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Bullying

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Bullying is abusive treatment, the use of force or coercion to affect others,[1] particularly when habitual and involving an imbalance of power. It may involve verbal harassment, physical assault or coercion and may be directed persistently towards particular victims, perhaps on grounds of race, religion, sex or ability.[2][3] The "imbalance of power" may be social power and/or physical power. The victim of bullying is sometimes referred to as a "target."

Bullying consists of three basic types of abuse – emotional, verbal and physical. It typically involves subtle methods of coercion such as intimidation. Bullying can be defined in many different ways. Although the UK currently has no legal definition of bullying,[4] some US states have laws against it.[5]

Bullying ranges from simple one on one bullying to more complex bullying in which the bully may have one or more 'lieutenants' who may seem to be willing to assist the primary bully in his bullying activities. Bullying in school and the workplace is also referred to as peer abuse.[6] Robert W. Fuller has analyzed bullying in the context of rankism.

Bullying can occur in any context in which human beings interact with each other. This includes school, church, family, the workplace, home and neighborhoods. It is even a common push factor in migration. Bullying can exist between social groups, social classes and even between countries (see jingoism). In fact on an international scale, perceived or real imbalances of power between nations, in both economic systems and in treaty systems, are often cited as some of the primary causes of both World War I and World War II.[7][8]

Etymology

The word "bully" was first used in the 1530s meaning "sweetheart," applied to either sex, from the Dutch boel "lover, brother," probably diminutive of Middle High German buole "brother," of uncertain origin (compare with the German buhle "lover"). The meaning deteriorated through the 17th century through "fine fellow," "blusterer," to "harasser of the weak". This may have been as a connecting sense between "lover" and "ruffian" as in "protector of a prostitute," which was one sense of bully (though not specifically attested until 1706). The verb "to bully" is first attested in 1710.[9]

History

High-level forms of violence such as assault and murder usually receive most media attention, but lower-level forms of violence such as bullying have only in recent years started to be addressed by researchers, parents and guardians and authority figures.[10]

It is only in recent years that bullying has been recognised and recorded as a separate and distinct offence, but there have been well documented cases that were recorded in a different context. The Fifth Volume of the Newgate Calendar[11] contains at least one example where Eton Scholars George Alexander Wood and Alexander Wellesley Leith were charged, at Aylesbury Assizes, with killing and slaying the Hon. F. Ashley Cooper on February 28, 1825 in an incident that would now surely be described as "lethal hazing."[12] The Newgate calendar contains several other examples that, while not as distinct, could be considered indicative of situations of bullying.

Definitions

Bullying is an act of repeated aggressive behavior in order to intentionally hurt another person, physically or mentally. Bullying is characterized by an individual behaving in a certain way to gain power over another person.[13]

Norwegian researcher Dan Olweus defines bullying as when a person is

"exposed, repeatedly and over time, to negative actions on the part of one or more other persons." He defines negative action as "when a person intentionally inflicts injury or discomfort upon another person, through physical contact, through words or in other ways".[14]

General

Bullying behavior may include name calling, verbal or written abuse, exclusion from activities, exclusion from social situations, physical abuse, or coercion.[10][15] Bullies may behave this way to be perceived as popular or tough or to get attention. They may bully out of jealousy or be acting out because they themselves are bullied.[16]

USA National Center for Education Statistics suggests that bullying can be classified into two categories: Direct bullying, and indirect bullying which is also known as social aggression.[17]

Ross states that direct bullying involves a great deal of physical aggression such as shoving and poking, throwing things, slapping, choking, punching and kicking, beating, stabbing, pulling hair, scratching, biting, scraping and pinching.[18]

He also suggests that social aggression or indirect bullying is characterized by threatening the victim into social isolation. This isolation is achieved through a wide variety of techniques, including spreading gossip, refusing to socialize with the victim, bullying other people who wish to socialize with the victim, and criticizing the victim's manner of dress and other socially-significant markers (including the victim's race, religion, disability, etc.). Ross[18] outlines other forms of indirect bullying which are more subtle and more likely to be verbal, such as name calling, the silent treatment, arguing others into submission, manipulation, gossip/false gossip, lies, rumors/false rumors, staring, giggling, laughing at the victim, saying certain words that trigger a reaction from a past event, and mocking. The children's charity Act Against Bullying was set up in 2003 to help children who were victims of this type of bullying by researching and publishing coping skills.

Effects of bullying on those who are targeted

The effects of bullying can be serious and even fatal. Unfortunately, it is still a greatly unresearched area.

The link between bullying and school violence has attracted increasing attention since the 1999 Columbine massacre. That year, two shotgun-wielding students, both of whom had been identified as gifted and who had been bullied for years, killed 13 people, wounded 24 and then committed suicide. A year later an analysis by officials at the U.S. Secret Service of 37 premeditated school shootings found that bullying, which some of the shooters described "in terms that approached torment," played a major role in more than two-thirds of the attacks.[19] It is estimated that about 60-80% of children are bullied at school. Since bullying is mostly ignored; it may provide an important clue in crowd behaviour and passer-by behaviour. Numerous psychologists have been puzzled by the inactivity of crowds in urban centres when crimes occur in crowded places. Many have suggested bullying as one of the reason of this decline in emotional sensitivity and acceptance of violence as normal. When someone is bullied, it is not only the bully and victim who are becoming less sensitive to violence. In most cases, the friends and classmates of the bully and the victim accept the violence as normal.

In a landmark study, 432 gifted students in 11 states of USA were studied for bullying. More than two-thirds of academically talented eighth-graders say they have been bullied at school and nearly one-third harboured violent thoughts as a result.[19]

Mona O’Moore of the Anti-Bullying Centre at Trinity College in Dublin, has written, "There is a growing body of research which indicates that individuals, whether child or adult, who are persistently subjected to abusive behavior are at risk of stress related illness which can sometimes lead to suicide."[20] Those who have been the targets of bullying can suffer from long term emotional and behavioral problems. Bullying can cause loneliness, depression, anxiety, lead to low self-esteem and increased susceptibility to illness.[21]

The National Conference of State Legislatures said:

"In 2002, a report released by the U.S. Secret Service concluded that bullying played a significant role in many school shootings and that efforts should be made to eliminate bullying behavior."[22]

Suicide

Main article: Bullycide

There is a strong link between bullying and suicide.[23] Bullying leads to several suicides every year. It is estimated that between 15 and 25 children commit suicide every year in the UK alone, because they are being bullied.[24]

Among the cases of media bullying suicides following: Phoebe Prince, Dawn-Marie Wesley, Kelly Yeomans, Jessica Haffer,[25] Hamed Nastoh,[26] or April Himes.[27]

Characteristics of bullies and bully accomplices

Research indicates that adults who bully have personalities that are authoritarian, combined with a strong need to control or dominate.[28] It has also been suggested that a prejudicial view of subordinates can be particular a risk factor.[29]

Further studies have shown that envy and resentment may be motives for bullying.[30] Research on the self-esteem of bullies has produced equivocal results.[31][32] While some bullies are arrogant and narcissistic,[33] others can use bullying as a tool to conceal shame or anxiety or to boost self esteem: by demeaning others, the abuser him/herself feels empowered.[34]

Researchers have identified other risk factors such as depression[35] and personality disorders,[36] as well as quickness to anger and use of force, addiction to aggressive behaviors, mistaking others' actions as hostile, concern with preserving self image, and engaging in obsessive or rigid actions.[37] A combination of these factors may also be cause of this behavior.[38]

It is often suggested that bullying behavior has its origin in childhood. As a person who is inclined to act as a bully matures, his or her related behavior patterns will often also mature. Schoolyard pranks and 'rough-housing' may mature into more subtle, yet equally effective adult level activities such as administrative end-runs, well planned and orchestrated attempts at character assassination, or other less obvious, yet equally forceful forms of coercion.

"If aggressive behaviour is not challenged in childhood, there is a danger that it may become habitual. Indeed, there is research evidence, to indicate that bullying during childhood puts children at risk of criminal behaviour and domestic violence in adulthood." [20]

Bullies may bully because they themselves have been the victim of bullying.[39][40][41] There is also evidence that bullies have a much higher likelihood to be incarcerated in the future.[42]

Characteristics of typical bystanders

Often bullying takes place in the presence of a large group of relatively uninvolved bystanders. In many cases, it is the bully's ability to create the illusion that he or she has the support of the majority present, that instills the fear of 'speaking out' in protestation of the bullying activities being observed by the group. Unless the 'bully mentality' is effectively challenged in any given group in its earlier stages, often the 'bully mentality' becomes an accepted norm within the group.[43] [44] In such groups where the 'bully mentality' has been allowed to become a dominant factor in the group environment, a steady stream of injustices and abuses often becomes a regular and predictable group experience. Such a toxic environment often remains as the status-quo of the group for an extended period of time, until somehow the bullying-cycle should eventually come to an end. Bystanders to bullying activities are often unable to recognize the true cost that silence regarding the bullying activities has to both the individual and to the group. A certain inability to fully empathize is also usually present in the typical bystander, but to a lesser degree than in the bully. The reversal of a 'bully mentality' within a group is usually an effort which requires much time, energy, careful planning, coordination with others, and usually the undertaking of a certain 'risk'.

It is the general unwillingness of bystanders to expend these types of energies and to undertake these types of risks that bullies often rely upon in order to maintain their monopolies of power. Until or unless at least one individual who has at least some abilities to work with others, opts to expend whatever energies may be needed to reverse the 'bully mentality' of the group, the 'bully mentality' is often perpetuated within a group for months, years or even decades.[45] [46] Bystanders who have been able to establish their own 'friendship group' or 'support group' have been found to be far more likely to opt to speak out against bullying behavior than those who have not.[47] [48]

Intervention

Despite the large number of individuals that do not agree with bullying practices, there a very few that will intervene on behalf of the victim. These individuals are labeled bystanders and unfortunately usually tend to lean toward the bully’s side. In 85% of bullying incidents, bystanders are involved in teasing the victim or egging on the bully.[49]

However, in most bullying incidents, bystanders usually do nothing. If the bully faces no obstruction from the people around, it gives permission to continue behaving badly.[50] There are a wide variety of reasons why children choose not to intervene. Typically they worry that they will make the situation worse or risk becoming the next victim, due to the fear that children experience as the bystanders, which is a direct cause of the decline of anti-bullying attitudes. This points to the urgency for a better understanding of children’s attitudes to bullying and the factors that seem to predict these attitudes.[49]

Researchers have been analyzing the just-world belief theory to help understand the decline of anti-bullying attitudes. "This is the idea that people get what they deserve and deserve what they get." The study determined that children do seek to understand, justify, and rectify the different injustices they come across in everyday life. However further research is needed to link the two together.[49]

Characteristics of targets of chronic bullying

While on the surface, chronic bullying may appear to be simply the actions of an 'aggressor' (or aggressors) perpetrated upon an unwilling 'targeted individual' (or individuals), on a certain deeper level, for it to succeed, the bullying-cycle must also be viewed as necessarily including a certain chronic inadequate response on the part of the target (or targets). That is, a response that is seen by both the bully and the target as insufficient to prevent the chronic bullying-cycle from repeating itself between the given individuals. A suitable response to any given attempt at bullying varies with the occasion, and can range from totally avoiding or ignoring a bully to turning a prank around so that it makes a 'pranksteree' out of the would be prankster,[51] to even summoning legal intervention. Those individuals or groups who are capable of reacting to initial bullying attempts in ways that tend to sufficiently discourage potential bullies from repeated attempts, are less likely to be drawn into this destructive cycle. Those individuals or groups who most readily react to stressful situations by perceiving themselves as 'victims' tend to make the most suitable candidates for becoming the 'targets' of chronic bullying.[52]

Under some circumstances targets may be chosen in what may be a completely random or arbitrary process, especially in groups in which the 'bully mentality' may have already succeeded in achieving domination within the group. In such groups the defense mechanisms of the entire group may have already been 'broken down', and therefore the targeting of individuals no longer requires the seeking out of 'certain personality types' to become the 'next target'. The reversal of such chronic and well entrenched bullying behavior in such groups sometimes requires a much more carefully planned, coordinated, determined and multi-individual response from a would-be target than in a group in which either the 'bully mentality' may not (yet) prevail, or ideally in a group that may have already taken a pro-active preventative approach towards bullying.[53] [54]

Typically the bullying-cycle must include both an act of aggression on the part of a potential bully, and a response by a potential target that is perceived by both as a certain sign of submission. The cycle is only set in motion when both of these two essential elements are present. Once both of these two elements manifest themselves, the bullying cycle often proceeds to feed on itself over time, and may last for months, years, or even decades. The cycle is most easily broken at its initial onset, however it can also be broken at any later point in its progression by simply removing either one of its two essential ingredients. While group involvement may seem to complicate bullying activities, the act is most often an implied agreement in principle between a chief bully or instigator and the target that the one has 'submitted' to the other. In the act of bullying the bully attempts to make a public statement to the effect of: 'See me and fear me, I am so powerful that I have the ability to inflict pain upon the intended target at the time and manner of my choice without having to pay any consequences.' Should an intended target exhibit a 'defeated attitude' in response to chronic bullying, then the bullying is likely to continue. In circumstances where a 'bullying pattern' has not yet fully established itself, should the intended target respond with a clear attitude of self-confidence that somehow demonstrates that the bully's attempt to dominate is futile, then the bullying attempt will often quickly diminish or end all-together. Established patterns of bullying may require greater and more persistent effort to reverse. Institutions may reinforce bullying; for example, by telling targets of bullies they're responsible for defending themselves, but then forcing them to go to school unarmed. [55] [56]

Types of bullying

School bullying

Main article: School bullying

In schools, bullying occurs in all areas. It can occur in nearly any part in or around the school building, though it more often occurs in PE, recess, hallways, bathrooms, on school buses and waiting for buses, classes that require group work and/or after school activities. Bullying in school sometimes consists of a group of students taking advantage of or isolating one student in particular and gaining the loyalty of bystanders who want to avoid becoming the next victim. These bullies taunt and tease their target before physically bullying the target. Bystanders may participate or watch, sometimes out of fear of becoming the next victim.

Bullying can also be perpetrated by teachers and the school system itself: There is an inherent power differential in the system that can easily predispose to subtle or covert abuse (relational aggression or passive aggression), humiliation, or exclusion — even while maintaining overt commitments to anti-bullying policies.[57][58][59]

Workplace bullying

Main article: Workplace bullying

According to the Workplace Bullying and Trauma Institute workplace bullying is "repeated, health-harming mistreatment, verbal abuse, or conduct which is threatening, humiliating, intimidating, or sabotage that interferes with work, or some combination of the three."[60] Statistics show that bullying is 3 times as prevalent as illegal discrimination and at least 1,600 times as prevalent as workplace violence. Statistics also show that while only one employee in every 10,000 becomes a victim of workplace violence, one in six experiences bullying at work. Bullying is a little more common than sexual harassment but not verbal abuse which occurs more than bullying.

Unlike the more physical form of school bullying, workplace bullying often takes place within the established rules and policies of the organization and society. Such actions are not necessarily illegal and may not even be against the firm's regulations; however, the damage to the targeted employee and to workplace morale is obvious.

Bullying in academia

Main article: Bullying in academia

Bullying in academia is workplace bullying of scholars and staff in academia, especially places of higher education such as colleges and universities. It is believed to be common, although has not received as much attention from researchers as bullying in some other contexts.[61]

Bullying in IT

Main article: Bullying in IT

A culture of bullying is common in information technology (IT), leading to high sickness rates, low morale, poor productivity and high staff turnover.[62] Deadline-driven project work and stressed-out managers take their toll on IT workers.[63]

Bullying in medicine

Main article: Bullying in medicine

Bullying in the medical profession is common, particularly of student or trainee doctors and of nurses. It is thought that this is at least in part an outcome of conservative traditional hierarchical structures and teaching methods in the medical profession, which may result in a bullying cycle.

Bullying in nursing

Main article: Bullying in nursing

Bullying has been identified as being particularly prevalent in the nursing profession although the reasons are not clear. It is thought that relational aggression (psychological aspects of bullying such as gossipping and intimidation) are relevant. Relational aggression has been studied amongst girls but not so much amongst adult women.[64][65]

Bullying in teaching

Main article: Bullying in teaching

School teachers are commonly the subject of bullying but they are also sometimes the originators of bullying within a school environment.

Cyber-bullying

Main article: Cyber-bullying

Cyber-bullying is any bullying done through the use of technology. This form of bullying can easily go undetected because of lack of parental/authoritative supervision. Because bullies can pose as someone else, it is the most anonymous form of bullying. Cyber bullying includes, but is not limited to, abuse using email, instant messaging, text messaging, websites, social networking sites, etc.[66]

Gay bullying

Main article: Gay bullying

Gay bullying and gay bashing are expressions used to designate verbal or physical actions that are direct or indirect in nature by a person or group against a person who is gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgendered (LGBT), or of questionable sexual orientation, or one who is perceived to be so, because of rumors or fitting gay stereotypes.

Bullying in the military

Main article: Bullying in the military

In 2000, the UK Ministry of Defence (MOD) defined bullying as: “...the use of physical strength or the abuse of authority to intimidate or victimize others, or to give unlawful punishments.”[67]

Some argue that this behaviour should be allowed because of a general academic consensus that "soldiering" is different from other occupations. Soldiers expected to risk their lives should, according to them, develop strength of body and spirit to accept bullying.[68]

Semiotics of Bullying in Schools

Semiotics is the study of signs and bullying is defined as a “conscious, deliberate hostile activity intended to terrorize and harm others through the threat of further aggression.” This section is dedicated to the study of the signs of bullying. According to Hermogenes (philosopher), the word 'bully' is a linguistic sign based on the relationship between the word and what it represents. Daniel Chandler, author of Semiotics: The Basics, extensively covers signs in chapter two of the book. Chandler's book had much influence over the creation of this article and the function of the signs of bully.School-age bullying is not limited to any national, religious, or ethno-cultural group. Bully functions as a consistent gender-neutral term that can refer to either a boy or a girl [69]. Statistics show that one out of four students are bullied by a peer, over 160,000 children choose to stay home from school due to the fear of being bullied, and lastly, bullying is responsible for childhood attempted suicides [70].

J.A. Cheyne, author of Mimesis and Semiotics of Bullying: A Group- and Self-Defining Ritual, described bullying as a play or form of entertainment that displays violet domination and has entertainment value among the audience. Bullying is an "iconic display of aggression." Cheyan compares bullying to mimesis, which is an ancient "human strategy for representation, social communication, and group organization." Targets of bullying are not necessarily the victim, rather it is the aggressors and the relation to the audience; the victim serves the role as the medium. Understanding bullying does does stop at the victim and bully, it also involves understanding the "narrative structure that creates the scene and the roles occupied by other participants" [71].

Indexing the Signs

A general semiotics term called indexing is useful in dealing with the different types of bullying [72]. Indexing is a way to categorize signs. This assists educators and parents in recognizing how bullying behavior varies. Understanding and recognizing the different varieties of bullying behavior allows flexibility in the responses to the variations [73].

Bullying is delivered in a number of different forms, any of which is not limited to one gender. Forms include:

Bullying covers a wide range of age groups but is particularly prominent between the ages of 9-18. Boys tend to do more bullying than girls, especially in the form of physical bullying. However girls are just as guilty but tend to bully in verbal forms [74].

Understanding the semiotics of school-age bullying may increase the chances of stopping the problem before drastic measures are taken by the victims, such as suicide. Bully, target, and bystander are labels that have been created to help describe and understand the roles of the individuals involved. Barbara Coloroso, an expert in the field of bullying prevention, explains that the labels serve as descriptors of a child’s behavior rather than permanently labeling the child [75].

"I won't think about it the same way again": Critical Literacy as an Anti-Bullying Tool in the Middle School Setting was a study conducted by Amber Reed, that analyzed bullying and critical literacy. The research determined that children show a positive impact concerning new information about the complexity of bullying, learning from their personal experiences and putting the results into actions, taking responsibility for their actions, and raising awareness. "The social action project created space for student input and reflection to evaluate their actions"[76].

Signs of the Power of Bullying

Individuals that choose to be a bully are not typically born with the characteristic. It is a result from the treatment they receive from authority figures, including parents. Bullies often come from families that use physical forms of discipline [77]. This somewhat turns the tables on the bully, making them the victim. Unfortunately, this leads to a strategy of bully or be bullied [78].

Bully's are able to gain power over individuals and is usually associated with an imbalance of power. Typically a bully has a perceived authority over another due to factors:

  • Size
  • Gender
  • Age [79]

Boys find motivation for bully from factors such as:

  • Not fitting in
  • Physically weak
  • Short-tempered
  • Who their friends were
  • Clothes they wore

Girls on the other hand, result from factors such as:

Signs of a Bully

Bullies are not identifiable by their appearance or group identification; rather we need to focus on behavior. The definition of bullying briefly describes actions that are exhibited by an individual that plays the role of a bully [81].

Bullies are usually viewed as loud and assertive and may even be hostile in particular situations. They are not usually the largest kid in a class, but may be part of the popular or cool kids group [82]. The bullies that are part of a popular group may not come from intense disciplinary homes, rather they gain acceptance from the peer group by bullying a victim [83].

Signs of a Victim

Victims of bullying typically are:

  • Physically smaller
  • More sensitive, unhappy
  • Cautious, anxious
  • Quiet
  • Withdrawn
  • Passive
  • Submissive

These qualities make an individual vulnerable to being victimized. Bullies know that these students will not retaliate, making them an easy target [84].

An interesting result from previous research states that the majority of children possess anti-bullying attitudes. However a small proportion of children that admire bullies and show little empathy for those that get bullied [85].

Bystanders

Despite the large proportion of individuals that disagree with bullying practices, very few will intervene on behalf of the victim. In most bullying incidents, those who witness the event do nothing. These individuals are labeled bystanders and tend to side with the bully. In 85% of bullying incidents, bystanders are involved in teasing the victim or egging on the bully [86].

Why Bystanders Stay Back

If the bully faces no obstruction from bystanders, it gives permission to continue behaving badly [87]. There are a wide variety of reasons why children choose not to intervene. the number one reason that children do not intervene is fear. Typically they worry that they will make the situation worse or risk becoming the next victim. This points to the urgency for a better understanding of children’s attitudes to bullying and the factors that seem to predict these attitudes [88].


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  53. ^ "Bullying and Hazing: What Can We Do About These Problems?". 2010. Retrieved 2010-11-27. Attorney Fred Schultz discussion of hazing and hazing law
  54. ^ "SAFE SCHOOLS: Breaking the cycle of violence". 2010. Retrieved 2010-11-27. Discussion of pro-active anti-bullying school plans by certified mediator, Meadow Clark.
  55. ^ "Jay Banks NBC TV-10 "STAMP Out Bullying"". 2010. Retrieved 2010-10-31. Youtube video of NBC report on Jay Banks' anti-bullying program, advising targets to "project self-confidence".
  56. ^ "Jay Banks Productions Youtube Homepage". 2010. Retrieved 2010-10-31. Compilation of anti-bullying videos by anti-bullying expert, Jay Banks
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See also

2

References

Further reading

Look up bullying in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

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