae]]. The [[APG III system]] assigns Musaceae to the order [[Zingiberales]], part of the [[commelinid]] clade of the [[monocotyledon]]ous flowering plants. Some 70 species of ''Musa'' were recognized by the [[World Checklist of Selected Plant Families]] {{asof|2013|January|lc=yes}};<ref name=WCSP_Musa/> several produce edible fruit, while others are cultivated as ornamentals.<ref name=Bail16/> |
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[[Dundee]] City Council claims that chips were first sold by a Belgian immigrant, Edward De Gernier, in the city's Greenmarket in the 1870s.<ref name=dundee>{{cite web|title=Dundee Fact File |publisher=Dundee City Council |url=http://www.dundeecity.gov.uk/departments/fact.htm |accessdate=20 March 2007 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070408055244/http://www.dundeecity.gov.uk/departments/fact.htm |archivedate=8 April 2007 }}</ref> |
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The classification of cultivated bananas has long been a problematic issue for taxonomists. Linnaeus originally placed bananas into two species based only on their uses as food: ''Musa sapientum'' for dessert bananas and ''Musa paradisiaca'' for [[Plantain (true)|plantains]]. More species names were added, but this approach proved to be inadequate for the number of [[cultivar]]s in the primary center of diversity of the genus, [[Southeast Asia]]. Many of these cultivars were given names that were later discovered to be [[Synonym (taxonomy)|synonyms]].{{sfn|Valmayor|Jamaluddin|Silayoi|Kusumo|2000}} |
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In [[Edinburgh]], a combination of Gold Star [[brown sauce]] and water or malt vinegar, known as "sauce", or more specifically as "chippy sauce", has great popularity.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.federationoffishfriers.co.uk/pages/81.htm |title=Did You Know? |publisher=Federation of Fish Friers |date= |accessdate=22 June 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080923220940/http://www.federationoffishfriers.co.uk/pages/81.htm |archivedate=23 September 2008 |df= }}</ref> |
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In a series of papers published from 1947 onwards, Ernest Cheesman showed that Linnaeus's ''Musa sapientum'' and ''Musa paradisiaca'' were cultivars and descendants of two wild seed-producing species, ''[[Musa acuminata]]'' and ''[[Musa balbisiana]]'', both first described by [[Luigi Aloysius Colla]].<ref name=DRC/> Cheesman recommended the abolition of Linnaeus's species in favor of reclassifying bananas according to three morphologically distinct groups of cultivars – those primarily exhibiting the botanical characteristics of ''Musa balbisiana'', those primarily exhibiting the botanical characteristics of ''Musa acuminata'', and those with characteristics of both.{{sfn|Valmayor|Jamaluddin|Silayoi|Kusumo|2000}} Researchers Norman Simmonds and Ken Shepherd proposed a genome-based nomenclature system in 1955. This system eliminated almost all the difficulties and inconsistencies of the earlier classification of bananas based on assigning scientific names to cultivated varieties. Despite this, the original names are still recognized by some authorities today, leading to confusion.<ref name=DRC/><ref name=Porc02/> |
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==== Fish & Chips Awards ==== |
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The annual National Fish & Chips Awards were set up in the UK in 1988.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fishandchipawards.com/|title=Fish & Chips Awards Official Website|accessdate=2 February 2018}}</ref> The 30th Annual Fish & Chips Awards ceremony was attended by Norwegian ambassador to the UK Mona Juul.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ikonlondonmagazine.com/chip-chip-hooray-the-national-fish-chip-awards-named-the-uks-best-chippy/|title=Chip Chip Hooray! The National Fish & Chip Awards Names The UK's Best Chippy|publisher=Ikon London Magazine| last2 = Alvarez | first2 = Joe| last1 = A Orlova | first1 = Tamara| date=25 January 2018|accessdate=2 February 2018}}</ref> |
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The accepted [[Botanical name|scientific names]] for most groups of cultivated bananas are '''''Musa acuminata''''' <small>Colla</small> and '''''Musa balbisiana''''' <small>Colla</small> for the ancestral species, and '''''Musa'' × ''paradisiaca''''' <small>L.</small> for the hybrid ''M. acuminata'' × ''M. balbisiana''.<ref name=WCSP_Mp/> |
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===Ireland=== |
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{{Main article|Irish cuisine}} |
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In [[Ireland]], the first fish and chips were sold by an Italian immigrant, Giuseppe Cervi, who mistakenly stepped off an North American-bound ship at Queenstown (now [[Cobh]]) in [[County Cork]] in the 1880s and walked all the way to Dublin.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.independent.ie/lifestyle/food-drink/national-fish-and-chips-day-thank-cod-for-giuseppe-2656484.html |title=National Fish and Chips Day: Thank cod for Giuseppe |work= Irish Independent|accessdate=}}</ref> He started by selling fish and chips outside Dublin pubs from a handcart. He then found a permanent spot in Great Brunswick Street (now [[Pearse Street]]). His wife Palma would ask customers "Uno di questa, uno di quella?" This phrase (meaning "one of this, one of that") entered the [[vernacular]] in Dublin as "one and one", which is still a way of referring to fish and chips in the city.<ref name="Hegarty 2009 17"/> |
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[[Synonym (taxonomy)|Synonyms]] of ''M.'' × ''paradisica'' include |
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===New Zealand=== |
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* a large number of subspecific and varietial names of ''M.'' × ''paradisiaca'', including ''M. p.'' subsp. ''sapientum'' <small>(L.) Kuntze</small> |
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{{Main article|New Zealand cuisine}} |
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* ''Musa'' × ''dacca'' <small>Horan.</small> |
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Fish and chips are the most popular takeaway food in New Zealand. Food historians have been unable to pinpoint exactly when the meal became an established part of New Zealand cuisine but all recognise that the first fish and chips shops were introduced by British settlers before [[World War I]].<ref name="Wassilieff">{{cite web|last1=Wassilieff|first1=Maggy|title=Seafood - Favourite Kiwi fare|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/seafood/page-2|publisher=Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand|accessdate=15 December 2017|date=12 June 2006}}</ref> During the 20th century, nearly every small town and suburb in New Zealand had at least one fish-and-chip shop. As in Britain, Friday night has been the traditional night to eat fish.<ref name="Wassilieff"/> |
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* ''Musa'' × ''sapidisiaca'' <small>K.C.Jacob, nom. superfl.</small> |
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* ''Musa'' × ''sapientum'' <small>L.</small>, and a large number of its varietal names, including ''M.'' × ''sapientum'' var. ''paradisiaca'' <small>(L.) Baker, nom. illeg.</small> |
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Generally, modern classifications of banana cultivars follow Simmonds and Shepherd's system. Cultivars are placed in groups based on the number of chromosomes they have and which species they are derived from. Thus the [[Latundan banana]] is placed in the AAB Group, showing that it is a triploid derived from both ''M. acuminata'' (A) and ''M. balbisiana'' (B). For a list of the cultivars classified under this system, ''see'' "[[List of banana cultivars]]". |
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Traditionally, fish and chips were served in wrappings of newspaper. With the decline of the newspaper industry, this has become less common. |
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In 2012, a team of scientists announced they had achieved a draft sequence of the genome of ''[[Musa acuminata]]''.<ref name=dHon12/> |
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In 1980, four up-and-coming [[New Zealand Labour Party|Labour Party]] politicians, including [[David Lange]], were nicknamed the "Fish and Chip Brigade" due to a picture published at the time with the group eating fish and chips.<ref>{{cite web|title=Seafood - Favourite Kiwi fare: The Fish and Chip Brigade|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/photograph/5099/the-fish-and-chip-brigade|publisher=Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand|accessdate=14 December 2017}}</ref> |
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==Bananas and plantains== |
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===United States=== |
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In regions such as North America and Europe, ''Musa'' fruits offered for sale can be divided into "bananas" and "[[Plantain (cooking)|plantains]]", based on their intended use as food. Thus the banana producer and distributor [[Chiquita Brands International|Chiquita]] produces publicity material for the American market which says that "a plantain is not a banana". The stated differences are that plantains are more [[starch]]y and less sweet; they are eaten cooked rather than raw; they have thicker skin, which may be green, yellow or black; and they can be used at any stage of ripeness.<ref name=Chiquita/> Linnaeus made the same distinction between plantains and bananas when first naming two "species" of ''Musa''.{{sfn|Valmayor|Jamaluddin|Silayoi|Kusumo|2000|p=2}} Members of the "[[Plantain (true)|plantain subgroup]]" of banana cultivars, most important as food in West Africa and Latin America, correspond to the Chiquita description, having long pointed fruit. They are described by Ploetz et al. as "true" plantains, distinct from other cooking bananas.{{sfn|Ploetz|Kepler|Daniells|Nelson|2007|pp=18–19}} The cooking bananas of East Africa belong to a different group, the [[East African Highland banana]]s,{{sfn|Ploetz|Kepler|Daniells|Nelson|2007|p=12}} so would not qualify as "true" plantains on this definition. |
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{{Main article|Cuisine of the United States}} |
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[[File:Bananas white background DS.jpg|thumb|[[Cavendish bananas]] are the most common dessert bananas sold]] |
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In the United States, the dish is most commonly sold as "fish and chips", except in [[Upstate New York]] and [[Wisconsin]] and other parts of the [[Northeastern United States|Northeast]] and [[Upper Midwest]], where this dish would be called a [[fish fry]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Shore Lunch: More Than the World’s Finest Fish and Chips – New West|url=https://newwest.net/topic/article/shore_lunch_more_than_the_worlds_finest_fish_and_chips/C41/L41/|website=newwest.net|publisher=New West Publications|accessdate=15 December 2017}}</ref> Despite the name "fish and chips", and the US meaning of "[[potato chips|chips]]", the dish is served with [[French fries]] (much thinner than British and Irish chips).<ref>{{cite web|title=French Fries: France vs. America vs. Belgium vs. United Kingdom - General Discussion - French Fries|url=https://www.chowhound.com/post/french-fries-france-america-belgium-united-kingdom-724418|publisher=Chowhound|accessdate=15 December 2017|language=en|date=31 July 2010}}</ref> In the [[Southern United States]], a common form of cuisine is fried [[catfish]] with French fries, accompanied by coleslaw, pickles, raw onion slices and lemon slices. |
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An alternative approach divides bananas into dessert bananas and cooking bananas, with plantains being one of the subgroups of cooking bananas.{{sfn|Office of the Gene Technology Regulator|2008|p=1}} [[Polyploid|Triploid]] cultivars derived solely from ''M. acuminata'' are examples of "dessert bananas", whereas triploid cultivars derived from the hybrid between ''M. acuminata'' and ''M. balbinosa'' (in particular the plantain subgroup of the [[List of banana cultivars#AAB Group|AAB Group]]) are "plantains".<ref name=StovSimm87p183/><ref name=QiMoorOrch00/> Small farmers in [[Colombia]] grow a much wider range of cultivars than large commercial plantations. A study of these cultivars showed that they could be placed into at least three groups based on their characteristics: dessert bananas, non-plantain cooking bananas, and plantains, although there were overlaps between dessert and cooking bananas.<ref name=GibeDufoGiraSanc09/> |
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In Southeast Asia – the center of diversity for bananas, both wild and cultivated – the distinction between "bananas" and "plantains" does not work, according to Valmayor et al. Many bananas are used both raw and cooked. There are starchy cooking bananas which are smaller than those eaten raw. The range of colors, sizes and shapes is far wider than in those grown or sold in Africa, Europe or the Americas.{{sfn|Valmayor|Jamaluddin|Silayoi|Kusumo|2000|p=2}} Southeast Asian languages do not make the distinction between "bananas" and "plantains" that is made in English (and Spanish). Thus both [[#Cavendish|Cavendish cultivars]], the classic yellow dessert bananas, and [[Saba banana|Saba cultivars]], used mainly for cooking, are called ''pisang'' in [[Malaysia]] and [[Indonesia]], ''kluai'' in [[Thailand]] and ''chuoi'' in [[Vietnam]].{{sfn|Valmayor|Jamaluddin|Silayoi|Kusumo|2000|pp=8–12}} [[Fe'i banana]]s, grown and eaten in the islands of the Pacific, are derived from entirely different wild species than traditional bananas and plantains. Most Fe'i bananas are cooked, but [[Karat banana]]s, which are short and squat with bright red skins, very different from the usual yellow dessert bananas, are eaten raw.<ref name=Engl03/> |
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==Composition== |
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In summary, in commerce in Europe and the Americas (although not in small-scale cultivation), it is possible to distinguish between "bananas", which are eaten raw, and "plantains", which are cooked. In other regions of the world, particularly India, Southeast Asia and the islands of the Pacific, there are many more kinds of banana and the two-fold distinction is not useful and not made in local languages. Plantains are one of many kinds of cooking bananas, which are not always distinct from dessert bananas. |
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===Cooking=== |
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[[File:Frying range.JPG|thumb|Frying range]] |
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Traditional frying uses [[tallow|beef dripping]] or [[lard]]; however, [[vegetable oil]]s, such as [[peanut oil]] (used because of its relatively high [[smoke point]]) {{As of|2007|alt= now}} predominate. A minority of vendors in the [[North of England]] and [[Scotland]], and the majority of vendors in [[Northern Ireland]], still use dripping or lard, as it imparts a different flavour to the dish, but this makes the fried chips unsuitable for vegetarians and for adherents of certain faiths. Lard is used in some living industrial history museums, such as the [[Black Country Museum|Black Country Living Museum]]. |
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==Historical cultivation== |
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===Thickness=== |
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===Early cultivation=== |
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[[File:Fish and chips at Hesburger.jpg|thumb|left|Fish and chips at a [[Hesburger]] fast food restaurant in Finland, advertised as particularly English]] |
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{{See also|Musa acuminata}} |
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[[File:Banana ancestors (Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana) original range.png|thumb|Original [[Range (biology)|native ranges]] of the ancestors of modern edible bananas. ''[[Musa acuminata]]'' is shown in green and ''[[Musa balbisiana]]'' in orange.<ref name=LangMare04/>]] |
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Farmers in [[Southeast Asia]] and [[Papua New Guinea]] first [[domestication|domesticated]] bananas. Recent [[archaeology|archaeological]] and palaeoenvironmental evidence at [[Kuk Swamp]] in the [[Western Highlands Province]] of Papua New Guinea suggests that banana cultivation there goes back to at least 5000 [[Common Era|BCE]], and possibly to 8000 BCE.<ref name=apscience/><ref name=Denh03/> It is likely that other species were later and independently domesticated elsewhere in Southeast Asia. Southeast Asia is the region of [[Center of diversity|primary diversity]] of the banana. Areas of secondary diversity are found in [[Africa]], indicating a long history of banana cultivation in the region.{{sfn|Ploetz|Kepler|Daniells|Nelson|2007|p=7}} |
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[[File:Bananas Muslim world.JPG|thumb|Actual and probable diffusion of bananas during [[Muslim Agricultural Revolution|Islamic times]] (700–1500 CE)<ref name=Wats83/>|alt=Map stating that banana cultivation occurred in pre-Islamic times in India and Southeast Asia, during the 700–1500 CE "Islamic period" along the [[Nile River]] and in [[Mesopotamia]] and [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], and less-certainly in sub-Saharan Africa during that same period]] |
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British and Irish chips are usually thicker than American-style [[French fries]] sold by major multinational [[fast food]] chains, resulting in a lower fat content per portion. In their homes or in some restaurants, people in or from the United States may eat a thick type of chip, more similar to the British and Irish variant, sometimes referred to as [[steak fries]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.foodnetwork.com/food/recipes/recipe/0,,FOOD_9936_31517,00.html |title=Online recipes |publisher=Foodnetwork.com |date= |accessdate=22 June 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080313153154/http://www.foodnetwork.com/food/recipes/recipe/0,,FOOD_9936_31517,00.html |archivedate=13 March 2008 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.foodnetwork.com/food/recipes/recipe/0,,FOOD_9936_36305,00.html |title=More online recipes |publisher=Foodnetwork.com |date= |accessdate=22 June 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080317035306/http://www.foodnetwork.com/food/recipes/recipe/0,,FOOD_9936_36305,00.html |archivedate=17 March 2008 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> |
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[[Phytolith]] discoveries in [[Cameroon]] dating to the first millennium BCE<ref name=Mbid00/> triggered an as yet unresolved debate about the date of first cultivation in Africa. There is linguistic evidence that bananas were known in [[Madagascar]] around that time.<ref name=Zell05/> The earliest prior evidence indicates that cultivation dates to no earlier than late 6th century CE.<ref name=Lejj05/> It is likely, however, that bananas were brought at least to Madagascar if not to the East African coast during the phase of [[Malagasy people|Malagasy]] colonization of the island from South East Asia c. 400 CE.<ref name=Rand09/> |
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The banana may also have been present in isolated locations elsewhere in the [[Middle East]] on the eve of [[Islam]]. The [[spread of Islam]] was followed by far-reaching diffusion. There are numerous references to it in Islamic texts (such as poems and [[hadith]]s) beginning in the 9th century. By the 10th century the banana appears in texts from [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] and [[Egypt]]. From there it diffused into North Africa and [[Al-Andalus|Muslim Iberia]]. During the medieval ages, bananas from [[Granada]] were considered among the best in the Arab world.<ref name=Wats83/> In 650, Islamic conquerors brought the banana to Palestine. Today, banana consumption increases significantly in Islamic countries during [[Ramadan]], the month of daylight fasting.<ref name="thefinancialexpress-bd"/> |
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===Batter=== |
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In Britain and Ireland, fish and chip shops traditionally use a simple water and flour [[Batter (cooking)|batter]], adding a little [[sodium bicarbonate]] (baking soda) and a little vinegar to create lightness, as they react to create bubbles in the batter. Other recipes may use beer or milk batter, where these liquids are often substitutes for water. The [[carbon dioxide]] in the beer lends a lighter texture to the batter. Beer also results in an orange-brown colour. A simple beer batter might consist of a 2:3 ratio of flour to beer by volume. The type of beer alters the taste of the batter; some prefer [[lager]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/food/recipes/database/deepfriedfishinbeerb_67776.shtml|title=Deep fried fish in beer|date=|accessdate=23 March 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/food-and-drink/recipes/gurnard-in-beer-batter-772989.html|title=Gurnard in beer batter|date=26 January 2008|accessdate=23 March 2009 | work=The Independent | location=London | first=Mark | last=Hix}}</ref> whereas others use [[stout]] or [[bitter (beer)|bitter]]. |
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Bananas were certainly grown in the Christian [[Kingdom of Cyprus]] by the late medieval period. Writing in 1458, the Italian traveller and writer {{ILL|Gabriele Capodilista|it}} wrote favourably of the extensive farm produce of the estates at Episkopi, near modern-day [[Limassol]], including the region's banana plantations.<ref name=Jenn92/> |
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===Choice of fish=== |
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[[File:Fish-and-chips-horseshoe-bay.jpg|thumb|right|[[Cod]] and chips, served with a lemon wedge and [[tartar sauce]]]] |
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In Britain and Ireland, [[cod]] and [[haddock]] appear most commonly as the fish used for fish and chips,<ref name=onplate>{{cite web|author=Alan Masterson, tictoc design |url=http://www.seafish.org/plate/fishandchips.asp |title="Seafish. On Plate. Fish & chips" (UK Sea Fish Industry Authority website) |publisher=Seafish.org |date= |accessdate=22 June 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081011050658/http://www.seafish.org/plate/fishandchips.asp |archivedate=11 October 2008 }}</ref> but vendors also sell many other kinds of fish, especially other [[whitefish (fisheries term)|white fish]], such as [[pollock]] or [[coley (fish)|coley]], [[European plaice|plaice]], [[Skate (fish)|skate]], and [[Batoidea|ray]] (particularly popular in Ireland); and huss or [[rock salmon]] (a term covering several species of [[spiny dogfish|dogfish]] and similar fish). In [[Northern Ireland]], cod, plaice or [[whiting (fish)|whiting]] appear most commonly in 'fish suppers'—'supper' being Scottish and Northern Irish chip-shop terminology for a food item accompanied by chips.{{cn|date=May 2018}} Suppliers in [[Devon]] and [[Cornwall]] often offer pollock and coley as cheap alternatives to haddock.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Nunn|first1=Ian|title=My Family's Other Recipes: I Didn't Wanna Do It|date=2011|publisher=Author House|isbn=9781467002325|page=121|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PbGsCgVTFhAC&pg=PA121|language=en}}</ref> |
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Bananas were introduced to the [[Americas]] by [[Portugal|Portuguese]] sailors who brought the fruits from [[West Africa]] in the 16th century.<ref name=Botgard/> |
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In [[Australia]], reef cod and [[rock cod]] (a different variety from that used in the United Kingdom), [[barramundi]] or [[flathead (fish)|flathead]] (more expensive options), [[flake (fish)|flake]] (a type of [[shark meat]]) or [[Australasian snapper|snapper]] (cheaper options), are commonly used. From the early 21st century, farmed [[Basa fish|basa]] imported from Vietnam and [[Blue grenadier|hoki]] have become common in Australian fish and chip shops. Other types of fish are also used based on regional availability.{{citation needed|date=December 2017}} |
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Many [[Musa (genus)#Species|wild banana species]] as well as cultivars exist in extraordinary diversity in [[India]], [[China]], and [[Southeast Asia]]. |
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In New Zealand, [[Australasian snapper|snapper]] or [[Triglidae|gurnard]] was originally the preferred species for battered fillets in the North Island. As catches of this fish declined, it was replaced by [[Blue grenadier|hoki]], shark (particularly [[spotted estuary smooth-hound|rig]]) – marketed as lemon fish – and [[tarakihi]]. [[Bluefin gurnard]] and [[blue cod]] predominate in South Island fish and chips.<ref name="Wassilieff"/> |
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{{quote|There are fuzzy [[Musa velutina|bananas whose skins are bubblegum pink]]; green-and-white striped bananas with pulp the color of orange sherbet; bananas that, when cooked, taste like strawberries. The Double Mahoi plant can produce two bunches at once. The Chinese name of the aromatic Go San Heong banana means 'You can smell it from the next mountain.' The fingers on one banana plant grow fused; another produces bunches of a thousand fingers, each only an inch long.|Mike Peed, ''The New Yorker''<ref name=Peed11/>}} |
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===Plantation cultivation in the Caribbean, Central and South America=== |
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In the United States, the type of fish used depends on availability in a given region. Some common types are cod, [[halibut]], [[flounder]], [[tilapia]] or, in [[New England]], [[Atlantic cod]] or [[haddock]]. Salmon is growing common on the West Coast, while freshwater [[catfish]] is most frequently used in the [[Southeastern United States|Southeast]].{{citation needed|date=December 2017}} |
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{{Main|History of modern banana plantations in the Americas}} |
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[[File:Inside a wild-type banana.jpg|thumb|Fruits of [[Wild type|wild-type]] bananas have numerous large, hard seeds.|alt=Photo of two cross-sectional halves of seed-filled fruit.]] |
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In the 15th and 16th centuries, Portuguese colonists started banana plantations in the Atlantic Islands, [[Brazil]], and western Africa.<ref name=Phora/> North Americans began consuming bananas on a small scale at very high prices shortly after the Civil War, though it was only in the 1880s that the food became more widespread.<ref name=Koep08/> As late as the [[Victorian Era]], bananas were not widely known in Europe, although they were available.<ref name=Phora/> [[Jules Verne]] introduces bananas to his readers with detailed descriptions in ''[[Around the World in Eighty Days]]'' (1872). |
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In India, the dish is usually based on [[pomfret]] fish, and uses chilli paste, and more pepper than would be used in Britain.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/food/food-reviews/Fish-n-chips-a-great-Indian-delicacy/articleshow/10065191.cms|title=Fish n' chips, a great Indian delicacy|date=9 February 2012|newspaper=Times of India}}</ref> |
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The earliest modern plantations originated in [[Jamaica]] and the related [[Western Caribbean Zone]], including most of [[Central America]]. It involved the combination of modern transportation networks of steamships and railroads with the development of refrigeration that allowed more time between harvesting and ripening. North American shippers like [[Lorenzo Dow Baker]] and [[Andrew Preston]], the founders of the [[Boston Fruit Company]] started this process in the 1870s, but railroad builders like [[Minor C. Keith]] also participated, eventually culminating in the multi-national giant corporations like today's [[Chiquita Brands International]] and [[Dole Food Company|Dole]].<ref name=Koep08/> These companies were [[monopoly|monopolistic]], [[vertically integrated]] (meaning they controlled growing, processing, shipping and marketing) and usually used political manipulation to build [[enclave economy|enclave economies]] (economies that were internally self-sufficient, virtually tax exempt, and export-oriented that contribute very little to the host economy). Their political maneuvers, which gave rise to the term [[Banana republic]] for states like Honduras and Guatemala, included working with local elites and their rivalries to influence politics or playing the international interests of the United States, especially during the [[Cold War]], to keep the political climate favorable to their interests.<ref name=NZH/> |
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===Accompaniments=== |
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[[File:Fish and Chips 2.jpg|thumb|Fish and chips served with coleslaw and tartar sauce in an iron bowl]] |
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In chip shops in Britain and Ireland, [[edible salt|salt]] and [[vinegar]] are traditionally sprinkled over fish and chips at the time it is served.<ref name=onplate/> Suppliers use [[malt vinegar]], onion vinegar (used for pickling onions), or the cheaper [[non-brewed condiment]]. In England, a portion of [[mushy peas]] is a popular side dish,<ref>{{cite web|work=BBC |url=http://www.bbcgoodfood.com/recipes/3411/crispy-fish-and-chips-with-mushy-peas |title=Crispy fish & chips with mushy peas recipe |date= |accessdate=7 March 2010}}</ref> as are a range of pickles that typically include [[gherkin]]s, [[Pickled onion|onions]] and [[pickled egg|eggs]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://britishfoodhistory.wordpress.com/2012/09/23/pickled-eggs/ |title=British Food: A History |publisher=Britishfoodhistory.wordpress.com |date=23 September 2012 |accessdate=16 July 2013}}</ref> In table-service restaurants and [[Public house|pubs]], the dish is usually served with a slice of lemon for squeezing over the fish and without any sauces or [[condiment]]s, with salt, vinegar and sauces available at the customer's leisure.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://voices.yahoo.com/how-eat-fish-chips-like-british-1640767.html |title=How to Eat Fish and Chips like the British |publisher=voices.yahoo.com |date=16 July 2008 |accessdate=16 July 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20130615163952/http://voices.yahoo.com/how-eat-fish-chips-like-british-1640767.html |archivedate=15 June 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=October 2015}} |
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===Peasant cultivation for export in the Caribbean=== |
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In Ireland, Wales and England, most takeaways serve warm side portions of sauces such as [[curry]] sauce, [[gravy]] or [[mushy peas]]. The sauces are usually poured over the chips. In some areas, this dish without fish is referred to as 'wet chips'. In the Midlands especially, chips with mushy peas or [[baked beans]] is known as a "pea mix" or a "bean mix". Other fried products include '[[Scraps (batter)|scraps]]' (also known as 'bits' in Southern England and "scrumps" in South Wales), originally a by-product of fish frying. Still popular in Northern England, they were given as treats to the children of customers. Portions prepared and sold today consist of loose blobs of batter, deep fried to a crunchy golden crisp in the cooking-fat. The potato scallop or potato cake consists of slices of potato dipped in fish batter and deep fried until golden brown. These are often accompanied for dipping by the warm sauces listed above.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2007/jul/13/doyouknowwhatscrapsarean |title=Do you know what scraps are? And why they should be free |date=13 July 2007 |accessdate=24 November 2010 |location=London |work=The Guardian}}</ref> |
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{{Main|History of peasant banana production in the Americas}} |
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The vast majority of the world's bananas today are cultivated for family consumption or for sale on local markets. India is the world leader in this sort of production, but many other Asian and African countries where climate and soil conditions allow cultivation also host large populations of banana growers who sell at least some of their crop.{{sfn|Office of the Gene Technology Regulator|2008|pp=7–8}} |
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===Nutrition information=== |
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An average serving of fish and chips consisting of 6 ounces (170 grams) of fried fish with 10 ounces (280 grams) of fried chips has approximately 1,000 calories and contains approximately 52 grams of fat.<ref>{{cite web | title=Serving the Fish and Chips Industry - Nutritional info | publisher=[[National Federation of Fish Friers]] | date=March 29, 2018 | url=http://www.federationoffishfriers.co.uk/pages/nutritional-info-605.htm | access-date=March 31, 2018}}</ref> The use of tartar sauce as a condiment adds more calories and fat to the dish. |
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Peasant sector banana growers produce for the world market in the Caribbean, however. The [[Windward Islands]] are notable for the growing, largely of Cavendish bananas, for an international market, generally in Europe but also in North America. In the Caribbean, and especially in Dominica where this sort of cultivation is widespread, holdings are in the 1–2 acre range. In many cases the farmer earns additional money from other crops, from engaging in labor outside the farm, and from a share of the earnings of relatives living overseas.{{citation needed|date=July 2018}} |
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==Vendors== |
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{{Main article|Fish and chip shop}} |
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[[File:West Bay, Dorset 2.jpg|thumb|Fish and chip stalls]] |
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[[File:Mobile Fish and Chips.JPG|thumb|A mobile fish and chip vendor]] |
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In the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa, fish and chips are usually sold by independent restaurants and [[take-away]]s known as [[fish and chip shop]]s. Outlets range from small affairs to chain restaurants. Locally owned seafood restaurants are also popular in many places, as are mobile "[[chip van]]s".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mobilecateringuk.co.uk/how-to-start-up-mobile-catering-business.htm |title=Starting a Mobile Catering Business in UK |publisher=Mobilecateringuk.co.uk |date= |accessdate=16 October 2012}}</ref> In Canada, the outlets may be referred to as "chip wagons". In the United Kingdom some shops have amusing names, such as "[[Assault and battery (disambiguation)|A Salt and Battery]]"<!--intentional link to DAB page-->, "[[The Godfather|The Codfather]]", "[[The Flying Scotsman|The Frying Scotsman]]", "[[Oh My God (disambiguation)|Oh My Cod]]"<!--intentional link to DAB page--> and "[[Finding Nemo|Frying Nemo]]"<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/shortcuts/2012/jan/15/chip-shop-names-my-cod |title=Chip shops: oh my cod, the plaices I've seen |work=The Guardian |date=15 January 2012 |accessdate=2 June 2013 |location=London}}</ref> In New Zealand and Australia, fish-and-chip vendors are a popular business and source of income among the Asian community, particularly Chinese migrants.<ref>{{cite book|author=Swillingham, Guy|title=Shop Horror|publisher=Fourth Estate|location=London|year=2005|isbn=0-00-719813-2}}</ref> In [[Indonesia]], fish and chips are commonly found in big cities like [[Jakarta]] in western and seafood restaurants, as well as chain restaurants like The Manhattan Fish Market, Fish & Chips etc.<ref>{{cite web |title=Jakarta Eats: Fish n Chips Shop |publisher=Diplomatic wife |url=http://thediplomaticwife.com/blog/2010/11/02/fish-chips-shop-kemang/ |date=2 November 2010 |accessdate=30 January 2017 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415000519/http://thediplomaticwife.com/blog/2010/11/02/fish-chips-shop-kemang/ |archivedate=15 April 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> |
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Banana crops are vulnerable to destruction by high winds, such as tropical storms or [[cyclone]]s.{{sfn|Stover|Simmonds|1987|pp=206–207}} |
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In Ireland, the majority of traditional vendors are migrants or the descendants of migrants from southern Italy. A trade organisation exists to represent this tradition.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.itica.ie/ |title=ITICA - Irish Traditional Italian Chipper Association, chippers in Ireland, Irish chippers, Fish and Chip Day — ITICA |publisher=Itica.ie |date= |accessdate=2 June 2013}}</ref> |
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[[File:Yaiza Playa Blanca - Avenida Papagayo 07 ies.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Sign in [[Lanzarote]], Spain]] |
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Fish and chips is a popular lunch meal eaten by families travelling to seaside resorts for day trips who do not bring their own [[picnic]] meals. |
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===East Africa=== |
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Fish-and-chip outlets sell roughly 25% of all the [[Whitefish (fisheries term)|white fish]] consumed in the United Kingdom, and 10% of all [[potatoes]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bartonsfishandchips.co.uk/FishAndChipFacts.aspx |title=Fish and Chip Facts |date= |accessdate=30 January 2012 |website=Barton's Fish and Chips |publisher= |last= |first= |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120130032436/http://bartonsfishandchips.co.uk/FishAndChipFacts.aspx |archivedate=30 January 2012 }}</ref> |
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{{Main|East African Highland bananas}} |
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{{Empty section|date=July 2018}} |
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[[File:Acta Eruditorum - III musa arabum pala plinii, 1734 – BEIC 13446956.jpg|thumb|Illustration of fruit and banana plant from [[Acta Eruditorum]], 1734]] |
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==Modern cultivation== |
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The numerous competitions and awards for "best fish-and-chip shop"<ref name="seafish1">{{cite web|url=http://www.seafish.org/eating-seafood/the-national-fish-chip-awards|title=The National Fish and Chip Awards}}</ref> testify to the recognised status of this type of outlet in [[popular culture]].<ref name="bbc1">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/4670504.stm|title=Couple scoop best chip shop award|accessdate=4 January 2007|publisher=BBC News| date=1 February 2006}}</ref> |
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All widely cultivated bananas today descend from the two wild bananas ''Musa acuminata'' and ''Musa balbisiana''. While the original wild bananas contained large seeds, [[diploid]] or [[polyploid]] cultivars (some being [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrids]]) with tiny seeds are preferred for human raw fruit consumption.<ref name=Cast09/> These are propagated [[asexual reproduction|asexually]] from offshoots. The plant is allowed to produce two shoots at a time; a larger one for immediate fruiting and a smaller "sucker" or "follower" to produce fruit in 6–8 months. |
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As a non-seasonal crop, bananas are available fresh year-round.<ref>{{cite web|title=How bananas are grown|url=http://www.bananalink.org.uk/how-bananas-are-grown|website=Banana Link|accessdate=September 2, 2016|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160906115526/http://www.bananalink.org.uk/how-bananas-are-grown|archivedate=September 6, 2016}}</ref> |
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Fish-and-chip shops traditionally wrapped their product in newspaper, or with an inner layer of white paper (for hygiene) and an outer layer of newspaper or blank [[newsprint]] (for insulation and to absorb grease), though the use of newspaper for wrapping has almost ceased on grounds of hygiene. {{As of|2007|alt= Nowadays}}, establishments usually use food-quality wrapping paper, occasionally printed on the outside to imitate newspaper. |
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===Cavendish=== |
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The British [[National Federation of Fish Friers]] was founded in 1913. It promotes fish and chips and offers training courses. |
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{{main|Cavendish bananas}} |
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[[File:Bananas.jpg|thumb|alt=Grocery store photo of several bunches of bananas|[[Cavendish bananas]] are the main commercial banana cultivars sold in the world market.]] |
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In global commerce in 2009, by far the most important cultivars belonged to the triploid [[List of banana cultivars#AAA Group|AAA]] [[cultivar group|group]] of ''Musa acuminata'', commonly referred to as Cavendish group bananas. They accounted for the majority of banana exports,<ref name=Cast09/> despite only coming into existence in 1836.<ref name=Homecooking/> The cultivars [[Dwarf Cavendish]] and [[Grand Nain]] (Chiquita Banana) gained popularity in the 1950s after the previous mass-produced cultivar, [[Gros Michel banana|Gros Michel]] (also an AAA group cultivar), became commercially unviable due to [[Panama disease]], caused by the fungus ''[[Fusarium oxysporum]]'' which attacks the roots of the banana plant.<ref name=Cast09/> Cavendish cultivars are resistant to the Panama Disease, but in 2013 there were fears that the [[Black Sigatoka]] fungus would in turn make Cavendish bananas unviable.<ref name=Holmes/> |
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A previous world record for the "largest serving of fish and chips" was held by Gadaleto's Seafood Market in New Paltz, New York.<ref>Guinness World Record Claim ID# 45775</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gadaletos.com |title=Hudson Valleys Freshest Seafood and Lobster, retail market, restaurant |publisher=Gadaletos.com |date=16 April 2013 |accessdate=2 June 2013}}</ref> This 2004 record was broken by [[Yorkshire]] pub Wensleydale Heifer in July 2011.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14003627 |title=Giant fish and chip supper breaks world record |work=BBC News |date=2 July 2011 |accessdate=16 July 2013}}</ref> An attempt to break this record was made by [[Doncaster]] fish and chip shop Scawsby Fisheries in August 2012, which served {{convert|33|lb|kg}} of battered cod alongside {{convert|64|lb|kg}} of chips.<ref name="bbc2">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-south-yorkshire-19412343|title=Cod and chips world record battered in Doncaster|accessdate=29 August 2012|work=BBC News| date=29 August 2012}}</ref> |
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Even though it is no longer viable for large scale cultivation, Gros Michel is not extinct and is still grown in areas where Panama disease is not found.<ref name=straightdope/> Likewise, Dwarf Cavendish and Grand Nain are in no danger of extinction, but they may leave supermarket shelves if disease makes it impossible to supply the global market. It is unclear if any existing cultivar can replace Cavendish bananas, so various [[Hybrid (biology)|hybridisation]] and [[genetic engineering]] programs are attempting to create a disease-resistant, mass-market banana.<ref name=Cast09/> One such strain that has emerged is the Taiwanese Cavendish, also known as the Formosana.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Gittleson|first1=Kim|title=Battling to save the world's bananas|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-42777803|accessdate=April 18, 2018|agency=BBC News|publisher=BBC|date=February 1, 2018}}</ref> |
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==Cultural impact== |
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[[File:London England Victor Grigas 2011-37.jpg|thumb|A [[neon]] sign for Fish and Chips]] |
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===Ripening=== |
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The long-standing [[Roman Catholic]] tradition of [[Friday Fast|not eating meat on Fridays]], especially during [[Lent]], and of substituting fish for meat on that day continues to influence habits even in predominantly Protestant, Anglican, semi-[[secularism|secular]] and secular societies. Friday night remains a traditional occasion for eating fish-and-chips; and many [[cafeteria]]s and similar establishments, while varying their menus on other days of the week, habitually offer fish and chips every Friday.<ref>{{cite book | title = Frying tonight: the saga of fish & chips | author = Gerald Priestland |publisher = Gentry Books |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=VsDfAAAAMAAJ | year = 1972 | pages = | isbn = 0-85614-014-7 | page = 28 }}</ref> |
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Export bananas are picked green, and ripen in special rooms upon arrival in the destination country. These rooms are air-tight and filled with [[Ethylene|ethylene gas]] to induce ripening. The vivid yellow color consumers normally associate with supermarket bananas is, in fact, caused by the artificial ripening process.<ref name=Ding07/> Flavor and texture are also affected by ripening temperature. Bananas are refrigerated to between {{convert|13.5|and|15|C|F}} during transport. At lower temperatures, ripening permanently stalls, and the bananas turn gray as cell walls break down. The skin of ripe bananas quickly blackens in the {{convert|4|C}} environment of a domestic [[refrigerator]], although the fruit inside remains unaffected. |
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[[File:Banana-fluorescence-081108.jpg|thumb|left|Ripened bananas (left, under [[sunlight]]) fluoresce in blue when exposed to [[UV light]].|alt=Two adjacent photos of bananas. The left is in sunlight; the right is under ultraviolet light.]] |
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Bananas can be ordered by the retailer "ungassed" (''i.e.'' not treated with ethylene), and may show up at the supermarket fully green. {{lang|es|[[Guineos verdes]]}} (green bananas) that have not been gassed will never fully ripen before becoming rotten. Instead of fresh eating, these bananas can be used for cooking, as seen in Jamaican cuisine.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mnn.com/food/healthy-eating/stories/4-ways-use-green-bananas-wont-ripen|title=4 ways to use green bananas that won't ripen|last=Kirschner|first=Chanie|date=January 21, 2016|website=[[Mother Nature Network]]|access-date=April 30, 2017|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170428035449/http://www.mnn.com/food/healthy-eating/stories/4-ways-use-green-bananas-wont-ripen|archivedate=April 28, 2017}}</ref> |
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In Australia and New Zealand, the words "fish and chips" are often used as a [[shibboleth]] to highlight the difference in each country's short-i vowel sound {{IPA|/ɪ/}}. Australian English has a higher forward sound {{IPAblink|i}}, close to the ''ee'' in ''see'' (but shorter), while New Zealand English has a lower backward sound {{IPAblink|ɘ}} akin to the ''a'' in ''Rosa's'' (but not in ''Rosa'', which is typically lower {{IPAblink|ɐ}}). Thus, New Zealanders hear Australians say "feesh and cheeps," while Australians hear New Zealanders say "fush and chups."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10441472 |title=I'll just have me fush and chups and then I'm off to bid |publisher=NZ Herald |date= |accessdate=2018-04-03}}</ref> |
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A 2008 study reported that ripe bananas [[fluoresce]] when exposed to [[ultraviolet]] light. This property is attributed to the degradation of [[chlorophyll]] leading to the accumulation of a fluorescent product in the skin of the fruit. The chlorophyll [[breakdown product]] is stabilized by a [[propionate]] [[ester]] group. Banana-plant leaves also fluoresce in the same way. Green bananas do not fluoresce. The study suggested that this allows animals which can see light in the ultraviolet spectrum ([[tetrachromat]]s and [[pentachromat]]s) to more easily detect ripened bananas.<ref name=Mose08/> |
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==Environment== |
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{{clear}} |
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In the UK, waste oil from fish and chip shops has become a useful source of [[biodiesel]].<ref name="planetark-petrotec" /> The German biodiesel company [[Petrotec]] has outlined plans to produce biodiesel in the UK from waste oil from the British fish-and-chip industry.<ref name="planetark-petrotec">{{cite web |url=http://www.planetark.com/dailynewsstory.cfm/newsid/47581/story.htm |title=German Biodiesel Firm To Use Chip Fat In UK, US |author=Michael Hogan |date=19 March 2008 |publisher= |website=planetark.com |accessdate=1 October 2010}}</ref> |
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===Storage and transport=== |
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==See also== |
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Bananas must be transported over long distances from the tropics to world markets.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=biUhdI19b18C&pg=PA1&dq=Bananas+transported+over+long+distances+from+the+tropics+to+world+markets.#v=onepage&q=Bananas%20transported%20over%20long%20distances%20from%20the%20tropics%20to%20world%20markets.&f=false|title=The World Banana Economy, 1985-2002|last=FAO)|first=Pedro Arias (Asesor da|date=2003|publisher=Food & Agriculture Org.|isbn=9789251050576|language=en}}</ref> To obtain maximum shelf life, harvest comes before the fruit is mature. The fruit requires careful handling, rapid transport to ports, cooling, and refrigerated shipping. The goal is to prevent the bananas from producing their natural ripening agent, ethylene. This technology allows storage and transport for 3–4 weeks at {{convert|13|C}}. On arrival, bananas are held at about {{convert|17|C}} and treated with a low concentration of ethylene. After a few days, the fruit begins to ripen and is distributed for final sale. Ripe bananas can be held for a few days at home. If bananas are too green, they can be put in a brown paper bag with an apple or tomato overnight to speed up the ripening process.<ref name=ChiquitaRipen/> |
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{{portal|Food}} |
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{{div col|colwidth=30em}} |
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Carbon dioxide (which bananas produce) and ethylene absorbents extend fruit life even at high temperatures. This effect can be exploited by packing banana in a [[polyethylene]] bag and including an ethylene absorbent, e.g., [[potassium permanganate]], on an inert carrier. The bag is then sealed with a band or string. This treatment has been shown to more than double lifespans up to 3–4 weeks without the need for refrigeration.<ref name=Scot70/><ref name=Scot71/><ref name=Scot74/> |
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* [[Chicken and chips]] – another take-away dish often sold in the same establishments. |
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* [[French fries|Fried potatoes]] |
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==Production and export== |
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* [[Fish fry]] |
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{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; clear:left; width:18em;" |
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* [[Fried fish]] |
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|+ 2016 Production <br><small>millions of tonnes</small> |
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* [[List of deep fried foods]] |
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! Country !! Bananas !! Plantains !! Total |
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* [[List of fish and chip restaurants]] |
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|- |
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* [[List of fish dishes]] |
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|<center>{{IND}}||style="text-align:center;"|29.1|| ||style="text-align:center;"|29.1 |
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* [[Pescado frito]] |
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|- |
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{{div col end}} |
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|<center>{{CHN}}||style="text-align:center;"|13.1|| ||style="text-align:center;"|13.1 |
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|- |
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|<center>{{PHL}}||style="text-align:center;"|5.8||style="text-align:center;"|3.1||style="text-align:center;"|8.9 |
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|- |
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|<center>{{ECU}}||style="text-align:center;"|6.5||style="text-align:center;"|0.6||style="text-align:center;"|7.1 |
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|- |
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|<center>{{IDN}}||style="text-align:center;"|7.0|| ||style="text-align:center;"|7.0 |
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|- |
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|<center>{{BRA}}||style="text-align:center;"|6.8|| ||style="text-align:center;"|6.8 |
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|- |
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|<center>{{COL}}||style="text-align:center;"|2.0||style="text-align:center;"|3.5||style="text-align:center;"|5.5 |
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|- |
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|<center>{{CMR}}||style="text-align:center;"|1.2||style="text-align:center;"|4.3||style="text-align:center;"|5.5 |
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|- |
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|<center>{{UGA}}||style="text-align:center;"|0.6||style="text-align:center;"|3.7||style="text-align:center;"|4.3 |
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|- |
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|<center>{{GHA}}||style="text-align:center;"|0.09||style="text-align:center;"|4.0||style="text-align:center;"|4.1 |
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|- |
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|<center>{{GUA}}||style="text-align:center;"|3.8||style="text-align:center;"|0.3||style="text-align:center;"|4.1 |
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|- |
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|<center>'''World'''||style="text-align:center;"|'''113.3'''||style="text-align:center;"|'''35.1'''||style="text-align:center;"|'''148.4''' |
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|- |
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|colspan=4|<small>Source: [[FAOSTAT]] of the [[United Nations]]<ref name="faostat16">{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC|title=Banana and plantain production in 2016, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity (pick lists)|date=2017|publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT)|accessdate=January 6, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170511194947/http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC|archivedate=May 11, 2017}}</ref> Note: Some countries produce statistics distinguishing between bananas and plantain production, but four of the top six producers do not, requiring comparisons using the total for bananas and plantains combined. |
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|} |
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In 2016, world production of bananas and plantains was 148 million tonnes, led by [[India]] and [[China]] with a combined total (only for bananas) of 28% of global production (table). Other major producers were the [[Philippines]], [[Ecuador]], [[Indonesia]], and [[Brazil]], together accounting for 20% of the world total of bananas and plantains (table). |
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As reported for 2013, total world exports were 20 million tonnes of bananas and 859,000 tonnes of plantains.<ref name="faostat13exp">{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/TP|title=Banana and plantain exports in 2013, Crops and livestock products/Regions/World list/Export quantity (pick lists)|date=2017|publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT)|accessdate=January 6, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170511194947/http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/TP|archivedate=May 11, 2017}}</ref> Ecuador and the Philippines were the leading exporters with 5.4 and 3.3 million tonnes, respectively, and the [[Dominican Republic]] was the leading exporter of plantains with 210,350 tonnes.<ref name=faostat13exp/> |
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===Developing countries=== |
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Bananas and plantains constitute a major staple [[agriculture|food crop]] for millions of people in [[developing country|developing countries]].<ref name=":0" /> In most tropical countries, green (unripe) bananas used for [[cooking]] represent the main cultivars. Most producers are small-scale [[farmer]]s either for home consumption or local markets. Because bananas and plantains produce fruit year-round, they provide a valuable food source during the ''hunger season'' (when the food from one annual/semi-annual harvest has been consumed, and the next is still to come). Bananas and plantains are important for global [[food security]].<ref>{{cite journal|pmid=22801500|year=2012|author1=d'Hont|first1=A|title=The banana (Musa acuminata) genome and the evolution of monocotyledonous plants|journal=Nature|volume=488|issue=7410|pages=213–7|last2=Denoeud|first2=F|last3=Aury|first3=J. M|last4=Baurens|first4=F. C|last5=Carreel|first5=F|last6=Garsmeur|first6=O|last7=Noel|first7=B|last8=Bocs|first8=S|last9=Droc|first9=G|last10=Rouard|first10=M|last11=Da Silva|first11=C|last12=Jabbari|first12=K|last13=Cardi|first13=C|last14=Poulain|first14=J|last15=Souquet|first15=M|last16=Labadie|first16=K|last17=Jourda|first17=C|last18=Lengellé|first18=J|last19=Rodier-Goud|first19=M|last20=Alberti|first20=A|last21=Bernard|first21=M|last22=Correa|first22=M|last23=Ayyampalayam|first23=S|last24=McKain|first24=M. R|last25=Leebens-Mack|first25=J|last26=Burgess|first26=D|last27=Freeling|first27=M|last28=Mbéguié-a-Mbéguié|first28=D|last29=Chabannes|first29=M|last30=Wicker|first30=T|display-authors=29|doi=10.1038/nature11241|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature11241|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180327155254/https://www.nature.com/articles/nature11241|archivedate=March 27, 2018}}</ref> |
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==Pests, diseases, and natural disasters== |
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{{Main|List of banana and plantain diseases}} |
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[[File:BananasBlueBagStLucia.jpg|thumb|upright|Banana bunches are sometimes encased in plastic bags for protection. The bags may be coated with [[pesticide]]s.|alt=Photo of bananas in blue plastic bag]] |
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While in no danger of outright extinction, the most common edible banana cultivar Cavendish (extremely popular in Europe and the Americas) could become unviable for large-scale cultivation in the next 10–20 years. Its predecessor '[[Gros Michel]]', discovered in the 1820s, suffered this fate. Like almost all bananas, Cavendish lacks genetic diversity, which makes it vulnerable to diseases, threatening both commercial cultivation and small-scale subsistence farming.<ref name=NS060613/><ref name=Mont03/> Some commentators remarked that those variants which could replace what much of the world considers a "typical banana" are so different that most people would not consider them the same fruit, and blame the decline of the banana on [[mendelian inheritance|monogenetic]] cultivation driven by short-term commercial motives.<ref name=NZH/> |
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===Panama disease=== |
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[[Panama disease]] is caused by a [[fusarium]] soil [[fungus]] (Race 1), which enters the plants through the roots and travels with water into the trunk and leaves, producing [[gel]]s and gums that cut off the flow of water and nutrients, causing the plant to [[wilting|wilt]], and exposing the rest of the plant to lethal amounts of sunlight. Prior to 1960, almost all commercial banana production centered on "Gros Michel", which was highly susceptible.<ref name=Bark08/> Cavendish was chosen as the replacement for Gros Michel because, among resistant cultivars, it produces the highest quality [[fruit]]. However, more care is required for shipping the Cavendish,{{citation needed|date=July 2018}} and its quality compared to Gros Michel is debated.<ref name="Lessard">{{Cite book |title=The Complete Book of Bananas |last=Lessard |first=William |year=1992 |isbn=978-0963316103 |pages=27–28}}</ref> |
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According to current sources, a deadly form of Panama disease is infecting Cavendish. All plants are genetically identical, which prevents evolution of disease resistance. Researchers are examining hundreds of wild varieties for resistance.<ref name=Bark08/> |
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====Tropical race 4==== |
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[[Tropical Race 4|Tropical race 4]] (TR4), a reinvigorated strain of Panama disease, was first discovered in 1993. This virulent form of fusarium wilt has wiped out Cavendish in several southeast Asian countries and has recently spread to Australia, India and Mozambique.{{citation needed|date=June 2018}}{{Clarify timeframe}} It has yet to reach the Americas; however, the soil-based fungi can easily be carried on boots, clothing, or tools. This is how TR4 travels and will be its most likely route into Latin America. Cavendish is highly susceptible to TR4, and over time Cavendish will almost certainly be eliminated from commercial production by this disease.<ref name=IBS/> The only known defense to TR4 is genetic resistance. This is conferred either by RGA2, a gene isolated from a TR4-resistant diploid banana, or by the nematode-derived Ced9.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Dale|first1=James|last2=James|first2=Anthony|last3=Paul|first3=Jean-Yves|last4=Khanna|first4=Harjeet|last5=Smith|first5=Mark|last6=Peraza-Echeverria|first6=Santy|last7=Garcia-Bastidas|first7=Fernando|last8=Kema|first8=Gert|last9=Waterhouse|first9=Peter|last10=Mengersen|first10=Kerrie|last11=Harding|first11=Robert|title=Transgenic Cavendish bananas with resistance to Fusarium wilt tropical race 4|journal=Nature Communications|date=November 14, 2017|volume=8|issue=1|pages=1496|doi=10.1038/s41467-017-01670-6|pmid=29133817|pmc=5684404}}</ref> |
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===Black sigatoka=== |
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[[Black sigatoka]] is a fungal leaf spot disease first observed in [[Fiji]] in 1963 or 1964. Black Sigatoka (also known as black leaf streak) has spread to banana plantations throughout the tropics from infected banana leaves that were used as packing material. It affects all main cultivars of bananas and plantains (including the Cavendish cultivars<ref name =Holmes/>), impeding [[photosynthesis]] by blackening parts of the leaves, eventually killing the entire leaf. Starved for energy, fruit production falls by 50% or more, and the bananas that do grow [[ripening|ripen]] prematurely, making them unsuitable for export. The fungus has shown ever-increasing resistance to treatment, with the current expense for treating {{convert|1|ha}} exceeding [[United States dollar|$]]1,000 per year. In addition to the expense, there is the question of how long intensive spraying can be environmentally justified. |
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===Banana bunchy top virus=== |
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[[Banana bunchy top virus]] (BBTV) is a plant virus of the genus ''Babuvirus'', family ''Nanonviridae'' affecting ''Musa spp.'' (including banana, abaca, plantain and ornamental bananas) and ''Ensete spp.'' in the family ''Musaceae''.<ref>National Biological Information Infrastructure (NBII) & IUCN/SSC Invasive Species Specialist Group. "Banana Bunchy Top Virus." Global Invasive Species Database. N.p., 6 July 2005. <http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=141>.</ref> Banana Bunchy Top Disease (BBTD) symptons include dark green streaks of variable length in leaf veins, midribs and petioles. Leaves become short and stunted as the disease progresses, becoming 'bunched' at the apex of the plant. Infected plants may produce no fruit or the bunch may not emerge from the pseudostem. |
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<ref name ="techguide"> Thomas, JE (ed). 2015.[http://www.musalit.org/seeMore.php?id=15942 MusaNet Technical Guidelines for the Safe Movement of ''Musa'' Germplasm]. 3rd edition. Bioversity International, Rome</ref> The virus is transmitted by the banana aphid ''[[Pentalonia nigronervosa]]'' and is widespread in SE Asia, Asia, the Philippines, Taiwan, Oceania and parts of Africa. There is no cure for BBTD, but it can be effectively controlled by the eradication of diseased plants and the use of virus-free planting material.<ref>J.E. Thomas, M-L. Iskra-Caruana and D.R. Jones. 1994. ''Musa'' Disease Fact Sheet N° 4. Banana Bunchy Top Disease, INIBAP.<https://www.bioversityinternational.org/fileadmin/user_upload/online_library/publications/pdfs/703.pdf></ref>. No resistant cultivars have been found, but varietal differences in suspectibility have been reported. The commercially important Cavendish subgroup is severely affected. <ref name ="techguide"/> |
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===Banana bacterial wilt=== |
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[[Banana Xanthomonas wilt|Banana bacterial wilt]] (BBW) is a bacterial disease caused by ''[[Xanthomonas campestris]]'' pv. ''musacearum''.<ref name=Tush04/> After being originally identified on a close relative of bananas, ''[[Ensete ventricosum]]'', in [[Ethiopia]] in the 1960s,<ref name=Brad68/> BBW occurred in Uganda in 2001 affecting all banana cultivars. Since then BBW has been diagnosed in Central and East Africa including the banana growing regions of [[Rwanda]], the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Tanzania]], [[Kenya]], [[Burundi]], and [[Uganda]].<ref name=Mwan07/> |
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==Conservation== |
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[[File:ITC_cold_room.jpg|thumb|right|The ''in vitro'' banana collection at [[Bioversity International| Bioversity's International]] ''Musa'' Germplasm Transit Centre in Belgium. Credit N.Capozio/Bioversity International]] |
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Given the narrow range of [[genetic diversity]] present in bananas and the many threats via [[Biotic component|biotic]] (pests and diseases) and [[Abiotic component|abiotic]] (such as [[drought]]) stress, [[Conservation biology|conservation]] of the full spectrum of banana [[plant genetic resources|genetic resources]] is ongoing.<ref name="genebank">{{cite web |title=Banana |url=https://www.genebanks.org/resources/crops/banana/ |publisher=Genebank Platform |accessdate=10 September 2018 |date=2018}}</ref> Banana [[germplasm]] is conserved in many national and regional [[gene banks]], and at the world’s largest banana collection, the International ''Musa'' Germplasm Transit Centre (ITC), managed by [[Bioversity International]] and hosted at [[KU Leuven]] in Belgium.<ref name="musagermplasm">{{cite web |title=International Musa Germplasm Transit Centre |url=https://www.bioversityinternational.org/banana-genebank/ |publisher=BioDiversity International |accessdate=10 September 2018 |date=2018}}</ref> ''Musa'' cultivars are usually seedless, and options for their long-term conservation are constrained by the vegetative nature of the plant’s reproductive system. Consequently, they are conserved by three main methods: ''[[in vivo]]'' (planted in field collections), ''[[in vitro]]'' (as plantlets in test tubes within a controlled environment), and by [[cryopreservation]] ([[meristem]]s conserved in [[liquid nitrogen]] at -196°C).<ref name=genebank/> Genes from wild banana species are conserved as [[DNA]] and as cryopreserved [[pollen]] <ref name=genebank/> and banana seeds from wild species are also conserved, although less commonly, as they are difficult to regenerate. In addition, bananas and their [[crop wild relatives]] are conserved ''[[in situ]]'' (in wild natural habitats where they evolved and continue to do so). Diversity is also conserved in farmers’ fields where continuous cultivation, adaptation and improvement of cultivars is often carried out by small-scale farmers growing traditional local cultivars (including home gardens).<ref> [http://www.musalit.org/seeMore.php?id=1756/MusaNet 2016. Global Strategy for the Conservation and Use of ''Musa'' Genetic Resources | (B. Laliberté, compiler). Bioversity International, Montpellier, France]</ref> |
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== Nutrition == |
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{{nutritionalvalue |
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| name=Bananas, raw ([[Daily Value]]) |
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| water=74.91 g |
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| kJ=371 |
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| protein=1.09 g |
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| fat=0.33 g |
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| carbs=22.84 g |
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| fiber=2.6 g |
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| sugars=12.23 g |
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| iron_mg=0.26 |
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| magnesium_mg=27 |
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| phosphorus_mg=22 |
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| potassium_mg=358 |
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| sodium_mg=1 |
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| zinc_mg=0.15 |
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| manganese_mg=0.27 |
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| vitC_mg=8.7 |
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| thiamin_mg=0.031 |
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| riboflavin_mg=0.073 |
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| niacin_mg=0.665 |
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| pantothenic_mg=0.334 |
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| vitB6_mg=0.4 |
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| folate_ug=20 |
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| choline_mg=9.8 |
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| source_usda=1 |
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| note=[http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/search/list?qlookup=09040&format=Full Link to USDA Database entry] |
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values are for edible portion |
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}} |
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Raw bananas (not including the peel) are 75% water, 23% [[carbohydrates]], 1% [[protein]], and contain negligible [[fat]]. A 100-gram serving supplies 89 [[Calories]], 31% of the US recommended [[Daily Value]] of [[Vitamin B6|vitamin B<sub>6</sub>]], and moderate amounts of [[vitamin C]], [[manganese]] and [[dietary fiber]] (see table). |
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;Potassium: Although bananas are commonly thought to supply exceptional [[potassium]] content,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/232283.php|title=Bananas! Eating Healthy Will Cost You; Potassium Alone $380 Per Year|publisher=Medical News Today|author=Kraft S|date=August 4, 2011|accessdate=October 25, 2014|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141025190815/http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/232283.php|archivedate=October 25, 2014}}</ref> their actual potassium content is relatively low per typical food serving at only 8% of the US recommended Daily Value (table). Vegetables with higher potassium content than raw dessert bananas (358 mg per 100 grams) include raw [[spinach]] (558 mg per 100 grams), baked [[potato]]es without skin (391 mg per 100 grams), cooked soybeans (539 mg per 100 grams), grilled portabella [[mushroom]]s (437 mg per 100 grams) and processed tomato sauces (413–439 mg per 100 grams). Raw plantains contain 499 mg potassium per 100 grams. Dehydrated dessert bananas or banana powder contain 1491 mg potassium per 100 grams.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/nutrients/report?nutrient1=306&nutrient2=&nutrient3=&fg=9&fg=11&max=25&subset=1&offset=0&sort=c&totCount=206&measureby=g|title=Ranking of potassium content per 100 grams in common fruits and vegetables|publisher=United States Department of Agriculture, National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 28|date=November 2016|accessdate=May 6, 2017|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809131911/https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/nutrients/report?nutrient1=306&nutrient2=&nutrient3=&fg=9&fg=11&max=25&subset=1&offset=0&sort=c&totCount=206&measureby=g|archivedate=August 9, 2017}}</ref> |
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;Allergens: Individuals with a [[latex allergy]] may experience a reaction to bananas.<ref name=Tayl04/> |
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==Culture== |
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===Food and cooking=== |
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{{See also|Cooking plantain|List of banana dishes}} |
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====Fruit==== |
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Bananas are a staple [[starch]] for many tropical populations. Depending upon cultivar and ripeness, the flesh can vary in taste from starchy to sweet, and texture from firm to mushy. Both the skin and inner part can be eaten raw or cooked. The primary component of the aroma of fresh bananas is [[isoamyl acetate]] (also known as ''banana oil''), which, along with several other compounds such as [[butyl acetate]] and [[isobutyl acetate]], is a significant contributor to banana flavor.<ref name=Fahl00/><ref name=Mui02/><ref name=Salm96/> |
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During the ripening process, bananas produce the gas [[ethylene]], which acts as a [[plant hormone]] and indirectly affects the flavor. Among other things, ethylene stimulates the formation of [[amylase]], an [[enzyme]] that breaks down starch into sugar, influencing the taste of bananas. The greener, less ripe bananas contain higher levels of starch and, consequently, have a "starchier" taste. On the other hand, yellow bananas taste sweeter due to higher sugar concentrations. Furthermore, ethylene signals the production of [[pectinase]], an enzyme which breaks down the [[pectin]] between the cells of the banana, causing the banana to soften as it ripens.<ref name=plantphys/><ref name=newton/> |
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Bananas are eaten deep fried, baked in their skin in a split [[bamboo]], or steamed in [[glutinous rice]] wrapped in a banana leaf. Bananas can be made into [[fruit preserves|jam]]. Banana [[pancake]]s are popular amongst [[Backpacking (travel)|backpackers]] and other travelers in [[South Asia]] and [[Southeast Asia]]. This has elicited the expression ''[[Banana Pancake Trail]]'' for those places in [[Asia]] that cater to this group of travelers. [[Banana chips]] are a snack produced from sliced dehydrated or fried banana or plantain, which have a dark brown color and an intense banana taste. Dried bananas are also ground to make [[banana flour]]. Extracting juice is difficult, because when a banana is compressed, it simply turns to pulp. Bananas feature prominently in [[Philippine cuisine]], being part of traditional dishes and desserts like ''[[Maruya (Filipino cuisine)|maruya]]'', ''[[Turón (food)|turón]]'', and ''[[halo-halo]]'' or ''saba con yelo''. Most of these dishes use the [[Saba Banana|Saba]] or Cardaba banana cultivar. Bananas are also commonly used in cuisine in the South-Indian state of [[Kerala]], where they are steamed (''puzhungiyathu''), made into curries,<ref name=pazhampachadi/> fried into chips, (''upperi'')<ref name=Hindu130413/> or fried in batter (''pazhampori'').<ref name=Hindu110228/> [[Pisang goreng]], bananas fried with batter similar to the Filipino ''maruya'' or Kerala ''pazhampori'', is a popular dessert in Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia. A similar dish is known in the United Kingdom and United States as banana [[fritter]]s. |
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Plantains are used in various stews and curries or cooked, baked or mashed in much the same way as [[potatoes]], such as the [[pazham pachadi]] dish prepared in [[Kerala]].<ref name=pazhampachadi/> |
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{{multiple image| |
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|width=160 | height=170 |
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|align=center |
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|image1=అరటికాయ మరియు నిమ్మకాయ పులుసు కూర.jpg |
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|caption1=Banana with Lemon curry made in a house in Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh, India |
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|image2 =Bananajf.jpg |
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|caption2 =''Kilawin na pusô ng saging'', a [[Cuisine of the Philippines|Filipino dish]] using banana flowers |
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|image3 =Nacatamales in steamer.jpg |
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|caption3=Nicaraguan [[Nacatamal|Nacatamales]], in banana leaves, ready to be steamed |
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|image4 =Kaeng yuak.JPG |
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|caption4= ''Kaeng yuak'' is a northern [[Thai curry]] made with the core of the banana plant |
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|image5=Pisang goreng in a basket.jpg |
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|caption5=''[[Pisang goreng]]'' fried banana coated in batter, [[Indonesian cuisine|popular snack in Indonesia]] |
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|image6=YosriPengatPisang.jpg |
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|caption6=Banana in sweet gravy, known as ''pengat pisang'' in Malaysia |
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}} |
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====Flower==== |
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Banana hearts are used as a [[vegetable]]<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.asiafood.org/glossary_1.cfm?alpha=B&wordid=3219&startno=1&endno=25 |title=Encyclopedia of Asian Food |year=1998 |last=Solomon |first=C |publisher=New Holland Publishers |location=Australia |edition=Periplus |accessdate=May 17, 2008 |isbn=978-0-85561-688-5 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080603142416/http://www.asiafood.org/glossary_1.cfm?alpha=B&wordid=3219&startno=1&endno=25 |archive-date=June 3, 2008 |deadurl=yes }}</ref> in [[South Asian cuisine|South Asian]] and [[Southeast Asian cuisine]], either raw or steamed with dips or cooked in soups, curries and fried foods.<ref>[http://www.dudaonline.com/southeast-asia/thailand/fried-banana-flowers/ Fried banana flowers] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110405093613/http://www.dudaonline.com/southeast-asia/thailand/fried-banana-flowers/ |date=April 5, 2011 }}. Duda Online (December 14, 2009). Retrieved on October 2, 2011.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://verygoodrecipes.com/banana/flowers|title=Very Good Recipes of Banana and Flowers|website=verygoodrecipes.com|language=en|access-date=2018-10-06}}</ref> The flavor resembles that of [[artichoke]]. As with artichokes, both the fleshy part of the bracts and the heart are edible.<ref>{{cite web|title=Banana Flowers|url=http://localfoods.about.com/od/Bananas/ss/Banana-Flowers.htm|publisher=About.com|accessdate=May 13, 2014|author=Molly Watson|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140514041859/http://localfoods.about.com/od/Bananas/ss/Banana-Flowers.htm|archivedate=May 14, 2014}} See also the link on that page for Banana Flower Salad.</ref> |
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====Leaves==== |
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{{main|Banana leaf}} |
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Banana leaves are large, flexible, and waterproof. They are often used as ecologically friendly disposable food containers or as "plates" in [[South Asia]] and several [[Southeast Asia]]n countries. In [[Indonesian cuisine]], banana leaf is employed in cooking methods like [[pepes]] and [[botok]]; banana leaf packages containing food ingredients and spices are cooked in steam or in boiled water, or are grilled on charcoal. When used so for steaming or grilling, the banana leaves protect the food ingredients from burning and add a subtle sweet flavor.<ref name=morton/> In [[South India]], it is customary to serve traditional food on a banana leaf. In Tamil Nadu (India), dried banana leaves are used as to pack food and to make cups to hold liquid food items. |
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====Trunk==== |
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The tender core of the banana plant's trunk is also used in [[South Asian cuisine|South Asian]] and [[Southeast Asian cuisine]], and notably in the [[Burma|Burmese]] dish [[mohinga]]. |
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===Fiber=== |
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====Textiles==== |
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Banana fiber harvested from the pseudostems and leaves of the plant has been used for [[textile]]s in Asia since at least the 13th century. Both fruit-bearing and fibrous varieties of the banana plant have been used.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hendrickx|first1=Katrien|title=The Origins of Banana-fibre Cloth in the Ryukyus, Japan|publisher=Leuven University Press|isbn=9789058676146|page=188|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ULyu8dNqS1sC&lpg=PA188&dq=banana%20textile&pg=PA188#v=onepage&q=banana%20textile&f=false|language=en|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180327155254/https://books.google.com/books?id=ULyu8dNqS1sC&lpg=PA188&dq=banana%20textile&pg=PA188#v=onepage&q=banana%20textile&f=false|archivedate=March 27, 2018|year=2007}}</ref> In the Japanese system [[Kijōka-bashōfu]], leaves and shoots are cut from the plant periodically to ensure softness. Harvested shoots are first boiled in [[lye]] to prepare fibers for [[yarn]]-making. These banana shoots produce fibers of varying degrees of softness, yielding yarns and textiles with differing qualities for specific uses. For example, the outermost fibers of the shoots are the coarsest, and are suitable for [[tablecloth]]s, while the softest innermost fibers are desirable for [[kimono]] and [[hakama|kamishimo]]. This traditional Japanese cloth-making process requires many steps, all performed by hand.<ref>{{cite web |title =Traditional Crafts of Japan – Kijoka Banana Fiber Cloth |publisher=Association for the Promotion of Traditional Craft Industries |url=http://www.kougei.or.jp/english/crafts/0130/f0130.html |accessdate=December 11, 2006|archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20061104231743/http://www.kougei.or.jp/english/crafts/0130/f0130.html|archivedate= November 4, 2006 |deadurl= no}}</ref> |
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In India, a banana fiber separator machine has been developed, which takes the agricultural waste of local banana harvests and extracts strands of the fiber.<ref>{{cite news|title=An Entrepreneur Story – Turning Waste from Banana Harvests into Silk Fiber for the Textile Industry|url=http://www.infodev.org/highlights/entrepreneur-story-turning-waste-banana-harvests-silk-fiber-textile-industry|publisher=InfoDev|date=January 5, 2009|language=en|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170503061310/http://www.infodev.org/highlights/entrepreneur-story-turning-waste-banana-harvests-silk-fiber-textile-industry|archivedate=May 3, 2017}}</ref> |
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====Paper==== |
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{{Main|Banana paper}} |
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Banana fiber is used in the production of banana paper. Banana paper is made from two different parts: the [[bark (botany)|bark]] of the banana plant, mainly used for artistic purposes, or from the fibers of the stem and non-usable fruits. The paper is either hand-made or by industrial process.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=yNbMBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA181&dq=%C2%A0Banana+fiber+is+used+in+the+production+of+banana+paper#v=onepage&q=%C2%A0Banana%20fiber%20is%20used%20in%20the%20production%20of%20banana%20paper&f=false|title=Engineering Materials: Research, Applications and Advances|last=Gupta|first=K. M.|date=November 13, 2014|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=9781482257984|language=en|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180327155254/https://books.google.com/books?id=yNbMBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA181&dq=%C2%A0Banana+fiber+is+used+in+the+production+of+banana+paper&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiHg4DvnYjWAhUX62MKHRb1AkYQ6AEIMTAC#v=onepage&q=%C2%A0Banana%20fiber%20is%20used%20in%20the%20production%20of%20banana%20paper&f=false|archivedate=March 27, 2018}}</ref> |
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===Cultural roles=== |
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{{multiple image |
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| direction = vertical |
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| width = 220 |
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| image1 = River Kaveri worship Tiruchirappalli.jpg |
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| alt1 = |
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| caption1 = Coconut, banana and banana leaves used while worshiping [[Kaveri River|River Kaveri]] at [[Tiruchirappalli]], [[India]]. |
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| image2 = Thanin market banana flowers and leaves.jpg |
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| alt2 = |
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| caption2 = Banana flowers and leaves for sale in the Thanin market in [[Chiang Mai]], [[Thailand]]. |
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}} |
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====Arts==== |
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* The song "[[Yes! We Have No Bananas]]" was written by [[Frank Silver]] and [[Irving Cohn]] and originally released in 1923; for many decades, it was the best-selling [[sheet music]] in history. Since then the song has been rerecorded several times and has been particularly popular during banana shortages.<ref name="shaw">{{cite book|first =Arnold|last =Shaw|name-list-format =vanc|title =The Jazz Age: Popular Music in 1920s|chapter ="Yes! We have No Bananas"/"Charleston" (1923)|publisher =Oxford University Press|year =1987|page =132|isbn =9780195060829|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=MECLMrzcC9kC&lpg=PA132&dq=Yes!%20We%20Have%20No%20Bananas&pg=PA132#v=onepage&q=Yes!%20We%20Have%20No%20Bananas&f=false|deadurl =no|archiveurl =https://web.archive.org/web/20170223045222/https://books.google.com/books?id=MECLMrzcC9kC&lpg=PA132&dq=Yes!%20We%20Have%20No%20Bananas&pg=PA132#v=onepage&q=Yes!%20We%20Have%20No%20Bananas&f=false|archivedate =February 23, 2017|df =mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="Koeppel">{{cite journal|author=Dan Koeppel|date=2005|title=Can This Fruit Be Saved?|journal=Popular Science|volume=267|issue=2|pages=60–70|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aAJ8pAwSkkUC&lpg=PA62&dq=Yes!%20We%20Have%20No%20Bananas%20shortage&pg=PA60#v=onepage&q=Yes!%20We%20Have%20No%20Bananas%20shortage&f=false|ref=harv|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222190916/https://books.google.com/books?id=aAJ8pAwSkkUC&lpg=PA62&dq=Yes!%20We%20Have%20No%20Bananas%20shortage&pg=PA60#v=onepage&q=Yes!%20We%20Have%20No%20Bananas%20shortage&f=false|archivedate=February 22, 2017}}</ref> |
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* A person slipping on a [[banana peel]] has been a staple of [[physical comedy]] for generations. An American comedy recording from 1910 features a popular character of the time, "Uncle Josh", claiming to describe his own such incident:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/CalStewart_part2 |title=Collected Works of Cal Stewart part 2 |accessdate=November 17, 2010 |last=Stewart |first=Cal |website=Uncle Josh in a Department Store (1910) |publisher=The Internet Archive }}</ref> |
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: {{quote|Now I don't think much of the man that throws a banana peelin' on the sidewalk, and I don't think much of the banana peel that throws a man on the sidewalk neither ... my foot hit the bananer peelin' and I went up in the air, and I come down ker-plunk, jist as I was pickin' myself up a little boy come runnin' across the street ... he says, "Oh mister, won't you please do that agin? My little brother didn't see you do it."}} |
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* The poet [[Matsuo Bashō|Bashō]] is named after the Japanese word for a banana plant. The "bashō" planted in his garden by a grateful student became a source of inspiration to his poetry, as well as a symbol of his life and home.<ref>Matsuo Basho: the Master Haiku Poet, Kodansha Europe, {{ISBN|0-87011-553-7}}</ref> |
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* The cover artwork for [[The Velvet Underground & Nico|the debut album]] of [[The Velvet Underground]] features a banana made by [[Andy Warhol]]. On the original vinyl LP version, the design allowed the listener to "peel" this banana to find a pink, peeled phallic banana on the inside.<ref name="demain">{{cite web|url=http://www.mentalfloss.com/blogs/archives/109881|title=The Stories Behind 11 Classic Album Covers|author=Bill DeMain|date=December 11, 2011|publisher=mental_floss|accessdate=January 6, 2013|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121028180601/http://www.mentalfloss.com/blogs/archives/109881|archivedate=October 28, 2012}}</ref> |
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====Religion and popular beliefs==== |
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[[File:XRF-Tani-.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[Nang Tani]]'', the female [[ghost]] of Thai folklore that haunts banana plants]] |
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In all the important festivals and occasions of [[Hindu]]s, the serving of bananas plays a prominent part. |
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In [[Thailand]], it is believed that [[Musa balbisiana|a certain type]] of banana plants may be inhabited by a [[spirit]], [[Nang Tani]], a type of ghost related to trees and similar plants that manifests itself as a young woman.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://thailand-amulets.net/?p=3485 |title=Banana Tree Prai Lady Ghost |publisher=Thailand-amulets.net |date=March 19, 2012 |accessdate=August 26, 2012 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121108095417/http://thailand-amulets.net/?p=3485 |archivedate=November 8, 2012 }}</ref> Often people tie a length of colored satin cloth around the pseudostem of the banana plants.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thaiworldview.com/bouddha/animism5.htm |title=Spirits |publisher=Thaiworldview.com |accessdate=August 26, 2012 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120630004429/http://thaiworldview.com/bouddha/animism5.htm |archivedate=June 30, 2012 }}</ref> |
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In [[Ethnic Malays|Malay folklore]], the ghost known as [[Pontianak (folklore)|Pontianak]] is associated with banana plants (''pokok pisang''), and its spirit is said to reside in them during the day.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.castleofspirits.com/pontianak.html |title=Pontianak- South East Asian Vampire |publisher=Castleofspirits.com |accessdate=May 13, 2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140720203622/http://castleofspirits.com/pontianak.html |archivedate=July 20, 2014 }}</ref> |
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====Racist symbol==== |
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There is a long racist history of describing people of African descent as being more like monkeys than humans, and due to the assumption in popular culture that monkeys like bananas, bananas have been used in symbolic acts of [[hate speech]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Hund|first1=Wulf D.|last2=Mills|first2=Charles W|title=Comparing Black People to Monkeys has a Long, Dark Simian History|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/the-conversation-africa/comparing-black-people-to_b_9345322.html|work=Huffington Post|date=February 29, 2016|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103065529/https://www.huffingtonpost.com/the-conversation-africa/comparing-black-people-to_b_9345322.html|archivedate=January 3, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=In the Fight Against Racism, No Bananas, No Monkeys, Please!|url=http://www.rioonwatch.org/?p=14830|work=RioOnWatch|date=May 6, 2014|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170820185743/http://www.rioonwatch.org/?p=14830|archivedate=August 20, 2017}}</ref> In April 2014, during a match at [[Villarreal CF|Villarreal]]'s stadium, [[Estadio de la Cerámica|El Madrigal]], [[Dani Alves]] was targeted by Villareal supporter David Campaya Lleo, who threw a banana at him.<ref name=LaPrensa>{{cite news|url=http://laprensa.peru.com/deportes/noticia-dani-alves-platano-detienen-joven-24825|title=Dani Alves: Joven que lanzó un plátano a Dani Alves quedó en libertad con cargos|date=April 30, 2014|accessdate=March 9, 2015|publisher=La Prensa, Peru|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402113414/http://laprensa.peru.com/deportes/noticia-dani-alves-platano-detienen-joven-24825|archivedate=April 2, 2015}}</ref> Alves picked up the banana, peeled it and took a bite, and the meme went viral on social media in support of him.<ref name=BBCeats>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/27183851|title=Dani Alves: Barcelona defender eats banana after it lands on pitch|date=April 28, 2014|accessdate=April 29, 2014|publisher=BBC Sport|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140429095822/http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/27183851|archivedate=April 29, 2014}}</ref> Racist taunts are an ongoing problem in football.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Evans|first1=Richard|title=Throwing bananas at black sportsmen has been recognised as racism across Europe for decades|url=http://www.adelaidenow.com.au/news/opinion/richard-evans-throwing-bananas-at-black-sportsmen-has-been-recognised-as-racism-across-europe-for-decades/news-story/afcb5d4a634119b327507e7616755e0b|date=August 22, 2016|language=en|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170825043306/http://www.adelaidenow.com.au/news/opinion/richard-evans-throwing-bananas-at-black-sportsmen-has-been-recognised-as-racism-across-europe-for-decades/news-story/afcb5d4a634119b327507e7616755e0b|archivedate=August 25, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=McGowan|first1=Tom|title=Bananas and monkey chants: Is racism endemic in Spanish football? - CNN|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2014/05/05/sport/football/diop-monkey-chants-racism-football-atletico-madrid/index.html|work=CNN|date=May 5, 2014|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171112022640/http://edition.cnn.com/2014/05/05/sport/football/diop-monkey-chants-racism-football-atletico-madrid/index.html|archivedate=November 12, 2017}}</ref> Bananas were hung from nooses around the campus of [[American University]] in May 2017 after the student body elected its first black woman student government president.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Fortin|first1=Jacey|title=F.B.I. Helping American University Investigate Bananas Found Hanging From Nooses|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/03/us/bananas-hang-from-black-nooses-and-a-campus-erupts-in-protest.html|work=The New York Times|date=May 3, 2017|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171112021949/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/03/us/bananas-hang-from-black-nooses-and-a-campus-erupts-in-protest.html|archivedate=November 12, 2017}}</ref> |
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====Unicode==== |
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The [[Unicode]] standard includes the [[emoji]] character {{unichar|1F34C|BANANA|html=}}.<ref>{{cite web|title=Miscellaneous Symbols and Pictographs|url=http://unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1F300.pdf|accessdate=April 28, 2015|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150406210444/http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1F300.pdf|archivedate=April 6, 2015}}</ref> |
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===Other uses=== |
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* The large leaves may be used as [[umbrella]]s.<ref name=morton>{{cite web|url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/banana.html#Other%20Uses |title=Banana |publisher=Hortpurdue.edu |accessdate=April 16, 2009|archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090415160027/http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/banana.html|archivedate= April 15, 2009 |deadurl= no}}</ref> |
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* [[Banana peel]] may have capability to extract [[Heavy metal (chemistry)|heavy metal]] [[contamination]] from river water, similar to other [[Water purification|purification]] materials.<ref>{{cite web|last=Minard|first=Anne|title=Is That a Banana in Your Water?|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/03/110311-water-pollution-lead-heavy-metal-banana-peel-innovation/|website=National Geographic|accessdate=March 15, 2011|date=March 11, 2011|archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110426022233/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/03/110311-water-pollution-lead-heavy-metal-banana-peel-innovation/|archivedate= April 26, 2011 |deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Banana Peel Applied to the Solid Phase Extraction of Copper and Lead from River Water: Preconcentration of Metal Ions with a Fruit Waste|doi=10.1021/ie101499e|volume =50|issue =6|date=2011|last1=Castro|first1=Renata S. D.|last2=Caetano|first2=LaéRcio|last3=Ferreira|first3=Guilherme|last4=Padilha|first4=Pedro M.|last5=Saeki|first5=Margarida J.|last6=Zara|first6=Luiz F.|last7=Martines|first7=Marco Antonio U.|last8=Castro|first8=Gustavo R.|journal=Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research|pages=3446–3451|ref=harv|lastauthoramp=yes}}</ref> In 2007, banana peel powder was tested as a means of filtration for heavy metals and [[radionuclide]]s occurring in water produced by the nuclear and fertilizer industries (cadmium contaminant is present in phosphates). When added and thoroughly mixed for 40 minutes, the powder can remove roughly 65% of heavy metals, and this can be repeated. |
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* Waste bananas can be used to feed [[livestock]].<ref>Heuzé V., Tran G., Archimède H., Renaudeau D., Lessire M., 2016. Banana fruits. Feedipedia, a programme by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO. {{cite web |url=https://www.feedipedia.org/node/683 |title=Archived copy |accessdate=February 20, 2018 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180221100008/https://www.feedipedia.org/node/683 |archivedate=February 21, 2018 }} Last updated on March 25, 2016, 10:36</ref> |
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==References== |
==References== |
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<ref name=Hindu110228>{{cite news |title=A snack & a snare |url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/Food/pazham-pachadi/article1489810.ece |accessdate=January 3, 2014 |location=Chennai, India |work=The Hindu |first=Prema |last=Manmadhan |date=February 28, 2011 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103135526/http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/Food/pazham-pachadi/article1489810.ece |archivedate=January 3, 2014 }}</ref> |
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<ref name=Holmes>{{cite journal |last=Holmes |first=Bob |date=April 20, 2013 |title=Go Bananas |journal=New Scientist |volume=218 |issue=2913 |pages=9–41}} (Also at {{cite web |last=Holmes |first=Bob |date=April 20, 2013 |title=Nana from heaven? How our favourite fruit came to be |website=New Scientist |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21829132.000-nana-from-heaven-how-our-favourite-fruit-came-to-be.html |accessdate=April 19, 2013 |subscription=yes |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130424064954/http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21829132.000-nana-from-heaven-how-our-favourite-fruit-came-to-be.html |archivedate=April 24, 2013 }})</ref> |
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<ref name=IBS>{{cite web |title=Risk assessment of Eastern African Highland Bananas and Plantains against TR4 |publisher=[[International Tropical Fruits Network|International Banana Symposium]] |date=2012 |url=http://banana-networks.org/bapnet/files/2012/11/Risk-Assessment-EAHB1.pdf |accessdate=April 6, 2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407090355/http://banana-networks.org/bapnet/files/2012/11/Risk-Assessment-EAHB1.pdf |archivedate=April 7, 2014 }}</ref> |
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<ref name=Jenn92>{{cite book |first1=Ronald |last1=Jennings |title=Christians and Muslims in Ottoman Cyprus and the Mediterranean World, 1571–1640 |publication-place=New York |publisher=NYU Press |year=1992 |page=189 |isbn=978-0-8147-4181-8}}</ref> |
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<ref name=Koep08>{{cite book |first=Dan |last=Koeppel |title=Banana: The Fate of the Fruit that Changed the World |publication-place=New York |publisher=Hudson Street Press |date=2008 |pages=51–53 |isbn=978-0-452-29008-2}}</ref> |
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<ref name=LangMare04>{{cite book |chapter=Tracking the banana: its significance in early agriculture |first1=Edmond |last1=de Langhe |first2=Pierre |last2=de Maret |editor1-first=Jon G. |editor1-last=Hather |title=The Prehistory of Food: Appetites for Change |publisher=Routledge |date=2004 |page=372 |isbn=978-0-203-20338-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DMgKW9HleFoC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA372 |lastauthoramp=yes |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222225618/https://books.google.com/books?id=DMgKW9HleFoC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA372 |archivedate=February 22, 2017 }}</ref> |
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<ref name=Lejj05>{{cite journal |title=Africa's earliest bananas? |first1=B. Julius |last1=Lejju |first2=Peter |last2=Robertshaw |first3=David |last3=Taylor |date=2005 |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |url=http://www.inibap.org/pdf/phytoliths_en.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071202120538/http://www.inibap.org/pdf/phytoliths_en.pdf |archivedate=December 2, 2007 |lastauthoramp=yes}}</ref> |
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<ref name=Mbid00>{{cite journal |title=Evidence for banana cultivation and animal husbandry during the first millennium BCE in the forest of southern Cameroon |last1=Mbida |first1=V.M. |last2=Van Neer |first2=W. |last3=Doutrelepont |first3=H. |last4=Vrydaghs |first4=L. |date=2000 |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |url=http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/krigbaum/6930/mbida_etal_JAS_2000.pdf |doi=10.1006/jasc.1999.0447 |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=151–162 |lastauthoramp=yes |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114191608/http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/krigbaum/6930/mbida_etal_JAS_2000.pdf |archivedate=January 14, 2012 }}</ref> |
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<ref name=Mont03>{{cite news |last=Montpellier |first=Emile Frison |title=Rescuing the banana |publisher=[[New Scientist]] |date=February 8, 2003 |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg17723813.300-rescuing-the-banana.html |accessdate=December 9, 2006 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070311123354/http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg17723813.300-rescuing-the-banana.html |archivedate=March 11, 2007 }}</ref> |
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<ref name=Mose08>{{Cite journal |first1=Simone |last1=Moser |first2=Thomas |last2=Müller |first3=Marc-Olivier |last3=Ebert |first4=Steffen |last4=Jockusch |first5=Nicholas J. |last5=Turro |first6=Bernhard |last6=Kräutler |date=2008 |title=Blue luminescence of ripening bananas |journal=Angewandte Chemie International Edition |volume=47 |issue=46 |pages=8954–8957 |doi=10.1002/anie.200803189 |pmc=2912500 |pmid=18850621 |ref=harv |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2912500/pdf/ukmss-31317.pdf |accessdate=May 16, 2014 |lastauthoramp=yes |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101232525/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2912500/pdf/ukmss-31317.pdf |archivedate=January 1, 2016 }}</ref> |
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<ref name=Mui02>{{cite journal |title=Flavor and Texture of Banana Chips Dried by Combinations of Hot Air, Vacuum, and Microwave Processing |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry |date=2002 |volume=50 |issue=7 |pages=1883–1889 |doi=10.1021/jf011218n |last1=Mui |first1=Winnie W. Y. |last2=Durance |first2=Timothy D. |last3=Scaman |first3=Christine H. |lastauthoramp=yes}} "Isoamyl acetate (9.6%) imparts the characteristic aroma typical of fresh bananas (13, 17−20), while butyl acetate (8.1%) and isobutyl acetate (1.4%) are considered to be character impact compounds of banana flavor."</ref> |
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<ref name=MW>{{cite web |title=Banana |website=Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/banana?show=0&t=1357340585 |accessdate=January 4, 2013 |ref=harv |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130309160400/http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/banana?show=0&t=1357340585 |archivedate=March 9, 2013 }}</ref> |
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<ref name=Mwan07>{{Cite journal |last1=Mwangi |first1=M. |last2=Bandyopadhyay |first2=R. |last3=Ragama |first3=P. |last4=Tushemereirwe |first4=R.K. |title=Assessment of banana planting practices and cultivar tolerance in relation to management of soilborne ''Xanthomonas campestris'' pv. ''musacearum'' |journal=Crop Protection |volume=26 |date=2007 |pages=1203–1208 |doi=10.1016/j.cropro.2006.10.017 |issue=8 |ref=harv |lastauthoramp=yes}}</ref> |
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<ref name=newton>{{cite web |title=Ethylene Process |url=http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/bot00/bot00553.htm |accessdate=February 17, 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100324070541/http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/bot00/bot00553.htm |archivedate=March 24, 2010}}</ref> |
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<ref name=NS060613>{{cite news |title=A future with no bananas? |publisher=[[New Scientist]] |date=May 13, 2006 |url=https://www.newscientist.com/channel/earth/dn9152-a-future-with-no-bananas.html |accessdate=December 9, 2006 }}</ref> |
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<!--unused<ref name=Nutridata>{{cite web |title=Nutrition Facts for raw banana, one NLEA serving, 126 g |publisher=Nutritiondata.com |url=http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/fruits-and-fruit-juices/1846/2 }}</ref>--> |
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<ref name=NZH>{{cite news |title=Big-business greed killing the banana – Independent |publisher=[[The New Zealand Herald]] |date=May 24, 2008 |page=A19}}</ref> |
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<ref name=OEtymD>{{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=banana |title=Banana |website=Online Etymology Dictionary |accessdate=August 5, 2010 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728085438/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=banana |archivedate=July 28, 2011 }}</ref> |
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<ref name=pazhampachadi>{{cite news |title=Pazham Pachadi |url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/Food/pazham-pachadi/article1489810.ece |accessdate=January 3, 2014 |location=Chennai, India |work=The Hindu |first=Prema |last=Manmadhan |date=February 28, 2011 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103135526/http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/Food/pazham-pachadi/article1489810.ece |archivedate=January 3, 2014 }}</ref> |
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<ref name=Peed11>{{cite news |last=Peed |first=Mike |url=http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2011/01/10/110110fa_fact_peed |title=We Have No Bananas: Can Scientists Defeat a Devastating Blight? |newspaper=The New Yorker |date=January 10, 2011 |pages=28–34 |accessdate=January 13, 2011 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110107002125/http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2011/01/10/110110fa_fact_peed |archivedate=January 7, 2011 }}</ref> |
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<ref name=Phora>{{cite web|url=http://www.phora-sotoby.com/history.html |title=Phora Ltd. – History of Banana |publisher=Phora-sotoby.com |accessdate=April 16, 2009 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416175908/http://www.phora-sotoby.com/history.html |archivedate=April 16, 2009 }}</ref> |
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<ref name=PicqINIB00>{{Cite book |date=2000 |editor-last=Picq |editor-first=Claudine |editor2-last=INIBAP |title=Bananas |edition=English |publication-place=Montpellier |publisher=International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantains/International Plant Genetic Resources Institute |isbn=978-2-910810-37-5 |url=http://www.musalit.org/pdf/info09.1_en.pdf |accessdate=January 31, 2013 |lastauthoramp=yes |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130411222515/http://www.musalit.org/pdf/info09.1_en.pdf |archivedate=April 11, 2013 }}</ref> |
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<ref name=plantphys>{{cite web |title=Fruit Ripening |url=http://plantphys.info/plants_human/fruitgrowripe.shtml |accessdate=February 17, 2010 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721231853/http://plantphys.info/plants_human/fruitgrowripe.shtml |archivedate=July 21, 2011 }}</ref> |
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<ref name=Porc02>{{cite web |url=http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/Sorting/Musa.html |title=Sorting Musa names |first=Michel H. |last=Porcher |date=July 19, 2002 |publisher=The University of Melbourne |accessdate=January 11, 2011 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110302130718/http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/Sorting/Musa.html |archivedate=March 2, 2011 }}</ref> |
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<ref name=purdue1>{{cite web|url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/banana.html |title=Banana from 'Fruits of Warm Climates' by Julia Morton |publisher=Hort.purdue.edu |accessdate=April 16, 2009 |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090415160027/http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/banana.html |archivedate=April 15, 2009 }}</ref> |
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<ref name=QiMoorOrch00>{{Cite journal |last=Qi |first=Baoxiu |last2=Moore |first2=Keith G. |last3=Orchard |first3=John |date=2000 |title=Effect of Cooking on Banana and Plantain Texture |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry |volume=48 |pages=4221–4226 |doi=10.1021/jf991301z |lastauthoramp=yes |issue=9 |pmid=10995341 |ref=harv }}</ref> |
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<ref name=Rand09>{{cite book |last1=Randrianja |first1=Solofo |first2=Stephen |last2=Ellis |title=Madagascar: A Short History |publisher=University of Chicago Press |date=2009 |isbn=978-1-85065-947-1 |lastauthoramp=yes}}</ref> |
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<ref name=Salm96>{{cite journal |title=Compositional and Isotopic Studies of Fruit Flavours. Part I. The Banana Aroma |journal=Flavour and Fragrance Journal |date=November–December 1996 |volume=11 |issue=6 |pages=353–359 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1099-1026(199611)11:6<353::AID-FFJ596>3.0.CO;2-9 |last1=Salmon |first1=B. |last2=Martin |first2=G. J. |last3=Remaud |first3=G. |last4=Fourel |first4=F. |lastauthoramp=yes}}</ref> |
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<ref name=Scot70>{{cite journal |last1=Scott |first1=K.J. |last2=McGlasson |first2=W.B. |last3=Roberts |first3=E.A. |title=Potassium Permanganate as an Ethylene Absorbent in Polyethylene Bags to Delay the Ripening of Bananas During Storage |journal= Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture and Animal Husbandry |doi=10.1071/EA9700237 |volume=10 |issue=43 |page=237 |date=1970 |ref=harv |lastauthoramp=yes}}</ref> |
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<ref name=Scot71>{{cite journal |last1=Scott |first1=K.J. |last2=Blake |first2=J.R. |last3=Stracha |first3=G. |last4=Tugwell |first4=B.L. |last5=McGlasson |first5=W.B. |date=1971 |title=Transport of Bananas at Ambient Temperatures using Polyethylene Bags |journal=Tropical Agriculture (Trinidad) |volume=48 |pages=163–165 |ref=harv |lastauthoramp=yes}}</ref> |
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<ref name=Scot74>{{cite journal |last1=Scott |first1=K.J. |last2=Gandanegara |first2=S. |date=1974 |title=Effect of Temperature on the Storage Life of bananas Held in Polyethylene Bags with an Ethylene Absorbent |journal=Tropical Agriculture (Trinidad) |volume=51 |pages=23–26 |ref=harv |lastauthoramp=yes}}</ref> |
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<ref name=Simm62>{{cite journal |first=N.W. |last=Simmonds |date=1962 |title=Where our bananas come from |journal=New Scientist |volume=16 |issue=307 |pages=36–39 |issn=0262-4079 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ooQ6YhL3rtMC&lpg=PA1&pg=PA36#v=onepage&q&f=false |accessdate=June 11, 2011 |ref=harv |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130608124433/http://books.google.com/books?id=ooQ6YhL3rtMC&lpg=PA1&pg=PA36#v=onepage&q&f=false |archivedate=June 8, 2013 }}</ref> |
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<ref name=Smit77>{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=James P. |date=1977 |title=Vascular Plant Families |publication-place=Eureka, Calif. |publisher=Mad River Press |isbn=978-0-916422-07-3 }}</ref> |
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<ref name=StovSimm87p183>{{Harvtxt|Stover|Simmonds|1987|p=183}}. "The Horn and French group of plantain cultivars (AAB) are preferred for cooking purposes over ABB cooking bananas ... As a result the AAB plantains fetch a higher price than the ABB cooking bananas."</ref> |
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<ref name=straightdope>{{cite web |url=http://www.straightdope.com/columns/read/2995/are-bananas-about-to-become-extinct |title=Are bananas about to become extinct? |accessdate=December 13, 2012 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121227093957/http://www.straightdope.com/columns/read/2995/are-bananas-about-to-become-extinct |archivedate=December 27, 2012 }}</ref> |
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<ref name=Tayl04>{{cite journal |last=Taylor |first=J.S. |last2=Erkek |first2=E. |date=2004 |title=Latex allergy: diagnosis and management |journal=Dermatologic Therapy |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=289–301 |pmid=15327474 |doi=10.1111/j.1396-0296.2004.04024.x |ref=harv |lastauthoramp=yes}}</ref> |
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<ref name="thefinancialexpress-bd">{{cite web |first1=Jasim Uddin |last1=Haroon |date=September 10, 2008 |title=Banana consumption on rise during Ramadan |website=The Financial Express |url=http://www.thefinancialexpress-bd.com/old/2008/09/10/45131.html |accessdate=September 5, 2014 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140905172406/http://www.thefinancialexpress-bd.com/old/2008/09/10/45131.html |archivedate=September 5, 2014 }}</ref> |
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<ref name=Tush04>{{Cite journal |last1=Tushemereirwe |first1=W. |last2=Kangire |first2=A. |last3=Ssekiwoko |first3=F. |last4=Offord |first4=L.C. |last5=Crozier |first5=J. |last6=Boa |first6=E. |last7=Rutherford |first7=M. |last8=Smith |first8=J.J. |title=First report of ''Xanthomonas campestris'' pv. ''musacearum'' on banana in Uganda |journal=Plant Pathology |volume=53 |date=2004 |page=802 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-3059.2004.01090.x |issue=6 |ref=harv |lastauthoramp=yes}}</ref> |
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<ref name=Wark04>{{Cite web |last=Warkentin |first=Jon |year=2004 |title=How to make a Banana Split |publisher=University of Manitoba |url=http://umanitoba.ca/outreach/crystal/Grade%209/Cluster%201/S1-1-07%20-%20How%20to%20make%20a%20Banana%20Split%20-%20Demonstration%20and%20Investigation.doc |accessdate=July 21, 2014 |format=Microsoft Word |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140729203916/http://umanitoba.ca/outreach/crystal/Grade%209/Cluster%201/S1-1-07%20-%20How%20to%20make%20a%20Banana%20Split%20-%20Demonstration%20and%20Investigation.doc |archivedate=July 29, 2014 }}</ref> |
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<ref name=Wats83>{{Cite book |last=Watson |first=Andrew |date=1983 |title=Agricultural innovation in the early Islamic world |publication-place=New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-24711-5 |page=54}}</ref> |
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<ref name=WCSP_Musa>Search for "Musa", {{Cite web |title=World Checklist of Selected Plant Families |publisher=[[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]] |url=http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/ |accessdate=January 6, 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6IW3a1JdI?url=http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/ |archivedate=July 31, 2013 }}</ref> |
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<ref name=WCSP_Mp>{{Cite web |title=''Musa paradisiaca''|website=World Checklist of Selected Plant Families |publisher=[[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]] |url=http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/namedetail.do?name_id=254888 |accessdate=January 6, 2013}}</ref> |
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<ref name=Zell05>{{cite journal |title=Herkunft, Diversität und Züchtung der Banane und kultivierter Zitrusarten ''(Origin, diversity and breeding of banana and cultivated citrus)'' |first1=Friedrich J. |last1=Zeller |date=2005 |journal=Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development in the Tropics and Subtropics, Supplement 81 |url=http://www.uni-kassel.de/upress/online/frei/978-3-89958-116-4.volltext.frei.pdf |accessdate=September 5, 2014 |language=German |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304222434/http://www.uni-kassel.de/upress/online/frei/978-3-89958-116-4.volltext.frei.pdf |archivedate=March 4, 2016 }}</ref> |
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}} |
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==Bibliography== |
==Bibliography== |
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{{refbegin|30em}} |
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* {{cite book|last1=Priestland|first1=Gerald|title=Frying tonight: the saga of fish & chips.|date=1972|publisher=Gentry Books|location=London|isbn=978-0-85614-014-3}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Nelson |first=S.C. |last2=Ploetz |first2=R.C. |last3=Kepler |first3=A.K. |date=2006 |chapter=''Musa'' species (bananas and plantains) |editor-last=Elevitch |editor-first=C.R<!--.--> |title=Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry |publication-place=Hōlualoa, Hawai'i |publisher=Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR) |url=http://agroforestry.net/tti/Musa-banana-plantain.pdf |accessdate=January 10, 2013 |lastauthoramp=yes |ref=harv }} |
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* {{cite journal|last=Walton|first=John K.|title=Fish and Chips and the British Working Class, 1870–1930|journal=Journal of Social History|date=1989|volume=23|issue=2|pages=243–266|jstor=3787879}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Office of the Gene Technology Regulator|date=2008|title=The Biology of ''Musa'' L. (banana)|publisher=Australian Government|url=http://www.ogtr.gov.au/internet/ogtr/publishing.nsf/content/banana-3/$FILE/biologybanana08.pdf |accessdate=January 30, 2013 |lastauthoramp=yes |ref=harv }} |
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* {{cite book|last=Walton|first=John K.|title=Fish and Chips, and the British Working Class, 1870–1940|date=1994|publisher=Leicester University Press|location=Leicester|isbn=978-0-567-21232-0|edition=1st}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Ploetz |first=R.C. |last2=Kepler |first2=A.K. |last3=Daniells |first3=J. |last4=Nelson |first4=S.C. |date=2007 |chapter=Banana and Plantain: An Overview with Emphasis on Pacific Island Cultivars |editor-last=Elevitch |editor-first=C.R<!--.--> |title=Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry |publication-place=Hōlualoa, Hawai'i |publisher=Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR) |url=http://agroforestry.net/tti/Banana-plantain-overview.pdf |accessdate=January 10, 2013 |lastauthoramp=yes |ref=harv }} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Stover |first=R.H. |last2=Simmonds |first2=N.W. |date=1987 |title=Bananas |edition=3rd |publication-place=Harlow, England |publisher=Longman |isbn=978-0-582-46357-8 |lastauthoramp=yes |ref=harv }} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Valmayor |first=Ramón V. |last2=Jamaluddin |first2=S.H. |last3=Silayoi |first3=B. |last4=Kusumo |first4=S. |last5=Danh |first5=L.D. |last6=Pascua |first6=O.C. |last7=Espino |first7=R.R.C. |date=2000 |title=Banana cultivar names and synonyms in Southeast Asia |publication-place=Los Baños, Philippines |publisher=International Network for Improvement of Banana and Plantain – Asia and the Pacific Office |isbn=978-971-91751-2-4 |url=http://kukr.lib.ku.ac.th/Fulltext_kukr/KU0222075c.pdf |accessdate=January 8, 2013 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6DWPTd1hm?url=http://kukr.lib.ku.ac.th/Fulltext_kukr/KU0222075c.pdf |archivedate=January 8, 2013 |lastauthoramp=yes |ref=harv }} |
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{{refend}} |
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==Further reading== |
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* [[Harriet Lamb]], "Fighting The Banana Wars and other Fairtrade Battles", {{ISBN|978-1-84604-083-2}} |
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==External links== |
==External links== |
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*[http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:797527-1 Kew plant profile: ''Musa acuminata'' (banana)] |
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{{Commons category}} |
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* [http://agritrade.cta.int/Agriculture/Commodities/Bananas Articles on banana trade at ''Agritrade''] |
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{{Cookbook|Fish and Chips}} |
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* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/3380151.stm "Top UK dish 'hooked French first'"]: BBC News: Fish and chips invented in France? Retrieved 2008-05-27 |
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* [https://www.theguardian.com/g2/story/0,,492211,00.html "My plaice or yours?"] - article from ''[[The Guardian]]'' detailing some chippy terminology. Retrieved 2008-05-27 |
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* [http://www.greatbritishkitchen.co.uk/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=70&Itemid=52 Far Flung Fish and Chips] - historical article |
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081011050658/http://www.seafish.org/plate/fishandchips.asp "Fish and chips"]: the (UK) Sea Fish Industry Authority's views. Retrieved 2008-05-27 |
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* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/chinesefoodmadeeasy/recipes/episode_3.shtml?fishandchips BBC TWO [[Ching He Huang]]-style fish and chips] |
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* [http://www.federationoffishfriers.co.uk/ National Federation of Fish Friers], the UK industry body for fish and chip shops. |
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{{Agriculture country lists}} |
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{{English cuisine}} |
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{{Banana}} |
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{{Yunnan cuisine}} |
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{{Authority control}} |
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[[Category:Bananas| ]] |
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[[Category:Fiber plants]] |
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[[Category:Staple foods]] |
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[[Category:Tropical agriculture]] |
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[[Category:Tropical fruit]] |
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[[Category:American cuisine]] |
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[[Category:New Zealand cuisine]] |
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[[Category:South African cuisine]] |
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[[Category:Fast food]] |
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[[Category:Fish dishes|Chips]] |
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[[Category:Potato dishes]] |
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[[Category:Deep fried foods]] |
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[[Category:Food combinations]] |
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[[Category:National dishes]] |
Revision as of 09:49, 17 October 2018
Thats alot of damage
Banana | |
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Peeled, whole, and cross section | |
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Genus: |
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Bananavarieties.jpg/220px-Bananavarieties.jpg)
A banana is an edible fruit – botanically a berry[1][2] – produced by several kinds of large herbaceous flowering plants in the genus Musa.[3] In some countries, bananas used for cooking may be called "plantains", distinguishing them from dessert bananas. The fruit is variable in size, color, and firmness, but is usually elongated and curved, with soft flesh rich in starch covered with a rind, which may be green, yellow, red, purple, or brown when ripe. The fruits grow in clusters hanging from the top of the plant. Almost all modern edible seedless (parthenocarp) bananas come from two wild species – Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana. The scientific names of most cultivated bananas are Musa acuminata, Musa balbisiana, and Musa × paradisiaca for the hybrid Musa acuminata × M. balbisiana, depending on their genomic constitution. The old scientific name Musa sapientum is no longer used.
Musa species are native to tropical Indomalaya and Australia, and are likely to have been first domesticated in Papua New Guinea.[4][5] They are grown in 135 countries,[6] primarily for their fruit, and to a lesser extent to make fiber, banana wine, and banana beer and as ornamental plants. The world's largest producers of bananas in 2016 were India and China, which together accounted for 28% of total production.
Worldwide, there is no sharp distinction between "bananas" and "plantains". Especially in the Americas and Europe, "banana" usually refers to soft, sweet, dessert bananas, particularly those of the Cavendish group, which are the main exports from banana-growing countries. By contrast, Musa cultivars with firmer, starchier fruit are called "plantains". In other regions, such as Southeast Asia, many more kinds of banana are grown and eaten, so the binary distinction is not useful and is not made in local languages.
The term "banana" is also used as the common name for the plants that produce the fruit.[3] This can extend to other members of the genus Musa, such as the scarlet banana (Musa coccinea), the pink banana (Musa velutina), and the Fe'i bananas. It can also refer to members of the genus Ensete, such as the snow banana (Ensete glaucum) and the economically important false banana (Ensete ventricosum). Both genera are in the banana family, Musaceae.
Description
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Baby_Banana_Plant.jpg/170px-Baby_Banana_Plant.jpg)
The banana plant is the largest herbaceous flowering plant.[7] All the above-ground parts of a banana plant grow from a structure usually called a "corm".[8] Plants are normally tall and fairly sturdy, and are often mistaken for trees, but what appears to be a trunk is actually a "false stem" or pseudostem. Bananas grow in a wide variety of soils, as long as the soil is at least 60 cm deep, has good drainage and is not compacted.[9] The leaves of banana plants are composed of a "stalk" (petiole) and a blade (lamina). The base of the petiole widens to form a sheath; the tightly packed sheaths make up the pseudostem, which is all that supports the plant. The edges of the sheath meet when it is first produced, making it tubular. As new growth occurs in the centre of the pseudostem the edges are forced apart.[10] Cultivated banana plants vary in height depending on the variety and growing conditions. Most are around 5 m (16 ft) tall, with a range from 'Dwarf Cavendish' plants at around 3 m (10 ft) to 'Gros Michel' at 7 m (23 ft) or more.[11][12] Leaves are spirally arranged and may grow 2.7 metres (8.9 ft) long and 60 cm (2.0 ft) wide.[1] They are easily torn by the wind, resulting in the familiar frond look.[13]
When a banana plant is mature, the corm stops producing new leaves and begins to form a flower spike or inflorescence. A stem develops which grows up inside the pseudostem, carrying the immature inflorescence until eventually it emerges at the top.[14] Each pseudostem normally produces a single inflorescence, also known as the "banana heart". (More are sometimes produced; an exceptional plant in the Philippines produced five.[15]) After fruiting, the pseudostem dies, but offshoots will normally have developed from the base, so that the plant as a whole is perennial. In the plantation system of cultivation, only one of the offshoots will be allowed to develop in order to maintain spacing.[16] The inflorescence contains many bracts (sometimes incorrectly referred to as petals) between rows of flowers. The female flowers (which can develop into fruit) appear in rows further up the stem (closer to the leaves) from the rows of male flowers. The ovary is inferior, meaning that the tiny petals and other flower parts appear at the tip of the ovary.[17]
The banana fruits develop from the banana heart, in a large hanging cluster, made up of tiers (called "hands"), with up to 20 fruit to a tier. The hanging cluster is known as a bunch, comprising 3–20 tiers, or commercially as a "banana stem", and can weigh 30–50 kilograms (66–110 lb). Individual banana fruits (commonly known as a banana or "finger") average 125 grams (0.276 lb), of which approximately 75% is water and 25% dry matter (nutrient table, lower right).
The fruit has been described as a "leathery berry".[18] There is a protective outer layer (a peel or skin) with numerous long, thin strings (the phloem bundles), which run lengthwise between the skin and the edible inner portion. The inner part of the common yellow dessert variety can be split lengthwise into three sections that correspond to the inner portions of the three carpels by manually deforming the unopened fruit.[19] In cultivated varieties, the seeds are diminished nearly to non-existence; their remnants are tiny black specks in the interior of the fruit.[20]
Bananas are naturally slightly radioactive,[21] more so than most other fruits, because of their potassium content and the small amounts of the isotope potassium-40 found in naturally occurring potassium.[22] The banana equivalent dose of radiation is sometimes used in nuclear communication to compare radiation levels and exposures.[23]
Etymology
The word banana is thought to be of West African origin, possibly from the Wolof word banaana, and passed into English via Spanish or Portuguese.[24]
Taxonomy
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Nedravazhakola.jpg/220px-Nedravazhakola.jpg)
The genus Musa was created by Carl Linnaeus in 1753.[25] The name may be derived from Antonius Musa, physician to the Emperor Augustus, or Linnaeus may have adapted the Arabic word for banana, mauz.[26] The old biological name Musa sapientum = "Muse of the wise" arose because of homophony in Latin with the classical Muses.
Musa is in the family Musaceae. The APG III system assigns Musaceae to the order Zingiberales, part of the commelinid clade of the monocotyledonous flowering plants. Some 70 species of Musa were recognized by the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families as of January 2013[update];[25] several produce edible fruit, while others are cultivated as ornamentals.[27]
The classification of cultivated bananas has long been a problematic issue for taxonomists. Linnaeus originally placed bananas into two species based only on their uses as food: Musa sapientum for dessert bananas and Musa paradisiaca for plantains. More species names were added, but this approach proved to be inadequate for the number of cultivars in the primary center of diversity of the genus, Southeast Asia. Many of these cultivars were given names that were later discovered to be synonyms.[28]
In a series of papers published from 1947 onwards, Ernest Cheesman showed that Linnaeus's Musa sapientum and Musa paradisiaca were cultivars and descendants of two wild seed-producing species, Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana, both first described by Luigi Aloysius Colla.[29] Cheesman recommended the abolition of Linnaeus's species in favor of reclassifying bananas according to three morphologically distinct groups of cultivars – those primarily exhibiting the botanical characteristics of Musa balbisiana, those primarily exhibiting the botanical characteristics of Musa acuminata, and those with characteristics of both.[28] Researchers Norman Simmonds and Ken Shepherd proposed a genome-based nomenclature system in 1955. This system eliminated almost all the difficulties and inconsistencies of the earlier classification of bananas based on assigning scientific names to cultivated varieties. Despite this, the original names are still recognized by some authorities today, leading to confusion.[29][30]
The accepted scientific names for most groups of cultivated bananas are Musa acuminata Colla and Musa balbisiana Colla for the ancestral species, and Musa × paradisiaca L. for the hybrid M. acuminata × M. balbisiana.[31]
Synonyms of M. × paradisica include
- a large number of subspecific and varietial names of M. × paradisiaca, including M. p. subsp. sapientum (L.) Kuntze
- Musa × dacca Horan.
- Musa × sapidisiaca K.C.Jacob, nom. superfl.
- Musa × sapientum L., and a large number of its varietal names, including M. × sapientum var. paradisiaca (L.) Baker, nom. illeg.
Generally, modern classifications of banana cultivars follow Simmonds and Shepherd's system. Cultivars are placed in groups based on the number of chromosomes they have and which species they are derived from. Thus the Latundan banana is placed in the AAB Group, showing that it is a triploid derived from both M. acuminata (A) and M. balbisiana (B). For a list of the cultivars classified under this system, see "List of banana cultivars".
In 2012, a team of scientists announced they had achieved a draft sequence of the genome of Musa acuminata.[32]
Bananas and plantains
In regions such as North America and Europe, Musa fruits offered for sale can be divided into "bananas" and "plantains", based on their intended use as food. Thus the banana producer and distributor Chiquita produces publicity material for the American market which says that "a plantain is not a banana". The stated differences are that plantains are more starchy and less sweet; they are eaten cooked rather than raw; they have thicker skin, which may be green, yellow or black; and they can be used at any stage of ripeness.[33] Linnaeus made the same distinction between plantains and bananas when first naming two "species" of Musa.[34] Members of the "plantain subgroup" of banana cultivars, most important as food in West Africa and Latin America, correspond to the Chiquita description, having long pointed fruit. They are described by Ploetz et al. as "true" plantains, distinct from other cooking bananas.[35] The cooking bananas of East Africa belong to a different group, the East African Highland bananas,[12] so would not qualify as "true" plantains on this definition.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Bananas_white_background_DS.jpg/220px-Bananas_white_background_DS.jpg)
An alternative approach divides bananas into dessert bananas and cooking bananas, with plantains being one of the subgroups of cooking bananas.[36] Triploid cultivars derived solely from M. acuminata are examples of "dessert bananas", whereas triploid cultivars derived from the hybrid between M. acuminata and M. balbinosa (in particular the plantain subgroup of the AAB Group) are "plantains".[37][38] Small farmers in Colombia grow a much wider range of cultivars than large commercial plantations. A study of these cultivars showed that they could be placed into at least three groups based on their characteristics: dessert bananas, non-plantain cooking bananas, and plantains, although there were overlaps between dessert and cooking bananas.[39]
In Southeast Asia – the center of diversity for bananas, both wild and cultivated – the distinction between "bananas" and "plantains" does not work, according to Valmayor et al. Many bananas are used both raw and cooked. There are starchy cooking bananas which are smaller than those eaten raw. The range of colors, sizes and shapes is far wider than in those grown or sold in Africa, Europe or the Americas.[34] Southeast Asian languages do not make the distinction between "bananas" and "plantains" that is made in English (and Spanish). Thus both Cavendish cultivars, the classic yellow dessert bananas, and Saba cultivars, used mainly for cooking, are called pisang in Malaysia and Indonesia, kluai in Thailand and chuoi in Vietnam.[40] Fe'i bananas, grown and eaten in the islands of the Pacific, are derived from entirely different wild species than traditional bananas and plantains. Most Fe'i bananas are cooked, but Karat bananas, which are short and squat with bright red skins, very different from the usual yellow dessert bananas, are eaten raw.[41]
In summary, in commerce in Europe and the Americas (although not in small-scale cultivation), it is possible to distinguish between "bananas", which are eaten raw, and "plantains", which are cooked. In other regions of the world, particularly India, Southeast Asia and the islands of the Pacific, there are many more kinds of banana and the two-fold distinction is not useful and not made in local languages. Plantains are one of many kinds of cooking bananas, which are not always distinct from dessert bananas.
Historical cultivation
Early cultivation
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Banana_ancestors_%28Musa_acuminata_and_Musa_balbisiana%29_original_range.png/220px-Banana_ancestors_%28Musa_acuminata_and_Musa_balbisiana%29_original_range.png)
Farmers in Southeast Asia and Papua New Guinea first domesticated bananas. Recent archaeological and palaeoenvironmental evidence at Kuk Swamp in the Western Highlands Province of Papua New Guinea suggests that banana cultivation there goes back to at least 5000 BCE, and possibly to 8000 BCE.[4][43] It is likely that other species were later and independently domesticated elsewhere in Southeast Asia. Southeast Asia is the region of primary diversity of the banana. Areas of secondary diversity are found in Africa, indicating a long history of banana cultivation in the region.[44]
Phytolith discoveries in Cameroon dating to the first millennium BCE[46] triggered an as yet unresolved debate about the date of first cultivation in Africa. There is linguistic evidence that bananas were known in Madagascar around that time.[47] The earliest prior evidence indicates that cultivation dates to no earlier than late 6th century CE.[48] It is likely, however, that bananas were brought at least to Madagascar if not to the East African coast during the phase of Malagasy colonization of the island from South East Asia c. 400 CE.[49]
The banana may also have been present in isolated locations elsewhere in the Middle East on the eve of Islam. The spread of Islam was followed by far-reaching diffusion. There are numerous references to it in Islamic texts (such as poems and hadiths) beginning in the 9th century. By the 10th century the banana appears in texts from Palestine and Egypt. From there it diffused into North Africa and Muslim Iberia. During the medieval ages, bananas from Granada were considered among the best in the Arab world.[45] In 650, Islamic conquerors brought the banana to Palestine. Today, banana consumption increases significantly in Islamic countries during Ramadan, the month of daylight fasting.[50]
Bananas were certainly grown in the Christian Kingdom of Cyprus by the late medieval period. Writing in 1458, the Italian traveller and writer Gabriele Capodilista wrote favourably of the extensive farm produce of the estates at Episkopi, near modern-day Limassol, including the region's banana plantations.[51]
Bananas were introduced to the Americas by Portuguese sailors who brought the fruits from West Africa in the 16th century.[52]
Many wild banana species as well as cultivars exist in extraordinary diversity in India, China, and Southeast Asia.
There are fuzzy bananas whose skins are bubblegum pink; green-and-white striped bananas with pulp the color of orange sherbet; bananas that, when cooked, taste like strawberries. The Double Mahoi plant can produce two bunches at once. The Chinese name of the aromatic Go San Heong banana means 'You can smell it from the next mountain.' The fingers on one banana plant grow fused; another produces bunches of a thousand fingers, each only an inch long.
— Mike Peed, The New Yorker[53]
Plantation cultivation in the Caribbean, Central and South America
![Photo of two cross-sectional halves of seed-filled fruit.](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Inside_a_wild-type_banana.jpg/220px-Inside_a_wild-type_banana.jpg)
In the 15th and 16th centuries, Portuguese colonists started banana plantations in the Atlantic Islands, Brazil, and western Africa.[54] North Americans began consuming bananas on a small scale at very high prices shortly after the Civil War, though it was only in the 1880s that the food became more widespread.[55] As late as the Victorian Era, bananas were not widely known in Europe, although they were available.[54] Jules Verne introduces bananas to his readers with detailed descriptions in Around the World in Eighty Days (1872).
The earliest modern plantations originated in Jamaica and the related Western Caribbean Zone, including most of Central America. It involved the combination of modern transportation networks of steamships and railroads with the development of refrigeration that allowed more time between harvesting and ripening. North American shippers like Lorenzo Dow Baker and Andrew Preston, the founders of the Boston Fruit Company started this process in the 1870s, but railroad builders like Minor C. Keith also participated, eventually culminating in the multi-national giant corporations like today's Chiquita Brands International and Dole.[55] These companies were monopolistic, vertically integrated (meaning they controlled growing, processing, shipping and marketing) and usually used political manipulation to build enclave economies (economies that were internally self-sufficient, virtually tax exempt, and export-oriented that contribute very little to the host economy). Their political maneuvers, which gave rise to the term Banana republic for states like Honduras and Guatemala, included working with local elites and their rivalries to influence politics or playing the international interests of the United States, especially during the Cold War, to keep the political climate favorable to their interests.[56]
Peasant cultivation for export in the Caribbean
The vast majority of the world's bananas today are cultivated for family consumption or for sale on local markets. India is the world leader in this sort of production, but many other Asian and African countries where climate and soil conditions allow cultivation also host large populations of banana growers who sell at least some of their crop.[57]
Peasant sector banana growers produce for the world market in the Caribbean, however. The Windward Islands are notable for the growing, largely of Cavendish bananas, for an international market, generally in Europe but also in North America. In the Caribbean, and especially in Dominica where this sort of cultivation is widespread, holdings are in the 1–2 acre range. In many cases the farmer earns additional money from other crops, from engaging in labor outside the farm, and from a share of the earnings of relatives living overseas.[citation needed]
Banana crops are vulnerable to destruction by high winds, such as tropical storms or cyclones.[58]
East Africa
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![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Acta_Eruditorum_-_III_musa_arabum_pala_plinii%2C_1734_%E2%80%93_BEIC_13446956.jpg/220px-Acta_Eruditorum_-_III_musa_arabum_pala_plinii%2C_1734_%E2%80%93_BEIC_13446956.jpg)
Modern cultivation
All widely cultivated bananas today descend from the two wild bananas Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana. While the original wild bananas contained large seeds, diploid or polyploid cultivars (some being hybrids) with tiny seeds are preferred for human raw fruit consumption.[59] These are propagated asexually from offshoots. The plant is allowed to produce two shoots at a time; a larger one for immediate fruiting and a smaller "sucker" or "follower" to produce fruit in 6–8 months.
As a non-seasonal crop, bananas are available fresh year-round.[60]
Cavendish
![Grocery store photo of several bunches of bananas](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Bananas.jpg/220px-Bananas.jpg)
In global commerce in 2009, by far the most important cultivars belonged to the triploid AAA group of Musa acuminata, commonly referred to as Cavendish group bananas. They accounted for the majority of banana exports,[59] despite only coming into existence in 1836.[61] The cultivars Dwarf Cavendish and Grand Nain (Chiquita Banana) gained popularity in the 1950s after the previous mass-produced cultivar, Gros Michel (also an AAA group cultivar), became commercially unviable due to Panama disease, caused by the fungus Fusarium oxysporum which attacks the roots of the banana plant.[59] Cavendish cultivars are resistant to the Panama Disease, but in 2013 there were fears that the Black Sigatoka fungus would in turn make Cavendish bananas unviable.[62]
Even though it is no longer viable for large scale cultivation, Gros Michel is not extinct and is still grown in areas where Panama disease is not found.[63] Likewise, Dwarf Cavendish and Grand Nain are in no danger of extinction, but they may leave supermarket shelves if disease makes it impossible to supply the global market. It is unclear if any existing cultivar can replace Cavendish bananas, so various hybridisation and genetic engineering programs are attempting to create a disease-resistant, mass-market banana.[59] One such strain that has emerged is the Taiwanese Cavendish, also known as the Formosana.[64]
Ripening
Export bananas are picked green, and ripen in special rooms upon arrival in the destination country. These rooms are air-tight and filled with ethylene gas to induce ripening. The vivid yellow color consumers normally associate with supermarket bananas is, in fact, caused by the artificial ripening process.[65] Flavor and texture are also affected by ripening temperature. Bananas are refrigerated to between 13.5 and 15 °C (56.3 and 59.0 °F) during transport. At lower temperatures, ripening permanently stalls, and the bananas turn gray as cell walls break down. The skin of ripe bananas quickly blackens in the 4 °C (39 °F) environment of a domestic refrigerator, although the fruit inside remains unaffected.
![Two adjacent photos of bananas. The left is in sunlight; the right is under ultraviolet light.](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Banana-fluorescence-081108.jpg/220px-Banana-fluorescence-081108.jpg)
Bananas can be ordered by the retailer "ungassed" (i.e. not treated with ethylene), and may show up at the supermarket fully green. Guineos verdes (green bananas) that have not been gassed will never fully ripen before becoming rotten. Instead of fresh eating, these bananas can be used for cooking, as seen in Jamaican cuisine.[66]
A 2008 study reported that ripe bananas fluoresce when exposed to ultraviolet light. This property is attributed to the degradation of chlorophyll leading to the accumulation of a fluorescent product in the skin of the fruit. The chlorophyll breakdown product is stabilized by a propionate ester group. Banana-plant leaves also fluoresce in the same way. Green bananas do not fluoresce. The study suggested that this allows animals which can see light in the ultraviolet spectrum (tetrachromats and pentachromats) to more easily detect ripened bananas.[67]
Storage and transport
Bananas must be transported over long distances from the tropics to world markets.[68] To obtain maximum shelf life, harvest comes before the fruit is mature. The fruit requires careful handling, rapid transport to ports, cooling, and refrigerated shipping. The goal is to prevent the bananas from producing their natural ripening agent, ethylene. This technology allows storage and transport for 3–4 weeks at 13 °C (55 °F). On arrival, bananas are held at about 17 °C (63 °F) and treated with a low concentration of ethylene. After a few days, the fruit begins to ripen and is distributed for final sale. Ripe bananas can be held for a few days at home. If bananas are too green, they can be put in a brown paper bag with an apple or tomato overnight to speed up the ripening process.[69]
Carbon dioxide (which bananas produce) and ethylene absorbents extend fruit life even at high temperatures. This effect can be exploited by packing banana in a polyethylene bag and including an ethylene absorbent, e.g., potassium permanganate, on an inert carrier. The bag is then sealed with a band or string. This treatment has been shown to more than double lifespans up to 3–4 weeks without the need for refrigeration.[70][71][72]
Production and export
Country | Bananas | Plantains | Total |
---|---|---|---|
![]() |
29.1 | 29.1 | |
![]() |
13.1 | 13.1 | |
![]() |
5.8 | 3.1 | 8.9 |
![]() |
6.5 | 0.6 | 7.1 |
![]() |
7.0 | 7.0 | |
![]() |
6.8 | 6.8 | |
![]() |
2.0 | 3.5 | 5.5 |
![]() |
1.2 | 4.3 | 5.5 |
![]() |
0.6 | 3.7 | 4.3 |
![]() |
0.09 | 4.0 | 4.1 |
![]() |
3.8 | 0.3 | 4.1 |
113.3 | 35.1 | 148.4 | |
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations[73] Note: Some countries produce statistics distinguishing between bananas and plantain production, but four of the top six producers do not, requiring comparisons using the total for bananas and plantains combined. |
In 2016, world production of bananas and plantains was 148 million tonnes, led by India and China with a combined total (only for bananas) of 28% of global production (table). Other major producers were the Philippines, Ecuador, Indonesia, and Brazil, together accounting for 20% of the world total of bananas and plantains (table).
As reported for 2013, total world exports were 20 million tonnes of bananas and 859,000 tonnes of plantains.[74] Ecuador and the Philippines were the leading exporters with 5.4 and 3.3 million tonnes, respectively, and the Dominican Republic was the leading exporter of plantains with 210,350 tonnes.[74]
Developing countries
Bananas and plantains constitute a major staple food crop for millions of people in developing countries.[68] In most tropical countries, green (unripe) bananas used for cooking represent the main cultivars. Most producers are small-scale farmers either for home consumption or local markets. Because bananas and plantains produce fruit year-round, they provide a valuable food source during the hunger season (when the food from one annual/semi-annual harvest has been consumed, and the next is still to come). Bananas and plantains are important for global food security.[75]
Pests, diseases, and natural disasters
![Photo of bananas in blue plastic bag](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/BananasBlueBagStLucia.jpg/170px-BananasBlueBagStLucia.jpg)
While in no danger of outright extinction, the most common edible banana cultivar Cavendish (extremely popular in Europe and the Americas) could become unviable for large-scale cultivation in the next 10–20 years. Its predecessor 'Gros Michel', discovered in the 1820s, suffered this fate. Like almost all bananas, Cavendish lacks genetic diversity, which makes it vulnerable to diseases, threatening both commercial cultivation and small-scale subsistence farming.[76][77] Some commentators remarked that those variants which could replace what much of the world considers a "typical banana" are so different that most people would not consider them the same fruit, and blame the decline of the banana on monogenetic cultivation driven by short-term commercial motives.[56]
Panama disease
Panama disease is caused by a fusarium soil fungus (Race 1), which enters the plants through the roots and travels with water into the trunk and leaves, producing gels and gums that cut off the flow of water and nutrients, causing the plant to wilt, and exposing the rest of the plant to lethal amounts of sunlight. Prior to 1960, almost all commercial banana production centered on "Gros Michel", which was highly susceptible.[78] Cavendish was chosen as the replacement for Gros Michel because, among resistant cultivars, it produces the highest quality fruit. However, more care is required for shipping the Cavendish,[citation needed] and its quality compared to Gros Michel is debated.[79]
According to current sources, a deadly form of Panama disease is infecting Cavendish. All plants are genetically identical, which prevents evolution of disease resistance. Researchers are examining hundreds of wild varieties for resistance.[78]
Tropical race 4
Tropical race 4 (TR4), a reinvigorated strain of Panama disease, was first discovered in 1993. This virulent form of fusarium wilt has wiped out Cavendish in several southeast Asian countries and has recently spread to Australia, India and Mozambique.[citation needed][timeframe?] It has yet to reach the Americas; however, the soil-based fungi can easily be carried on boots, clothing, or tools. This is how TR4 travels and will be its most likely route into Latin America. Cavendish is highly susceptible to TR4, and over time Cavendish will almost certainly be eliminated from commercial production by this disease.[80] The only known defense to TR4 is genetic resistance. This is conferred either by RGA2, a gene isolated from a TR4-resistant diploid banana, or by the nematode-derived Ced9.[81]
Black sigatoka
Black sigatoka is a fungal leaf spot disease first observed in Fiji in 1963 or 1964. Black Sigatoka (also known as black leaf streak) has spread to banana plantations throughout the tropics from infected banana leaves that were used as packing material. It affects all main cultivars of bananas and plantains (including the Cavendish cultivars[62]), impeding photosynthesis by blackening parts of the leaves, eventually killing the entire leaf. Starved for energy, fruit production falls by 50% or more, and the bananas that do grow ripen prematurely, making them unsuitable for export. The fungus has shown ever-increasing resistance to treatment, with the current expense for treating 1 hectare (2.5 acres) exceeding $1,000 per year. In addition to the expense, there is the question of how long intensive spraying can be environmentally justified.
Banana bunchy top virus
Banana bunchy top virus (BBTV) is a plant virus of the genus Babuvirus, family Nanonviridae affecting Musa spp. (including banana, abaca, plantain and ornamental bananas) and Ensete spp. in the family Musaceae.[82] Banana Bunchy Top Disease (BBTD) symptons include dark green streaks of variable length in leaf veins, midribs and petioles. Leaves become short and stunted as the disease progresses, becoming 'bunched' at the apex of the plant. Infected plants may produce no fruit or the bunch may not emerge from the pseudostem. [83] The virus is transmitted by the banana aphid Pentalonia nigronervosa and is widespread in SE Asia, Asia, the Philippines, Taiwan, Oceania and parts of Africa. There is no cure for BBTD, but it can be effectively controlled by the eradication of diseased plants and the use of virus-free planting material.[84]. No resistant cultivars have been found, but varietal differences in suspectibility have been reported. The commercially important Cavendish subgroup is severely affected. [83]
Banana bacterial wilt
Banana bacterial wilt (BBW) is a bacterial disease caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum.[85] After being originally identified on a close relative of bananas, Ensete ventricosum, in Ethiopia in the 1960s,[86] BBW occurred in Uganda in 2001 affecting all banana cultivars. Since then BBW has been diagnosed in Central and East Africa including the banana growing regions of Rwanda, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Tanzania, Kenya, Burundi, and Uganda.[87]
Conservation
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/ITC_cold_room.jpg/220px-ITC_cold_room.jpg)
Given the narrow range of genetic diversity present in bananas and the many threats via biotic (pests and diseases) and abiotic (such as drought) stress, conservation of the full spectrum of banana genetic resources is ongoing.[88] Banana germplasm is conserved in many national and regional gene banks, and at the world’s largest banana collection, the International Musa Germplasm Transit Centre (ITC), managed by Bioversity International and hosted at KU Leuven in Belgium.[89] Musa cultivars are usually seedless, and options for their long-term conservation are constrained by the vegetative nature of the plant’s reproductive system. Consequently, they are conserved by three main methods: in vivo (planted in field collections), in vitro (as plantlets in test tubes within a controlled environment), and by cryopreservation (meristems conserved in liquid nitrogen at -196°C).[88] Genes from wild banana species are conserved as DNA and as cryopreserved pollen [88] and banana seeds from wild species are also conserved, although less commonly, as they are difficult to regenerate. In addition, bananas and their crop wild relatives are conserved in situ (in wild natural habitats where they evolved and continue to do so). Diversity is also conserved in farmers’ fields where continuous cultivation, adaptation and improvement of cultivars is often carried out by small-scale farmers growing traditional local cultivars (including home gardens).[90]
Nutrition
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Energy | 371 kJ (89 kcal) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
22.84 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Sugars | 12.23 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Dietary fiber | 2.6 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
0.33 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
1.09 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Other constituents | Quantity | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Water | 74.91 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Link to USDA Database entry
values are for edible portion | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[91] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[92] |
Raw bananas (not including the peel) are 75% water, 23% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and contain negligible fat. A 100-gram serving supplies 89 Calories, 31% of the US recommended Daily Value of vitamin B6, and moderate amounts of vitamin C, manganese and dietary fiber (see table).
- Potassium
- Although bananas are commonly thought to supply exceptional potassium content,[93] their actual potassium content is relatively low per typical food serving at only 8% of the US recommended Daily Value (table). Vegetables with higher potassium content than raw dessert bananas (358 mg per 100 grams) include raw spinach (558 mg per 100 grams), baked potatoes without skin (391 mg per 100 grams), cooked soybeans (539 mg per 100 grams), grilled portabella mushrooms (437 mg per 100 grams) and processed tomato sauces (413–439 mg per 100 grams). Raw plantains contain 499 mg potassium per 100 grams. Dehydrated dessert bananas or banana powder contain 1491 mg potassium per 100 grams.[94]
- Allergens
- Individuals with a latex allergy may experience a reaction to bananas.[95]
Culture
Food and cooking
Fruit
Bananas are a staple starch for many tropical populations. Depending upon cultivar and ripeness, the flesh can vary in taste from starchy to sweet, and texture from firm to mushy. Both the skin and inner part can be eaten raw or cooked. The primary component of the aroma of fresh bananas is isoamyl acetate (also known as banana oil), which, along with several other compounds such as butyl acetate and isobutyl acetate, is a significant contributor to banana flavor.[96][97][98]
During the ripening process, bananas produce the gas ethylene, which acts as a plant hormone and indirectly affects the flavor. Among other things, ethylene stimulates the formation of amylase, an enzyme that breaks down starch into sugar, influencing the taste of bananas. The greener, less ripe bananas contain higher levels of starch and, consequently, have a "starchier" taste. On the other hand, yellow bananas taste sweeter due to higher sugar concentrations. Furthermore, ethylene signals the production of pectinase, an enzyme which breaks down the pectin between the cells of the banana, causing the banana to soften as it ripens.[99][100]
Bananas are eaten deep fried, baked in their skin in a split bamboo, or steamed in glutinous rice wrapped in a banana leaf. Bananas can be made into jam. Banana pancakes are popular amongst backpackers and other travelers in South Asia and Southeast Asia. This has elicited the expression Banana Pancake Trail for those places in Asia that cater to this group of travelers. Banana chips are a snack produced from sliced dehydrated or fried banana or plantain, which have a dark brown color and an intense banana taste. Dried bananas are also ground to make banana flour. Extracting juice is difficult, because when a banana is compressed, it simply turns to pulp. Bananas feature prominently in Philippine cuisine, being part of traditional dishes and desserts like maruya, turón, and halo-halo or saba con yelo. Most of these dishes use the Saba or Cardaba banana cultivar. Bananas are also commonly used in cuisine in the South-Indian state of Kerala, where they are steamed (puzhungiyathu), made into curries,[101] fried into chips, (upperi)[102] or fried in batter (pazhampori).[103] Pisang goreng, bananas fried with batter similar to the Filipino maruya or Kerala pazhampori, is a popular dessert in Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia. A similar dish is known in the United Kingdom and United States as banana fritters.
Plantains are used in various stews and curries or cooked, baked or mashed in much the same way as potatoes, such as the pazham pachadi dish prepared in Kerala.[101]
Flower
Banana hearts are used as a vegetable[104] in South Asian and Southeast Asian cuisine, either raw or steamed with dips or cooked in soups, curries and fried foods.[105][106] The flavor resembles that of artichoke. As with artichokes, both the fleshy part of the bracts and the heart are edible.[107]
Leaves
Banana leaves are large, flexible, and waterproof. They are often used as ecologically friendly disposable food containers or as "plates" in South Asia and several Southeast Asian countries. In Indonesian cuisine, banana leaf is employed in cooking methods like pepes and botok; banana leaf packages containing food ingredients and spices are cooked in steam or in boiled water, or are grilled on charcoal. When used so for steaming or grilling, the banana leaves protect the food ingredients from burning and add a subtle sweet flavor.[108] In South India, it is customary to serve traditional food on a banana leaf. In Tamil Nadu (India), dried banana leaves are used as to pack food and to make cups to hold liquid food items.
Trunk
The tender core of the banana plant's trunk is also used in South Asian and Southeast Asian cuisine, and notably in the Burmese dish mohinga.
Fiber
Textiles
Banana fiber harvested from the pseudostems and leaves of the plant has been used for textiles in Asia since at least the 13th century. Both fruit-bearing and fibrous varieties of the banana plant have been used.[109] In the Japanese system Kijōka-bashōfu, leaves and shoots are cut from the plant periodically to ensure softness. Harvested shoots are first boiled in lye to prepare fibers for yarn-making. These banana shoots produce fibers of varying degrees of softness, yielding yarns and textiles with differing qualities for specific uses. For example, the outermost fibers of the shoots are the coarsest, and are suitable for tablecloths, while the softest innermost fibers are desirable for kimono and kamishimo. This traditional Japanese cloth-making process requires many steps, all performed by hand.[110]
In India, a banana fiber separator machine has been developed, which takes the agricultural waste of local banana harvests and extracts strands of the fiber.[111]
Paper
Banana fiber is used in the production of banana paper. Banana paper is made from two different parts: the bark of the banana plant, mainly used for artistic purposes, or from the fibers of the stem and non-usable fruits. The paper is either hand-made or by industrial process.[112]
Cultural roles
Arts
- The song "Yes! We Have No Bananas" was written by Frank Silver and Irving Cohn and originally released in 1923; for many decades, it was the best-selling sheet music in history. Since then the song has been rerecorded several times and has been particularly popular during banana shortages.[113][114]
- A person slipping on a banana peel has been a staple of physical comedy for generations. An American comedy recording from 1910 features a popular character of the time, "Uncle Josh", claiming to describe his own such incident:[115]
Now I don't think much of the man that throws a banana peelin' on the sidewalk, and I don't think much of the banana peel that throws a man on the sidewalk neither ... my foot hit the bananer peelin' and I went up in the air, and I come down ker-plunk, jist as I was pickin' myself up a little boy come runnin' across the street ... he says, "Oh mister, won't you please do that agin? My little brother didn't see you do it."
- The poet Bashō is named after the Japanese word for a banana plant. The "bashō" planted in his garden by a grateful student became a source of inspiration to his poetry, as well as a symbol of his life and home.[116]
- The cover artwork for the debut album of The Velvet Underground features a banana made by Andy Warhol. On the original vinyl LP version, the design allowed the listener to "peel" this banana to find a pink, peeled phallic banana on the inside.[117]
Religion and popular beliefs
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/XRF-Tani-.jpg/170px-XRF-Tani-.jpg)
In all the important festivals and occasions of Hindus, the serving of bananas plays a prominent part.
In Thailand, it is believed that a certain type of banana plants may be inhabited by a spirit, Nang Tani, a type of ghost related to trees and similar plants that manifests itself as a young woman.[118] Often people tie a length of colored satin cloth around the pseudostem of the banana plants.[119]
In Malay folklore, the ghost known as Pontianak is associated with banana plants (pokok pisang), and its spirit is said to reside in them during the day.[120]
Racist symbol
There is a long racist history of describing people of African descent as being more like monkeys than humans, and due to the assumption in popular culture that monkeys like bananas, bananas have been used in symbolic acts of hate speech.[121][122] In April 2014, during a match at Villarreal's stadium, El Madrigal, Dani Alves was targeted by Villareal supporter David Campaya Lleo, who threw a banana at him.[123] Alves picked up the banana, peeled it and took a bite, and the meme went viral on social media in support of him.[124] Racist taunts are an ongoing problem in football.[125][126] Bananas were hung from nooses around the campus of American University in May 2017 after the student body elected its first black woman student government president.[127]
Unicode
The Unicode standard includes the emoji character U+1F34C 🍌 BANANA.[128]
Other uses
- The large leaves may be used as umbrellas.[108]
- Banana peel may have capability to extract heavy metal contamination from river water, similar to other purification materials.[129][130] In 2007, banana peel powder was tested as a means of filtration for heavy metals and radionuclides occurring in water produced by the nuclear and fertilizer industries (cadmium contaminant is present in phosphates). When added and thoroughly mixed for 40 minutes, the powder can remove roughly 65% of heavy metals, and this can be repeated.
- Waste bananas can be used to feed livestock.[131]
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ignored (|name-list-style=
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ignored (|url-status=
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ignored (|url-status=
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ignored (|url-status=
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help); Unknown parameter|lastauthoramp=
ignored (|name-list-style=
suggested) (help) - ^ Heuzé V., Tran G., Archimède H., Renaudeau D., Lessire M., 2016. Banana fruits. Feedipedia, a programme by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on February 21, 2018. Retrieved February 20, 2018.
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: Unknown parameter|deadurl=
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suggested) (help)CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) Last updated on March 25, 2016, 10:36
Bibliography
- Nelson, S.C.; Ploetz, R.C.; Kepler, A.K. (2006). "Musa species (bananas and plantains)". In Elevitch, C.R (ed.). Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (PDF). Hōlualoa, Hawai'i: Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR). Retrieved January 10, 2013.
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ignored (|name-list-style=
suggested) (help) - Office of the Gene Technology Regulator (2008). The Biology of Musa L. (banana) (PDF). Australian Government. Retrieved January 30, 2013.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
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ignored (|name-list-style=
suggested) (help) - Ploetz, R.C.; Kepler, A.K.; Daniells, J.; Nelson, S.C. (2007). "Banana and Plantain: An Overview with Emphasis on Pacific Island Cultivars". In Elevitch, C.R (ed.). Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (PDF). Hōlualoa, Hawai'i: Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR). Retrieved January 10, 2013.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
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ignored (|name-list-style=
suggested) (help) - Stover, R.H.; Simmonds, N.W. (1987). Bananas (3rd ed.). Harlow, England: Longman. ISBN 978-0-582-46357-8.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
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ignored (|name-list-style=
suggested) (help) - Valmayor, Ramón V.; Jamaluddin, S.H.; Silayoi, B.; Kusumo, S.; Danh, L.D.; Pascua, O.C.; Espino, R.R.C. (2000). Banana cultivar names and synonyms in Southeast Asia (PDF). Los Baños, Philippines: International Network for Improvement of Banana and Plantain – Asia and the Pacific Office. ISBN 978-971-91751-2-4. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 8, 2013. Retrieved January 8, 2013.
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Further reading
- Harriet Lamb, "Fighting The Banana Wars and other Fairtrade Battles", ISBN 978-1-84604-083-2