Genghis Khan

**Genghis Khan**
Genghis Khan portrait
Birth name:	Borjigin Temüjin
Family name:	Borjigin
Title:	Great Khan of Mongol Empire
Birth:	1155/1162/1167
Place of birth:	Hentiy, Mongolia
Death:	August 18, 1227
Dates of reign:	1206 –August 18, 1227
Succeeded by:	Ögedei Khan
Marriage:	Börte Ujin
Children:	Borjigin Jochi, son Borjigin Chagatai, son Borjigin Ogedei, son Borjigin Tolui, son

For the German pop band, see Dschinghis Khan

Genghis Khan (1155/1162/1167 Template:Fn–August 18, 1227) (Cyrillic: Чингис Хаан), (also spelled as Chingis Khan, Jenghis Khan, etc.), (pronounced /ʧiŋɡis xaːn/, Mongolian pronunciation^ⓘ), born as Temüjin (Тэмүүжин), was a Great Khan and military leader who united the Mongol tribes and founded the Mongol Empire (1206–1368).

Genghis Khan is widely considered one of the most brilliant military leaders in world history who is also remembered for the legacy of destruction caused by his conquests.

In modern Mongolia, he is considered a national hero for his historical role in uniting the Mongol tribes by giving them a common identity.

Overview

Born in Mongolia in the 13th century, Temüjin united the Mongol tribes of Central Asia, forging a powerful empire that became the nucleus of what was to become the largest contiguous empire in world history.

Though often outnumbered in battles, he used superior military intelligence, endurance, tactics and the mobility of his armies to defeat opponents, rapidly conquering more territory than any other single ruler. After unifying Mongol tribes, he conquered the territories of the Naiman, Merkit, Tatar, and Kerait and led very successful and sometimes brutal campaigns against Western Xia in northern China and the Khwarezmid Empire in western Asia.

His conquest, and his strategy of inducing fear by slaughtering the entire populations of resisting cities such as Merv and Herat, led to millions of deaths, and, in the longer term, resulted in large-scale depopulation of the areas of Asia that he conquered [1].

The Mongols under Genghis Khan and his successors ruled most of Eurasia, including Central Asia, North Asia, Eastern Asia, Southeast Asia, the Middle East, Eastern Europe, and Central Europe, stretching from Vietnam to successful campaigns in Poland and Hungary. Genghis Khan's successors continued to rule and expand the Mongol Empire he founded after his death, and, even after the unified empire dissolved a century and a half later, separate Khanates existed for centuries afterwards.

Genghis Khan's descendants included Kublai Khan, and possibly also Timur and Babur, though it is unlikely that Timur was related. His family ruled the Mongols until the 17th century, when the last Khan of his house was conquered by the Manchu.

Name and Title

There are many theories for the origins of Genghis Khan's title; this uncertainty is fueled by the fact that later members of the Mongol Empire associated the name with the Mongol word for strength, "ching", though this does not fit the etymology. One theory places the etymology as stemming from a palatalised version of the Mongolian and Turkish word tenggiz, meaning "ocean," "oceanic" or "wide-spreading". Lake Baikal and ocean were called as tenggiz by the Mongols, however it seems like that if they had meant to call Genghis Khan tenggiz they could very well have said (and written) "Tenggiz Khan", which they did not. Zhèng (Chinese: 正, pron. "jung" in English) meaning "right", "just", or "true", would have received the Mongolian adjectival modifier -s, creating "Jenggis", which was then modified by later scribes in India or Persia to read as "Genghis". Likely, contemporary Mongols would have pronounced the word more like "Chinggis". Chingis Khan is the spelling used by the modern Republic of Mongolia. See Lister and Ratchnevsky, referenced below, for further reading.

Early life

Birth

Temujin was born sometime between 1155 and 1167 in Hentiy, Mongolia. His birthplace was most likely the mountainous area of Burhan Haldun. He was the second son of Yesükhei, a tribal chief of the Kiyad. Yesükhei's clan was called Borjigin (Боржигин). His mother was named Hoelun and was of the Olkunut tribe. Temüjin was named after one of the more powerful chiefs of a rival tribe. The name "Temujin" probably derives from a word for "Iron".

His early life was difficult: His father delivered him to his future wife's family when he was only nine. He was supposed to live there until he reached the marriageable age of 14. Shortly thereafter, his father was murdered by the neighboring Tatars while returning home. This made Temüjin the clan's chief, though his clan refused to be led by a boy and soon abandoned him and his family. For the next few years, he and his family lived the life of impoverished nomads, surviving primarily on marmots and other small game.

In one incident, Temüjin reportedly slew his half-brother over a dispute about sharing hunting spoils. In another, he was captured in a raid by his former tribe and held captive with a wooden collar around his neck. He escaped with help from a sympathetic captor. His mother, Hoelun, taught him many lessons on survival in the harsh political climate of Mongolia, especially the need for alliances with others, a lesson which would shape his understanding in his later years.

Around the age of 16, Temüjin married Börte of the Konkirat tribe. Later she was kidnapped in a raid by the Merkit tribe, and Temüjin called on his friend and later rival, Jamuka, and his protector, Wang Khan of the Kerait tribe, for aid. Börte's first child, Jochi, was born suspiciously soon after she was freed from the Merkit, leading to questions regarding the child's paternity.

Uniting the tribes and early Mongol Empire

File:Genghis Khan.JPG

Representation of Genghis Khan and soldiers.

Temüjin began his slow ascent to power by allying himself with his father's anda (sworn brother or blood brother). Genghis's ally was Toghril, khan of the Kerait and better known by the Chinese title Wang Khan which the Jin Empire granted him in 1197. Temüjin was adopted as Wang Khan's heir after successful campaigns against the Tatars (1202). This led to jealousy on the part of Senggum, Wang's former heir, who planned to assassinate Temüjin. Temüjin learnt of Senggum's intentions, eventually defeated him and his loyalists and succeeded to the title of Wang Khan.

His borders were threatened to the the south by the Jin who then ruled North China and to the west by the Xia. Temüjin organized his people to prepare for possible conflicts, especially with the Jin. The Chinese had grown uncomfortable with the newly unified Mongols. Many trade routes ran through Mongol territory, and they feared that the Mongols would eventually restrict the supply of goods.

Temüjin managed to unite the tribes under a single system by 1206 using his personal charisma and strong will. It was a monumental feat for the Mongols, who had a long history of internecine dispute and economic hardship. At a Kurultai (a council of Mongol chiefs) he was acknowledged as the first and only "Khan" or Khagan, the ruler of rulers or emperor

See also: Mongols before Genghis Khan

Mongol Empire

Main article: Mongol Empire

Politics and economics

Main article: Organization of state under Genghis Khan

The Mongol Empire under Genghis Khan was tolerant of the people it had conquered, provided that they did not resist, and often let conquered nations keep local rulers and worship their own religions. He instituted a Meritocracy among the Mongols and allied nomadic people. The Mongols was ruled by the code of Yasa, a chivalric code of honor and pay obligations to the Khan of which no complete copy survives today. Generally, the Mongol Empire was also friendly to outside trade along the Silk Road, although the Mongol's conquests led to a collapse of many of the ancient trading cities of Central Asia. Taxes were also heavy, and conquered people were used as forced labor.

Temüjin was illiterate when he was young but learned to read Taoist sermons later in his life. He brought tutors with him to teach his children and himself to read and write.

Military

Main article: Military advances of Genghis Khan

Genghis Khan made advances in military disciplines, such as mobility, psychological warfare, intelligence, military autonomy, and tactics.

Genghis Khan's armies were generally able to best their enemies in the 12th and 13th century because of their superior strategy, mobility, and military intelligence. Genghis developed a well organized and trained army. He refused to divide his troops into different ethnic enclaves, creating a sense of unity, while he punished even small infractions against discipline severely. He also divided his armies into a number of smaller groups, taking advantage of the superb mobility of his well-trained mounted archers to attack their enemies on several fronts at once.

After Genghis Khan

File:Mongol Empire after Genghis.jpg

Khanates of Mongolian Empire: Il-Khanate, Chagatai Khanate, Empire of the Great Khan (Yuan Dynasty), Golden Horde

At his death, Genghis Khan divided the lands of his empire amongst his sons or their children. The most distant lands conquered by the Mongols, then southern Ruthenia, were divided among his grandsons Batu, leader of the Blue Horde, and Orda, leader of the White Horde. Chagatai was the next-eldest son of Genghis and so was given Central Asia. Tolui, the youngest, was given the Mongol homeland as per Mongol custom. The office of Great Khan was a matter of dispute. The eldest son Jochi was dead and there were questions about his parentage. Chagatai was a hot-head and disliked by his brothers. This left Ogedei, third oldest, who was well liked by most people and so was made Great Khan.

On his deathbed in 1227, Genghis Khan outlined to his youngest son, Tolui, the plans that later would be used by his successors to complete the destruction of the Jin Empire.

Genghis Khan's successors expanded the empire even further, into south China, Russia, Iraq, Korea, and Tibet. The Mongols eventually briefly overran Poland and Hungary under Batu Khan's rule, and (with varying degrees of success) Syria, and Vietnam. The European expansion came to a halt when a number high-ranking leaders had to return to Mongolia to participate in the khuriltai for the election of the next Great Khan.

At its height, the Mongolian Empire stretched from Southeast Asia to Europe, covering 35 million square kilometers (13.8 million square miles), little less than the British Empire with its 36 million square kilometers (14.1 million square miles). According to some sources, the empire encompassed almost 50% of the world population and included the most advanced and populous nations of that time; China and many of the main contemporary states of the Islamic world in Iraq, Persia, and Asia Minor. It holds the record for the largest continuous landmass controlled by any empire in history.

Timur based much of his early legitimacy on claiming descent from Genghis Khan.

Major campaigns

China

At the time of the 1206 Khuriltai, Genghis was involved in a dispute with the Tangut Empire of Western Xia, which demanded tribute from the Mongols. Genghis Khan led the Mongols against Xi Xia, and conquered the empire despite initial difficulties in defeating its well-defended cities. By 1209, the Tangut emperor acknowledged Genghis Khan as overlord. In 1211, Genghis Khan set about bringing the Nuzhen (the founders of the Jin Dynasty) completely under his dominion, in order to prevent them from challenging the Mongols for territory and resources. The Mongol army crossed the Great Wall of China in 1213, and in 1215 Genghis besieged, captured, and sacked the Jin capital of Yanjing (later known as Beijing). This forced the Jin Emperor Xuan Zong to move his capital south to Kaifeng.

The Mongol Empire campaigned 6 time against the Tanguts (1202, 1207, 1209-1210, 1211-1213, 1214-1219 and 1225-1226). The vassal emperor of the Tanguts (Western Xia) had refused to take part in the war against the Khwarizmid Empire (see below). While Genghis Khan was busy with the campaign in Persia, Tangut and Jin had formed an alliance against the Mongols. In retaliation, the Genghis Khan prepared for war against their alliance.

In 1226, Genghis Khan attacked the Tanguts on the pretext that the Tanguts had deceived the Mongols and they were seeking retribution for this betrayal. In February, he took Heisui, Ganzhou and Suzhou and in the autumn, he took Xiliang-fu. One of Tangut generals challenged the Mongols for a battle near Helanshan (Helan means "great horse" in the northern dialect, shan means "mountain"). The Tangut armies were soundly defeated. In November, the Genghis Khan laid siege to the Tangut city of Lingzhou and then crossed the Yellow River and defeated the Tangut relief army. Genghis reportedly saw five stars arranged in a line in the sky, which he took to be an omen of his victory.

In 1227, the Genghis Khan attacked the Tanguts' capital, and continued to advance, seizing Lintiao-fu in February, Xining province and Xindu-fu in March, and Deshun province in April. At Deshun, the Tangut general Ma Jianlong put up a fierce resistance for several days and personally led charges against the invaders outside of the city gate. Ma Jianlong later died from wounds received from arrows in battle. Genghis Khan, after conquering Deshun, went to Liupanshan (Qingshui County, Gansu Province) for shelter from the severe summer.

The new Tangut emperor quickly surrendered to the Mongols. The Tanguts officially surrendered in 1227, after having ruled for 189 years, starting in 1038. In the end, Genghis Khan had the Tangut emperor and his family executed.

By this time, his advancing age had led Genghis to make preparations for his death and to assure an orderly succession among his descendants; he selected his third son Ögedei as his successor and established the method of selection of subsequent Khans, specifying that they should come from his direct descendants.

Central Asia

Meanwhile, Kuchlug, the deposed Khan of the Naiman tribe, had fled west and had usurped the Khanate of Kara-Khitan (also known as Kara Kitay), the western allies that had decided to side with Genghis Khan. By this time the Mongol army was exhausted from ten years of continuous campaigning in China against the Tangut and the Rurzhen. Therefore, Genghis sent only two tumen (roughly 20,000 soldiers) under a brilliant young general, Jebe (known as "The Arrow"), against Kuchlug. An internal revolt was incited by Mongol agents against Kuchlug, leaving the Naiman forces open for Jebe to overrun the country. Kuchlug's forces were defeated west of Kashgar; he was captured and executed and Kara-Khitan was annexed by Genghis Khan. By 1218, the Mongol Empire extended as far west as Lake Balkhash and adjoined Khwarizm, a Muslim state that reached to the Caspian Sea in the west and to the Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea in the south.

Middle East

In 1218, Genghis sent emissaries to an eastern province of Khwarizm with the intention of discussing possible trade with the Khwarizmian Empire. The governor of the province had the emissaries executed, and the Genghis Khan retaliated with an invasion force of 20 tumen (200,000 troops). The Mongol army quickly seized the town, relying on superior strategy and tactics. Once he had conquered the city, he killed many of the inhabitants and executed the governor by pouring molten silver into his ears and eyes as retribution for the insult.

At this point (1219), Genghis decided to extend Mongol control into the Muslim world. The Mongol army methodically marched through and sacked Khwarizm's main cities (Bukhara, Samarkand, and Balkh). The leader of Khwarizm, Shah Muhammad II, prepared to battle with them. However, he was outmaneuvered by the much swifter Mongol army and driven into extended retreat. In the end, the Shah killed himself rather than surrender when he was cornered and by 1220, the Khwarizmian Empire was eradicated.

The Mongol armies then split into two component forces. Genghis Khan led a division on a raid through Afghanistan and northern India, while another contingent, led by his general Subedei, marched through the Caucasus and Russia. Neither campaign added territory to the empire, but they pillaged settlements and defeated any armies they met that did not acknowledge Genghis Khan as the rightful leader of the world. In 1225 both divisions returned to Mongolia.

These invasions added Transoxiana and Persia to an already formidable empire.

Europe and Caucasus

While he was gathering his forces in Persia and Armenia, a detached force of 40,000 troops commanded by Batu Khan pushed deep into Armenia and Azerbaijan Batu destroyed Georgian crusaders, sacked the Genoese trade-fortress of Kaffa in Crimea, and stayed the winter near the Black Sea. While he was heading home, Batu was intercepted by the troops of Mstislav III of Kiev and Mstislav the Bold, along with a force of Kievan Rus numbering around 80,000. At the Battle of Kalka River in 1223, the Mongols defeated the larger Russian force, killing both princes.

Massacres and Destruction

Genghis Khan preferred to offer opponents the chance to submit to his rule without a fight, but was merciless if he encountered any resistance. There were also mass slaughters even where there was no resistance, especially in Northern China, and the vast majority of the populations so killed had long histories of accepting nomadic rulers. Genghis Khan's conquests were characterized by wholesale destruction on unprecedented scale and radically changed the demographic situation in Asia. According to the works of Iranian historian Rashid al-Din, Mongols killed over 70,000 people in Merv and more than a million in Nishapur. China suffered a drastic decline in population. Before the Mongol invasion, China had about 100 million inhabitants; after the complete conquest in 1279, the census in 1300 showed it to have roughly 60 million people. How many of these deaths were attributable directly to Ghengis and his forces is unclear.

Death and burial

In his last campaign leading the Mongol fight against the Tangut Empire, Genghis Khan died on August 18, 1227. The reason for his death is uncertain. Many assume he fell off his horse, due to old age and physical wearing down; some contemporary observers even cited prophecies from his opponents. The Galician-Volhynian Chronicle alleges he was killed by the Tanguts, but as of today the truth is unclear. There are persistent folktales that a Tangut princess, to avenge her people and prevent her rape, castrated him with a hidden knife and he never recovered.

It is alleged that Genghis Khan asked to be buried without markings. After he died, his body was returned to Mongolia and presumably to his birthplace in Hentiy aymag, where many assume he is buried somewhere close to the Onon river. The funeral escort killed anyone and anything that strayed across their path to his burial, so as not to reveal where he was finally laid to rest. The Genghis Khan Mausoleum is his memorial, but not his burial site. As of October 6, 2004, there has been an alleged discovery of "Genghis Khan's palace" that makes a discovery of his burial site more likely. In folklore it is said that a river was diverted over his grave to make it impossible to find and/or his grave was stamped over by many horses.

Personality and Policies

Character

It is not entirely clear what Genghis Khan was truly like, but his personality and character were doubtless molded by the many hardships he faced when he was young and during the time that it took to unify the Mongol nation. Genghis Khan appeared to fully embrace the Mongol people's nomadic way of life and did not act to change their customs or beliefs. As he aged, he seemed to become increasingly aware of the consequences of numerous victories and expansion of the Mongol Empire, including the possibility that succeeding generations might choose to live a sedentary lifestyle. According to quotations attributed to him in his later years, he urged future leaders to follow the Yasa teachings, and refrain from surrounding themselves with wealth and pleasure. He apparently valued honesty and loyalty highly, even an enemy soldier's loyalty to his leader. His military strategies showed a deep interest in gathering good intelligence and understanding the motivations of his rivals. He seemed to be a quick study, adopting new technologies and ideas that he encountered, although he never learned a foreign language or showed much interest in the cultures of other people.

Family and heirs

Main article: Family tree of Genghis Khan

Genghis Khan was related through his father to Qabul Khan, Ambaghai and Qutula Khan who had headed the Mongol confederation under Jin patronage until the Jin switched their support to the Tatars in 1161 and destroyed Qutula Khan. Genghis Khan's father, Yesugei, khan of the Borjigin, and nephew to Ambaghai and Qutula Khan, emerged as the head of the ruling clan of the Mongols, but this position was contested by the rival Tayichi’ud clan, who descended directly from Ambaghai. When the Tatars, in turn, grew too powerful after 1161 the Jin moved their support from the Tatars to the Kerait.

Genghis Khan's empress was Borte, his childhood friend in whose family's care his father left Temujin when he was 9; she bore him four sons:

Because Jochi was born immediately after Borte was freed from her captors, his paternity was contested. All four sons participated in the Genghis Khan's campaigns, and eventually became Khans of different Khanates after Genghis Khan's death, but it was Ogedei who was proclaimed the Great Khan and inherited Genghis Khan's mantle.

Legacy

Historical

Near-contemporary middle-eastern accounts by Juvayni and Rashid al-Din have survived, along with the anonymous Uighur / Chinese document known as The Secret History of the Mongols, which presents Genghis Khan from the Mongol point of view.

However, Genghis Khan's legacy is perceived very differently in Mongolia from the rest of the world. In the West and the Middle East, the perception of Genghis Khan is strongly negative due to the destruction his forces caused, though there have been recent efforts by Western historians to explore the positive aspects of Genghis Khan's conquest. Genghis Khan's used brutal measures against those who would resist him in order to inflict fear. Genghis Khan's campaigns in Central Asia and the Middle East caused massive destruction and the loss of human life. For example the cities of Rey and Tus, the two largest and most populous cities in Iran at the time, and centers of literature, culture, trade and commerce, were completely destroyed by the order of Genghis Khan. Nishapur, Merv and Samarqand suffered similar destructions.

Particularly in Central and East Asia, and certainly in Mongolia where Genghis Khan is a national hero, there is much concern about the negative bias in historical records about Genghis Khan which emphasize his assaults, barbarism, and butchery. There is a feeling that his military and administrative genius is undervalued, as is his undisputed status as the conqueror of one of the largest empires in history.

At the height of his powers, Genghis Khan is reputed to have had five hundred wives and concubines, a tradition followed in successive generations. A recent genetic survey (Zerjal et al. 2003, pdf of paper) found a cluster of Y chromosome variants in 1/12 of the men in the area of the Mongolian Empire, and 1/200 of men worldwide. The age of the cluster, estimated from the mutation rate, places its origin just before the time of Genghis Khan, and it is especially common among the Hazara people, who claim to be descended from soldiers of Genghis Khan (a claim traditionally rejected by most scientists because it was assumed to be local folklore). From this genetic evidence it is reasoned that over 0.5% of the world's population (as the study was only able to cover direct male descendants) is descended from a male who lived in Mongolia around the time of Genghis Khan, perhaps even Genghis Khan himself, although there is considerable uncertainty over these numbers.

Genghis Khan in Mongolia

File:Khannote.jpg

Genghis Khan on the 10000 tugrug Mongolian banknote

In the years that Mongolia has de-coupled itself from Communism and the Russian block in the early '90s, Genghis Khan has become a symbol for the free nation's identity. He is viewed as a conquering general of the stature of Alexander the Great. His face appears on Mongolian bank notes and vodka labels. This may be a throwback into the late period of the Khanate, when Genghis Khan was deified throughout the empire.

Today, Genghis' image is that of a ruthless conqueror, known for his willpower and political persuasiveness, as also for fostering meritocracy among the nomads and the rule of law (the Yasa code) which formed the basis of the Empire. In Europe however, it is his image as bloodthirsty conqueror that dominates, whereas in Eastern Asia, especially in Mongolia, he is known also for his achievements as a unifying, even cosmopolitan ruler, who orchestrated in uniting the Mongols and as a person who brought Mongols from political instability to world wide fame and by uniting them paved the way for the nation of Mongolia. It's not uncommon to hear the phrase Genghis Khan's Mongolia in Mongolia.

Notes

Template:Fnb Rashid al-Din asserts that Genghis Khan lived to the age of 72, placing his year of birth at 1155. The Yuanshi (history of the Yuan dynasty, not to be confused with the era name of the Han dynasty), records his year of birth as 1162. However, the Record of Successive Generations of Buddha (Lidai Fozu Tongzai) records the Genghis Khan died at the age of 60. According to Ratchnevsky, accepting a birth in 1155 would render Genghis Khan a father only at the age of 30, and would imply that at the ripe age of 72 he personally commanded the expedition against the Tanguts. Also, according to the Altan tobchi, Genghis Khan's sister, Temulin, was nine years younger than he, but the Secret History relates that Temulin was an infant during the attack by the Merkits, during which Genghis Khan would have been 18, had he been born in 1155. Zhao Hong reports in his travelogue that the Mongols he questioned did not and had never known their ages.

External links

References

Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World, by Jack Weatherford, Crown 2004. ISBN: 0609610627
Mongols, Huns & Vikings, by Hugh Kennedy, Cassell, 2002, ISBN: 0304352926
"Genghis Khan and the Mongols". Genghis Khan and the Mongols. June 30. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help)
Man, John. Genghis Khan -- Life, Death and Resurrection. Bantam Press, 2004. ISBN 0-553-81498-2.
Lister, R. P. Genghis Khan. Cooper Square Press, 1969. ISBN 0-8154-1052-2.
"Mongol Arms". Mongol Arms. June 24. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help)
Zerjal, Tatiana, Yali Xue, Giorgio Bertorelle, R. Spencer Wells, Weidong Bao, Suling Zhu, Raheel Qamar, Qasim Ayub, Aisha Mohyuddin, Songbin Fu, Pu Li, Nadira Yuldasheva, Ruslan Ruzibakiev, Jiujin Xu, Qunfang Shu, Ruofu Du, Huanming Yang, Matthew E. Hurles, Elizabeth Robinson, Tudevdagva GerelsaiGenghis Khan, Bumbein Dashnyam, S. Qasim Mehdi, and Chris Tyler-Smith. 2003. The Genetic Legacy of the Mongols. The American Journal of Human Genetics 72:718-721
Heirs to Discord: The Supratribal Aspirations of Jamuqa, Toghrul, and Temüjin
Ratchnevsky, Paul. Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy (Čingis-Khan: sein Leben und Wirken). Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 1991. ISBN 0-631-18949-1.

Primary Sources

Genghis Khan: The History of the World-Conqueror by Ala Al-Din Ata Malik Juvayni, Ata-Malik Juvaini, tr. John Andrew Boyle, Univ of Washington Press (August 1, 1997), ISBN: 0295976543
The Secret History of the Mongols, tr. Igor De Rachewiltz, Brill's Inner Asian Library. v.7, Leiden:Boston 2004, ISBN: 9004131590
A Compendium of Chronicles: Rashid al-Din's Illustrated History of the World (Jami al-Tawarikh), The Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art, Vol. XXVII, ed. Sheila S. Blair Oxford University Press 1995. ISBN: 019727627X
Rashid al-Din Tabib, The Successors of Genghis Khan Translated from the Persian by John Andrew Boyle New York/London/Paris, Columbia University Press/ UNESCO, 1971 [extracts from Jami’ Al-Tawarikh]