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Hurricane Irma

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This article is about the Atlantic hurricane of 2017. For other storms of the same name, see Tropical Storm Irma.
Hurricane Irma
Category 5 major hurricane (SSHWS/NWS)
Hurricane Irma at peak intensity near the U.S. Virgin Islands on September 6
FormedAugust 30, 2017
DissipatedCurrently active
(Extratropical after September 12)
Highest winds1-minute sustained: 185 mph (295 km/h)
Lowest pressure914 mbar (hPa); 26.99 inHg
Fatalities49 total (as of September 12)
Damage> $30 billion (2017 USD)
(Unofficially fourth or fifth-costliest hurricane on record)
Areas affectedLeeward Islands (especially Barbuda, Saint Martin and the U.S. Virgin Islands), Greater Antilles, Turks and Caicos Islands, The Bahamas, Southeastern United States
Part of the 2017 Atlantic hurricane season

Hurricane Irma was an extremely powerful and rare Cape Verde type hurricane; the most intense observed in the Atlantic in over a decade. It was also the most intense hurricane to strike the United States since Katrina in 2005, and the first major hurricane to hit the state of Florida since Wilma in 2005. The ninth named storm, fourth hurricane, and second major hurricane of the 2017 Atlantic hurricane season, Irma caused widespread and catastrophic damage throughout its long lifetime, particularly in parts of the northeastern Caribbean.

Irma developed on August 30 near the Cape Verde Islands from a tropical wave that had moved off the west African coast two days prior.[1][2][3] Under favorable conditions, Irma rapidly intensified shortly after formation, becoming a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson scale within a mere 24 hours. It became a Category 3 hurricane (and therefore a major hurricane) shortly afterward; however, the intensity fluctuated for the next several days due to a series of eyewall replacement cycles. On September 5, Irma became a Category 5 hurricane, and by early the next day, Irma reached peak intensity with 185 mph (295 km/h) winds and a minimum pressure of 914 mbar (914 hPa; 27.0 inHg), making it the strongest tropical cyclone worldwide so far in 2017. After dropping to Category 3 intensity as it passed along Cuba, on September 10 the storm rose to Category 4 as it crossed warm waters between Cuba and the Florida Keys before making landfall on Cudjoe Key with maximum sustained winds of 130 mph (215 km/h). Irma dropped back to Category 3 by the time it made a second Florida landfall on Marco Island. Irma weakened to a Category 2 hurricane later that day, the first time it weakened below major hurricane status in over a week.

The storm caused catastrophic damage in Barbuda, Saint Barthélemy, Saint Martin, Anguilla and the Virgin Islands as a Category 5 hurricane.[4][5] As of September 12, the hurricane has caused at least 49 deaths (one in Anguilla, one in Barbados, three in Barbuda, 10 in Cuba, 11 in the French West Indies, one in Haiti, three in Puerto Rico, four on the Dutch side of Sint Maarten, 11 in the contiguous United States, and four in the U.S. Virgin Islands).[6][7]

Meteorological history

Map plotting the storm's track and intensity, according to the Saffir–Simpson scale
Map key
Saffir–Simpson scale
  Tropical depression (≤38 mph, ≤62 km/h)
  Tropical storm (39–73 mph, 63–118 km/h)
  Category 1 (74–95 mph, 119–153 km/h)
  Category 2 (96–110 mph, 154–177 km/h)
  Category 3 (111–129 mph, 178–208 km/h)
  Category 4 (130–156 mph, 209–251 km/h)
  Category 5 (≥157 mph, ≥252 km/h)
  Unknown
Storm type
triangle Extratropical cyclone, remnant low, tropical disturbance, or monsoon depression

The National Hurricane Center (NHC) began monitoring a tropical wave over the western coast of Africa on August 26.[8] This wave moved off the coast of the continent late on August 27. Throughout the next two days, showers and thunderstorms associated with the wave became better organized and gradually coalesced into a low pressure area as it passed just south of and through the Cape Verde Islands on August 29,[9] with the NHC stating that any significant organization of the disturbance would result in the classification of a tropical depression.[10] Further organization over the next 24 hours or so led to classification of the disturbance as Tropical Storm Irma at 15:00 UTC on August 30, based on scatterometer data and satellite estimates.[11] With warm sea surface temperatures and low wind shear, strengthening was anticipated, with the only hindrance being slightly cooler waters and drier air.

A VIIRS satellite image of Hurricane Irma on September 3

The nascent storm began developing upper-level poleward outflow as an anticyclone became established over the system, with banding features becoming increasingly evident in satellite images.[12] Early on August 31, shortly after the development of a central dense overcast (CDO) and an eye feature, Irma rapidly intensified beginning at 09:00 UTC on August 31, with winds increasing from 70 mph (110 km/h) to 115 mph (185 km/h) in only 12 hours.[13] On September 2, a ship passed 60 mi (90 km) to the west of the center of Irma, recording maximum winds of 45 mph (70 km/h), which indicated that the eye of Irma remained compact.[14][15] A strengthening subtropical ridge over the central North Atlantic pushed Irma from a western to southwestern direction on September 2 and 3.[16][17][18][19] The first aircraft reconnaissance mission departed from Barbados on the afternoon of September 3, discovering an eye 29 mi (47 km) in diameter and surface winds of 115 mph (185 km/h).[18][20]

Infrared loop of Hurricane Irma approaching the northern Leeward Islands on September 5, around the time of its upgrade to a Category 5 hurricane

On September 4, after moving into more favorable conditions, Irma strengthened into a Category 4 hurricane.[21] As it continued approaching the Leeward Islands, Irma underwent a second and more robust period of rapid intensification, becoming a Category 5 by 11:45 UTC the following day, with winds of 175 mph (280 km/h).[22] As it began to take on annular characteristics, the extremely powerful hurricane continued to intensify,[23] with maximum sustained winds peaking at 185 mph (295 km/h) near 00:00 UTC on September 6 – which would remain steady and unchanged for the next 37 hours. Six hours later, the eye of Irma made landfall along the northern coast of Barbuda at peak strength.[24] Later that day, around 21:00 UTC, the pressure bottomed out at 914 mbar (27.0 inHg) – this was the lowest in the Atlantic since Dean in 2007. While maintaining its intensity, Irma made successive landfalls at approximately 12:00 UTC on Sint Maarten and at 17:00 UTC on Ginger Island and Tortola in the British Virgin Islands.

Shortly before 06:00 UTC on September 8, Irma made landfall on the Bahamian island Little Inagua.[25] About three hours later, Irma weakened into a Category 4 hurricane but regained Category 5 status 18 hours later before losing it again over Cuba. At 13:10 UTC the next day, Irma made landfall in Cudjoe Key, Florida with maximum sustained winds of 130 mph (215 km/h) and a central pressure of 929 mbar (27.4 inHg).[26] Later that day, at 19:35 UTC Irma made landfall in Marco Island with maximum sustained winds of 115 mph (185 km/h) and a central pressure of 940 mbar (28 inHg); the Marco Island Police Department recorded a wind gust to 130 mph (215 km/h).[27] The Naples, FL Municipal Airport measured wind gusts of up to 142 mph (229 km/h).

Preparations

Caribbean

Given that Irma's forecast track was along much of the Caribbean island chain, hurricane warnings were issued for the northern Leeward Islands, Puerto Rico and parts of Hispaniola on September 5.[28]

On September 4, Puerto Rico declared a state of emergency.[29] By September 6, the U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency had deployed response teams in Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands. Supplies, including food rations, medical supplies, and blankets, were pre-staged in strategic locations on the islands for distribution.[30]

In Antigua and Barbuda, residents safeguarded their homes and cleaned up their properties in anticipation of strong winds. Emergency crews were put on standby at public shelters and hospitals by September 5 to assist with any evacuations.[31] Expecting a direct hit, more than half of residents on Barbuda took shelter,[32] and relief supplies were preemptively mobilized.[33] Antigua escaped the brunt of the storm but on Barbuda, it damaged or destroyed 95% of the buildings and infrastructure, leaving the island "barely habitable". Nearly everyone on Barbuda had been evacuated to Antigua.[34]

In Guadeloupe, low-lying and cliff-edge homes were evacuated at the threat of flooding and erosion. Schools and public businesses closed on September 5 and 6. Hospitals stocked up on three days' worth of supplies and checked the functionality of their generators.[35][36] Of the island's 32 municipalities, 22 activated their emergency plans; 1,500 people were urged to take shelter.[37] The island sustained relatively minor damage and became the base for relief efforts on St. Martin (Collectivity of Saint Martin) and St. Barts (Saint Barthélemy).[38]

Though the core of the hurricane was expected to remain north of the island, a yellow alert was issued for Martinique due to the likelihood of rough seas.[39] The island dispatched relief supplies and military reinforcements to its neighboring islands of Guadeloupe, Saint Martin and Saint Barthélemy, who faced a greater risk of a direct impact.[40] The National Emergency Management Organization on Saint Lucia urged small craft operators and swimmers to be mindful of forecasts for high surf.[41] Small Craft Warnings and High Surf Advisories were hoisted for Dominica, where residents were urged to remain vigilant of the potential for high waves, landslides, and flooding.[42]

The island of St. Martin was hit on 6 and 7 September 2017, causing extensive damage; a total of 11 deaths were reported over the next few days.[43][44] Some 95% of the structures on the French side and 75% of the structures on the Dutch side were damaged or destroyed.[45][46]

In the Turks and Caicos, evacuation orders were issued for low-lying areas starting September 5. Schools were closed, government buildings were boarded up, and shelters were opened.[47] Officials spread warnings to residents in English, Creole, and Spanish via social media, radio, SMS text, and WhatsApp.[48]

On September 5, the Dominican Republic activated the International Charter on Space and Major Disasters, thus providing for humanitarian satellite coverage;[49] the United States and Haiti followed suit two days later.[50][51] According to officials, 11,200 people were evacuated from vulnerable areas prior to the storm's arrival.[52] 7,400 tourists were moved to Santo Domingo, away from beach resorts.[53]

In Haiti, government officials and aid organizations struggled with early preparation and evacuation efforts. While some officials blamed reluctance and indifference on the part of the population, others "admitted they were not prepared for the onslaught and no mandatory evacuation orders were in place ahead of Irma's approach," per The Guardian.[53][54] Local officials contended that they had not received promised funds, supplies, or equipment from the national government. The United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti prepared its 1,000 peacekeepers and engineers to assist.[55]

In The Bahamas, the government began preparations the week prior to the hurricane's arrival, including securing national sports facilities to use as shelters.[56] By September 7, the government had evacuated 1,609 people by air from the southern islands, including 365 from Bimini.[57] Controlled cutting of the power supply to southern and central Bahamian islands was conducted in advance of the storm.[58] Shelters were made available, though usage was low due to most evacuees staying with family on other islands.[59] Of the 2,679 foreign tourists still in The Bahamas on September 7, about 1,200 were being housed at Atlantis Paradise Island, one of the most hurricane-ready structures in the country.[60]

In Cuba, meteorologists did not initially predict a direct hit.[61] Fuel conservation was enacted in Camagüey Province to ensure that enough would be available during post-storm power outages.[62] The Civil Defense evacuated nearly one million people from low-lying areas, including thousands of Canadian and European tourists in the Jardines del Rey.[63][61] Dolphins at a Cayo Guillermo resort were evacuated by helicopter.[61] Subsequent reports indicated that the worst damage was in the northern part of Cuba.[64][65] An estimated ten people had been killed during the storm, including seven in Havana, most during building collapses. Sections of the capital had been flooded. [66] Hurricane Jose was not expected to strike Cuba.[67]

Mainland United States

Florida

'Florida Governor Rick Scott on Evacuations' video from Voice of America
Residents in Doral installing hurricane shutters in advance of the storm
Video of Key West on September 7, (before the storm) showing boarded buildings and empty streets
Miami Beach - Damage caused to dune vegetation in South Beach
Eastbound Interstate 4 on the afternoon of September 9 is filled with evacuating traffic from the Gulf Coast (note the emergency shoulder use by moving traffic)

On September 4, Florida Governor Rick Scott declared a state of emergency for Florida,[68] and placed 100 members of the Florida National Guard on duty to assist in preparations. All 7,000 troops are to be on duty by September 8.[69] Officials advised residents to stock their hurricane kits.[70] Governor Scott suspended tolls on all toll roads in Florida, including Florida's Turnpike, starting at 5:00 p.m. on September 5.[71] All state offices in Florida were closed on September 8.[72] All schools in the Florida Keys were ordered closed from September 6 until further notice. Mandatory evacuations for the islands were expected, with tourists to leave on September 6 and residents the following day; an estimated 25% of residents stayed.[73][74] Schools and colleges were closed in 44 of the state's 67 counties, before Governor Scott ordered all state colleges, universities, schools, and offices to be closed from September 8 to 11.[75]

Light pole with lamp torn away and landing about 50 feet away. Corner of Washington Avenue and Lincoln Lane, Miami Beach

On September 6, the mayor of Fort Lauderdale ordered mandatory evacuations for all residents east of US 1.[76] The city of Tampa, on the west coast of Florida, declared a local state of emergency.[77] The University of Central Florida announced that classes would be canceled from September 7 to 12, and its Orlando campuses closed from September 8 to 11.[78] Shelters were opened in the following counties: Broward, Flagler, Hardee, Hendry, Marion, Palm Beach, and Pasco.[79] At around 15:00 UTC on September 7, a hurricane watch was issued for parts of South Florida, from the Jupiter Inlet to Bonita Beach, including the Florida Keys.[80] At 02:00 UTC, Friday September 8, a hurricane warning was issued for the Florida Keys, extending as far north as Miami.[81] As of 00:51 UTC September 8, the governor ordered all public schools and colleges statewide to be closed Friday and Monday.[82] Most commercial airports, including Fort Lauderdale–Hollywood International Airport, Miami International Airport, and Orlando International Airport, ceased commercial operations by late Saturday.[83] The storm surge was predicted at 10 to 15 ft at Florida's southern tip[84] and above 9 feet along the west coast.[85]

Drexel and 15th Street, view north, Miami Beach

For the fifth time in its 45-year history, the Walt Disney World Resort was completely closed due to the storm. Its theme parks, water parks, and Disney Springs were all closed by 9:00 PM on September 9. Due to Hurricane Irma, the parks will also not open on September 10 and 11. Other Orlando-area theme parks, including Universal Orlando Resort and SeaWorld Orlando, were also closed.[86]

By the evening of September 8, hundreds of thousands of Floridians had evacuated, making it the largest evacuation in the state's history.[76] Evacuees caused significant traffic congestion on northbound Interstate 95, Interstate 75, and Florida's Turnpike, exacerbated by the fact that the entire Florida peninsula was within the cone of uncertainty in the National Hurricane Center's forecast path in the days before the storm, so evacuees from both coasts headed north, as evacuees would not be safer by fleeing to the opposite coast.[87][88][89][90] Fuel was in short supply throughout peninsular Florida during the week before Irma's arrival, especially along evacuation routes, leading to hours-long lines at fuel stations and even escorts of fuel trucks by the Florida Highway Patrol.[87][90][91] Use of the left shoulder as a lane for moving traffic was allowed on northbound Interstate 75 from Wildwood to the Georgia state line (about 150 miles/​250 km) beginning September 8 and on eastbound Interstate 4 from Tampa to State Road 429 near Celebration for a few hours on September 9.[92][93][94][95] It was the first time that the shoulder-use plan, which was introduced at the start of the 2017 hurricane season, was implemented by the state for hurricane evacuations. The shoulder-use plan was implemented in place of labor- and resource-intensive contraflow lane reversal, in which both sides of an interstate highway are used for one direction of traffic.[96][93]

Officials from the Environmental Protection Agency, which had been criticized for its response to Hurricane Harvey, took special measures to inspect and secure hazardous materials, especially at Superfund sites.[97]

Elsewhere

Rite Aid Pharmacy boarded up pre Irma, Valdosta, Georgia

Georgia Governor Nathan Deal declared a state of emergency initially for all six coastal counties on September 6; however, the state of emergency was expanded to cover 30 counties in southeast and east central Georgia, and Governor Deal ordered mandatory evacuations for all areas east of Interstate 95 on September 7. Contraflow lane reversal for Interstate 16 took effect on September 9 at 8:00 a.m. from Savannah to Dublin, Georgia.[98] On September 8, Governor Deal further expanded the state of emergency to cover 94 counties south of the Atlanta metropolitan area, with mandatory evacuations expanded to include the entirety of Chatham County as well as low lying areas west of I-95.[99] In total, 540,000 people on the Georgia coast were ordered to leave.[100] On September 10, the state of emergency for Georgia was extended to cover the entire state, while Atlanta was placed under its first-ever tropical storm warning.[101][74]

All Georgia state parks are open for free to evacuees, as is the 800-acre camping area at Atlanta Motor Speedway.[102] Reversible HOT lanes on Interstate 75 in Georgia through south metro Atlanta are open 24 hours northbound with no tolls.[103]

Video by mayor of Fayetteville, North Carolina Nat Robertson

North Carolina Governor Roy Cooper declared a state of emergency on September 6,[104] with South Carolina Governor Henry McMaster following suit the same day.[105] Governor of Virginia Terry McAuliffe declared a state of emergency on September 8 in order to protect Virginia residents and to mobilize resources in support of neighboring states.[106]

Officials in New Orleans stated that there would not be much time for preparations if Irma failed to make the projected northward turn, but that South Texas or Florida would not be a good evacuation destination.[107] Talladega Superspeedway near Talladega, Alabama, opened their campgrounds to evacuees free of charge.[102]

On September 10, 2017 Tennessee Governor Bill Haslam issued a executive order allowing medical professionals in other states to practice in Tennessee to aid Hurricane Irma evacuees. This order also allowed pharmacies to give out 14 day supplies of medicine and women and children the ability to participate in the Tennessee Department of Health programs. [108]

Sports

In professional sports, the Miami Dolphins–Tampa Bay Buccaneers game scheduled for September 10 at Hard Rock Stadium in Miami was postponed to November 19 due to the storm's threat.[109] The Tampa Bay Rays and New York Yankees had their September 11–13 series moved from Tropicana Field in St. Petersburg to Citi Field, in Queens.[110] Minor League Baseball's Florida State League, Carolina League, and Southern League called off their championship finals and as a result, named their division series winners league co-champions.[111][112][113] Miami FC played a 3-3 tie with New York Cosmos on September 7th at home.[114] Their fixture at San Francisco Deltas on September 10th was cancelled so the players and staff could prepare for the storm with their families.[115] The Orlando Pride of the National Women's Soccer League rescheduled their September 9 match to September 7.[116] Orlando City SC of Major League Soccer did not have any scheduled home games in September, but was unable to return to training in Orlando due to Hurricane Irma.[117]

In college football, the UCF Knights-Memphis Tigers game set to take place at 20:00 EDT on September 9 was cancelled,[118] after originally being moved up by 25.5 hours.[119] The USF Bulls-Connecticut Huskies football game was also cancelled.[120] The Miami Hurricanes–Arkansas State Redwolves game scheduled for September 9 at Centennial Bank Stadium in Arkansas was canceled due to travel concerns for the University of Miami.[121] The Florida Gators-Northern Colorado Bears match in Gainesville, originally scheduled for September 9 was cancelled.[122][123] The Florida State Seminoles contest against the Louisiana–Monroe Warhawks was canceled on September 8.[124] The Seminoles' rivalry game with the Hurricanes in Tallahassee, originally scheduled for the following Saturday, September 16, was postponed three weeks later to October 7. The FIU Panthers game against the Alcorn State Braves was moved up a day and relocated to Legion Field in Birmingham, Alabama.[125] The Georgia Southern Eagles game against the New Hampshire Wildcats on September 9 was also moved to Legion Field for that day.[126]

FEMA funding

As of September 5, FEMA funding was running dangerously low due to its response to Hurricane Harvey in Texas the previous week, prompting the Trump administration to request an immediate $8 billion in additional funding as Irma approaches Florida.[127] With the clip that current funds are being consumed at, the United States Senate almost doubled the requested amount to $15.3 billion, with the understanding that this would only be about 10% of what will be required for the response to Harvey.[128]

Preparations by Google

Google worked with emergency services to deliver information to some of those in the path of Hurricane Irma. Florida Governor Rick Scott announced on September 7 that the state was working with Google's emergency response team to mark closed roads on Google Maps in real time to help with evacuation plans.[129][130] Google also provided real time updates to Hurricane Irma (and other crises) on Google.org in an interactive map published by Google Crisis response.[131]

Impact

Deaths and damage by territory[132]
Territory Fatalities Damage
(2017  USD) 		Ref
Anguilla (UK) 1 $290 million [133]
Barbados 1 — [133]
Barbuda (AG) 3 $215 million [134][133]
British Virgin Islands (UK) 0 $1.4 billion
Cuba 10 $2.2 billion [135][136]
Haiti 1 — [137]
Puerto Rico (US) 3 $800 million [133]
Saint Kitts and Nevis 0 $80 million
Saint Martin and Saint Barthélemy (FR) 11 $2.28 billion [133]
Sint Maarten (NL) 4 $2.5 billion [138]
United States 11 > $20 billion [6][139][140][141]
U.S. Virgin Islands 4 $2.4 billion [133]
Totals: 49 > $30 billion

Hurricane Irma's path was such that its impact was both far-reaching and devastating, with confirmed landfalls in Antigua and Barbuda, Saint Martin, Anguilla, Turks and Caicos, The Bahamas, Cuba, and the United States. Furthermore the size of the storm system meant that destruction was prevalent even in territories well removed from landfall occurrences.

Antigua and Barbuda

The eyewall of the hurricane moved over Barbuda near its record peak intensity during the night of September 5–6;[142] a local anemometer reportedly measured an unofficial gust of 155 mph (250 km/h) before being blown away.[143] Though some reports of structural damage such as blown off roofs surfaced shortly after,[144] the exact state of the island remained unclear for hours after Irma’s passage, as downed phone lines ceased all communication with nearby islands.[32] Later that afternoon, Prime Minister Gaston Browne surveyed the territory by helicopter, revealing an effectively uninhabitable island. Irma damaged or destroyed 95% of the structures on Barbuda, including its hospital, schools and both of its hotels;[145] it completely flattened some residential blocks while submerging others.[146][147] The destruction rendered the island’s sole airport and much of its infrastructure inoperative—including water and telecommunication services—which further hampered relief efforts. Preliminary assessments on Barbuda suggest property damage of at least $150 million. A total of three storm-related deaths have been reported on the island.[134]

Remaining just outside of Irma's strongest windfield, Antigua sustained minimal damage in the form of leveled roofs and fences, downed power poles and lines, and uprooted trees. Some street flooding also took place in low-lying areas.[148] Three people were treated for minor storm-related injuries.[149] Forensic disaster analysts from the Center for Disaster Management and Risk Reduction Technology (CEDIM), a Germany-based risk management agency, estimate that economic losses for Antigua and Barbuda will exceed $120 million.[132]

Saint Martin and Saint Barthélemy

Aerial video of the damage on Saint Martin, September 7, 2017

On the morning of September 6, Irma's center crossed the island of Saint Martin while the storm was near peak intensity, sweeping away entire structures, submerging roads and cars, and triggering an island-wide blackout.[150] Irma's extreme winds ripped trees out of the ground and sent vehicles and debris from damaged structures scattered across the territory.[151] On the French side of Saint-Martin, entire marinas around Marigot were left in ruins, littered with the stranded remnants of boats that had smashed into each other.[151] A hotel caught on fire, but dangerous conditions and impassable roads prevented firefighters from putting out the blaze. Another hotel lost nearly all of its ground floor.[152] Media images depicted devastated room interiors with furniture hurled around after the winds had shattered their windows.[151] Irma killed four people on the French side of the island and injured 50 others, one of whom was in critical condition. As many as 95% of the buildings there were damaged to some degree; 60% of those were totally uninhabitable.[153] Estimates from CEDIM indicate a minimum of $950 million worth of economic losses.[132]

A similar situation unfolded in Sint Maarten, Saint Martin's Dutch half, as intense winds ripped through buildings and lifted vehicles aloft "as if they were matches".[154] The hurricane wreaked havoc on Princess Juliana International Airport, with "huge chunks of the building [strewn] across the runway and a jet bridge snapped in half."[155] It demolished or severely damaged about 70% of Sint Maarten's houses, forcing thousands of residents into public shelters.[156] There were two deaths and 23 injuries, 11 of which were serious, in the Dutch territory.[157] Irma is considered the worst natural disaster to hit Sint Maarten; the extent of its damage far exceeded that of any previous hurricane.[154] Premier William Marlin estimates that at least €1 billion ($1.2 billion) will be necessary to restore the destruction,[158] while disaster analysts from CEDIM predict losses will exceed $1.5 billion. By September 9, 2017, the death count rose to 4 but one died of natural causes.[159]

Irma left widespread destruction and disastrous flooding along its path over the French island of Saint Barthélemy, southeast of Saint Martin. Describing the extent of the destruction, one local compared it to "a bomb that burned all vegetation," while another said that it were as if the hurricane had effectively "erased the island from the map".[160] Violent seas swept away entire coastal establishments, with one hotel being stripped of all but its foundation.[161] Streets in the capital of Gustavia were turned into rushing rivers, which carried away vehicles and pieces of furniture. The island's fire station was inundated with up to 6.4 ft (2.0 m) of flood waters.[161][162] With scores of homes and much of the infrastructure destroyed, the majority of the island's population was left stranded and without water, electricity or phone service.[160] The associated economic losses could exceed $480 million according to CEDIM's analysts.[132]

Preliminary assessments from the French government indicate that Hurricane Irma caused a combined €1.2 billion ($1.44 billion) in insured losses across the French territories of Saint-Martin and Saint Barts. This total covered private property such as homes, vehicles and businesses (including lost revenue);[163] the extent of the damage to infrastructural and public facilities remains undetermined. Nonetheless, this made Irma one of the costliest natural disasters to hit the French Republic in the previous 35 years.[163]

NOAA aircraft flying to the eye of Hurricane Irma on September 5, 2017

Anguilla

The British Overseas Territory of Anguilla had the eye of the storm pass over it on September 6. Many homes and schools were destroyed, and the island's only hospital was badly damaged.[164] The devastation was particularly severe in East End, where the winds uprooted scores of trees and power poles and demolished a number of houses. In The Valley, the island's capital, the hurricane blew out the windows of government buildings. Rough seas inflicted heavy damage upon several bays and harbors, and a seaside restaurant was completely eradicated.[165] About 90% of roads were left impassable.[153] The island's air traffic control tower was damaged, exacerbating the already poor communication with the island.[166] One death was reported on the island.[164] According to CEDIM, Anguilla's economy could suffer at least $190 million in losses from the hurricane.[132]

Rest of the Leeward Islands

Large swells ahead of Irma washed ashore debris and sea life in Castries, Saint Lucia, blocking some roads.[167] One surfer was killed amid rough surf in Barbados after hitting a reef and breaking his neck.[168] The hurricane's effects, such as violent seas and rattling trees, were intense enough to be detected by seismographs in Guadeloupe.[169] Around 8,000 households and a water supply network on that island lost power during the storm, leaving several communes in the dark without running water. Overall damage was limited to trees that were blown onto roads and three unmanned ships wrecked by rough seas.[37]

Saint Kitts and Nevis endured similar conditions. Blustery rainstorms triggered scattered power outages and disabled the island's water system, but per the International Red Cross, the islands were spared the level of destruction seen elsewhere.[170] Still, Prime Minister Timothy Harris stated that property and infrastructure had sustained "significant damage."[54]

The Dutch territories of Saba and Sint Eustatius were also struck by the hurricane's winds, resulting in infrastructural damage, water shortages and telecommunication outages.[165][171] Several houses were left uninhabitable. On Saba, the hurricane also defoliated trees and injured a few people.[165][171] CEDIM's analysts expect economic losses of $20–65 million for the two islands.[132]

Virgin Islands

Damage in the British Virgin Islands was extensive. Numerous buildings and roads were destroyed on the island of Tortola, which bore the brunt of the hurricane's core.[172] Along Cane Garden Bay, the storm surge submerged several seaside bars and a gas station. Satellite images revealed many of the island's residential zones had been left in ruins.[165] The hurricane passed over Necker Island, also causing severe damage and destroying the mansion of Richard Branson.[173]

Irma's effects in the US Virgin Islands were mostly confined to Saint Thomas, where at least 12 inches (305 mm) of rain fell. The island suffered widespread structural damage, including to its police station and airport. Patients from the fourth and third floors of Charlotte Amalie's hospital had to be relocated to lower floors due to flooding from roof leaks. Three deaths were attributed to Irma on the island. On nearby Saint Croix, there were communication issues and some damage to the infrastructure.[165] St. John lost access to ferry and cargo services, along with access to the local airport. Due to its normal reliance on electricity from St. Thomas, the island is without power.[174][175][176][177]

Puerto Rico

Waves in Puerto Rico reached 30 feet (9.1 m) in height;[54] a 111 miles (179 km) per hour gust was measured on Culebra.[178] Two people died due to rainstorms ahead of the hurricane: one man died in Orocovis after falling off his ladder while repairing his roof; another man on the coast in Capitanejo died after being struck by lightning. Three nearby fishermen were burned by the same lightning strike, but survived. Two other people died during the hurricane: a woman died while being evacuated from her house in a wheelchair and fell from the same hitting her head; another person died in a car accident in Canóvanas.[179] In rural Loíza, 79 homes were destroyed.[180] More than a million residents lost power due to damages caused by the storm, according to former Puerto Rican Governor Alejandro García Padilla.[181] Governor Ricardo Rosselló declared the islands of Culebra and Vieques to be disaster areas.[54]

Hispaniola

People stand in a flooded street that usually serves as a farmers market, in Ouanaminthe, northeast Haiti, September 8, 2017.

Although spared a direct hit, both the Dominican Republic and Haiti were negatively affected by high winds and heavy rains. A bridge over the Dajabón River connecting the two countries was broken.[182]

In the Dominican Republic, the fishing community of Nagua sustained damage from waves that destroyed homes. 55,000 soldiers were deployed to affected areas to help with the clean-up efforts.[52] By the evening of September 7, the government had counted 2,721 damaged homes.[53]

In Haiti, flooding one meter deep sat in residential neighborhoods in places like Cap-Haïtien, Ouanaminthe, and Gonaives.[182] Mudslides, destroyed homes, flooded crops, and infrastructure damage were reported in the northern part of the country.[53] The total expanse of the flooding stretched from Môle-Saint-Nicolas in the west to the eastern border with the Dominican Republic.[183]

Turks and Caicos Islands

File:TAC Islands Irma Windstream 2017.png
NOAA's windstream animation in the evening of September 7 when hurricane Irma crossed the Turks and Caicos Islands.

On the evening of September 7, at 7:30 PM AST (23:30 UTC), Hurricane Irma reached the Turks and Caicos Islands. While the eye passed just south of the main islands, crossing over the Ambergris Cays, the most powerful winds on the northern side of the eye swept all of the islands for more than two hours. Communications infrastructure was destroyed.[184][185]

On September 8, Minister of Infrastructure Goldray Ewing confirmed that damage to Providenciales was extensive, with the northwestern neighborhood of Blue Hill being "gone." He estimated that damage on Providenciales alone would total $500 million USD.[186] The hospital in the capital, Cockburn Town, was damaged, but no deaths or injuries have been reported as of yet.[187]

The Bahamas

In the Bahamas, the eye of the storm passed over Duncan Town, the major settlement of the Ragged Islands chain, on September 8. It also passed "almost directly over" Inagua and South Acklins, according to the Bahamas Department of Meteorology.[188]

Damages were largely confined to the southern islands starting the morning of September 8. On Mayaguana and Great Inagua, downed power lines knocked out communications.[189] On Great Inagua, 70% of homes sustained roof damage, and the island's school lost its roof entirely. The Morton Salt Company's signature production facility, one of the major employers in the country, experienced millions of dollars in damages.[190] The Acklins settlement of Salina Point was cut off from the rest of the island by flooding, while Crooked Island had widespread roof damage.[61] In the northern Bahamas, the worst property damage came on September 10 as the outer bands of the system produced tornadic activity on Grand Bahama and Bimini.[191][192]

Irma brought significant economic damages, with international freight shipping being offline for a projected week, and costs for rebuilding supplies being inflated due to demand in the U.S.[193]

Cuba

Costliest Cuban hurricanes
Rank Hurricane Season Damage Refs
1 Irma 2017 $13.2 billion [194]
2 Ike 2008 $7.3 billion [195]
3 Matthew 2016 $2.58 billion [196]
4 Gustav 2008 $2.1 billion [195]
5 Michelle 2001 $2 billion [197]
Sandy 2012 [198]
7 Dennis 2005 $1.5 billion [199]
8 Ivan 2004 $1.2 billion [200]
9 Charley 2004 $923 million [200]
10 Wilma 2005 $700 million [201]

Late on September 8, Irma reintensified into a Category 5 hurricane and made landfall on the Camagüey Archipelago off the northern coast of Cuba, with maximum sustained winds of 160 mph (260 km/h).[202][203]

The weather station at Esmeralda, Camagüey was damaged, with the wind gauge destroyed.[100] According to The New York Times, northern Cuba experienced "waves more than 16 feet high, and damage to hospitals, factories and warehouses."[61]

By late morning on September 9, Irma had weakened to a Category 3 due to the Cuban topography but continued to cause significant damage. The tourist areas of Cayo Coco, Cayo Guillermo and Cayo Santa María and the nearby town of Caibarién received the brunt of the storm, with waves rolling through town and the characteristic one-story homes completely flooded. Flooding worsened as the hurricane moved west, pushing the storm surge along to the regions around Havana.[204] By the afternoon, limited flooding was occurring in Havana, including around the Malecón. Widespread destruction of housing was reported in the provinces of Ciego de Ávila and Villa Clara.[61] In the city of Santa Clara, 39 buildings collapsed.[205] Overall, Irma is estimated to have caused at least $2.2 billion (2017 USD) in damage and at least 10 deaths across the country.[136][135]

Mainland United States

Before Irma made landfall in the United States, government officials gave warnings that the impact would be very devastating, but were later proven wrong. After surveying the damage, Florida governor Rick Scott said "I thought we would see more damage."[206]


Florida

Waves in Key West on September 9, before the storm

One death occurred during preparations when a man fell off a ladder while installing hurricane shutters in Davie.[207] Another death occurred in a traffic accident in tropical storm force winds in Monroe County.[208]

After crossing the Straits of Florida and being upgraded to a Category 4 hurricane, initial landfall took place at Cudjoe Key at 9:10 a.m. EDT on September 10,[209][210] where an estimated 10 ft (3 m) storm surge occurred during the afternoon.[211] Second landfall was made, as a Category 3 hurricane, at Marco Island at 3:35 p.m. EDT the same day.[212] A 7 ft (2.1 m) storm surge occurred in Naples, which Irma passed over as a Category 2 hurricane after being downgraded at 5 p.m. EDT.[213][214][215] Part of Tampa Bay (at Hillsborough Bay) was drained by the storm's pressure differential, prior to the arrival of the eye of the hurricane.[216] Sarasota Bay was also drained, resulting in the stranding of two manatees which were then rescued.[217][218] The hurricane was downgraded to Category 1, prior to reaching Tampa.[219]

A wind gust of 109 mph (175 km/h) was recorded in Pembroke Pines.[220] In Miami, storm surge inundated Brickell Avenue with waist-deep water,[220] and two high-rise tower cranes collapsed.[221] A further construction crane collapsed in Fort Lauderdale.[222] There were sporadic reports of looting and burglaries at several Miami Metro area businesses with the theft of non-essential items such as sports apparel and athletic shoes during the height of the storm.[223][224] In Jacksonville, flooding surpassed the record set by Hurricane Dora.[225]

As of 1:00 p.m. EDT, on September 10, almost 730,000 customers were without power in Miami-Dade County alone, with almost 500,000 without power in Broward County, over 225,000 out in Palm Beach County, and in total approximately 1,572,000 customers were without power across the state.[226] As of 6:41 p.m. EDT on September 10 over 2.6 million homes in Florida were without power.[227] Air traffic was reduced; at one point on September 10 there were no airliners over Florida.[228]

Georgia

Three deaths were reported across the state due to falling trees and debris.[229] On Tybee Island, storm surge caused extensive flooding.[230]

South Carolina

In Charleston, the third highest storm surge on record was recorded, reaching a height of approximately 10 ft (3 m).[231] One death was reported in the state due to a falling tree limb.[229]

Aftermath

In the immediate aftermath of Hurricane Irma's path through the West Indies and Caribbean, the devastation to roads, harbors and airports significantly impeded the transportation and distribution of relief supplies. Foreign countries moved to provide much of the initial aid. The British, Dutch, French, and United States governments sent warships and planes with supplies and manpower to the region.[52][232] International leaders, including Dutch King Willem-Alexander and French President Emmanuel Macron, quickly moved to visit affected territories.[233][234]

Some of the affected countries and territories also offered assistance to each other. Cuba, which sustained extensive damage from the storm, sent 750 health workers to Antigua and Barbuda, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, The Bahamas, Dominica, and Haiti.[235] Government officials and civilian volunteers in Puerto Rico delivered assistance and evacuated people stranded on other islands. The U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services granted special 30-day humanitarian visas for British Virgin Islanders to stay in Puerto Rico.[236]

Antigua and Barbuda

In response to Hurricane Jose's approach, the Government of Antigua and Barbuda issued a mandatory evacuation on September 9 for any remaining residents on Barbuda. A Miami cargo plane landed on Antigua later that day, carrying over 60 tons (120,000 lbs) of relief supplies for the displaced storm victims—including bottled water, canned food and power generators.[237]

British Overseas Territories

A UK Royal Logistics Corp landing raft delivers emergency relief to Anguilla
British Secretary of State for International Development Priti Patel being briefed by her staff on the hurricane

RFA Mounts Bay stationed itself near Anguilla and provided support and relief work to the island with its helicopters and 40 marines and army engineers.[164] The ship delivered 6 tonnes of emergency aid to Anguilla and army engineers repaired a fuel leak at Anguilla's main petrol dump, restored power to the island's hospital and provided shelters for those left homeless by the hurricane.[238] The ship arrived in the British Virgin Islands on September 8, 2017 to provide emergency relief to the islands.[238] HMS Ocean was diverted from the Mediterranean to provide relief from Gibraltar to the affected British Overseas Territories of Anguilla, British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos on September 7, 2017,[239] and aid is also being supplied by the Department for International Development from their disaster response centre at Kemble Airfield. As part of a £32 million operation named Operation Ruman, nearly 500 UK military personnel with emergency relief were dispatched from RAF Brize Norton.[240] The British government also drafted 2 members of the UK police calibre in to the region on September 10, 2017 and 53 police officers are to be drafted from RAF Brize Norton to the affected British Overseas Territories on September 15, 2017 to help maintain order.[241][242] UK politicians, including the chairs of the foreign affairs and development select committees, criticized both the government's preparations for the storm and its response as inadequate.[243][244]

The Bahamas

By the afternoon of September 9, Bahamas Power and Light Company had dispatched crews across the archipelago to repair infrastructure damage. The southernmost islands, which were most severely affected by Irma's eye, remained largely inaccessible and could not be given an initial assessment.[245] Bahamasair resumed a limited domestic schedule on September 10, with international flights still cancelled due to existing and anticipated destruction at other destinations.[246]

The worst devastation occurred on Ragged Island, over which Irma's eye had directly passed. After days of the National Emergency Management Agency not being able to physically reach the island, officials were finally able to arrive; they promptly declared it uninhabitable.[247][248] Prime Minister Hubert Minnis said that it was the worst disaster area he or his officials had ever seen, and that all remaining residents would need to leave, potentially permanently.[247][249]

On Grand Bahama and Bimini, where tornadoes associated with Irma touched down on September 10, more than 100 people were left displaced. Infrastructure damage included docks, parks, and the power system.[192]

Cuba

Swollen rivers contributed to worsening flooding in the days after the storm system left, resulting in additional evacuations. Officials resorted to using inflatable rafts to access affected areas. The national electrical infrastructure was said to be extensively damaged.[205]

Hispaniola

In the Dominican Republic, flooding worsened following Irma's departure, leading the number of displaced persons to increase to more than 24,000 by September 8. President Danilo Medina ordered further evacuations due to at-risk dams, while the government banned swimming in rivers and ordered boats kept in port.[250]

In Haiti, officials stated that losses were greater than they could have been since people largely did not heed early preparation and evacuation warnings.[53] The trash- and waste-contaminated floodwaters in places like Cap-Haïtien, Ouanaminthe, and Gonaives led to fears of cholera outbreaks.[182] Flooding continued to worsen days after the storm, as runoff from the mountains swelled rivers in low-lying farming communities. United Nations peacekeepers from Brazil were able to gain access to the flooded northwest region to provide urgent aid, but non-governmental organizations and Haitian economists warned that the estimated 30,000 victims would need longer-term assistance as well. Prime Minister Jack Guy Lafontant appointed a government commission to address Irma's effects, with Action Against Hunger in charge of humanitarian coordination.[183]

Puerto Rico

By September 9, more than one million Puerto Ricans were still without power, tens of thousands were without water, and several thousand were still in shelters. Hospitals were operating on generator power. The government was struggling to establish contact with the islands of Culebra and Vieques.[54]

By September 10, the main island had recovered enough to serve as a refuge for people stranded on other islands, including 1,200 tourists from Saint Martin and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Airlifts had brought more than 50 patients to Puerto Rico.[236]

Saint Martin

Damage to Sint Maarten's harbour and to Princess Juliana International Airport left the Dutch part of Saint Martin unreachable, although the small airport on the French side could be reopened by September 7 for supply aid by helicopter and airplane.[251] The following day, the Dutch military was able to airlift dialysis patients off the island while also dropping leaflets to warn islanders about the rapidly approaching Hurricane Jose. Although the airport was closed, 435 students and faculty of the American University of the Caribbean were evacuated by the US military.[252] On September 10, Dutch King Willem-Alexander departed for the region, with intentions to visit Sint Maarten and other affected Dutch territories and commonwealth members.[233]

French President Emmanuel Macron followed this announcement by stating his intentions to visit the French part of the island on September 12 in order to bring aid supplies. In response to criticism of the French handling of the disaster, 1,000 troops, police, and other emergency workers were sent to Saint Martin and Saint Barthélemy.[234]

On both sides of Saint Martin, desperate conditions combined with food and water shortages in Irma's aftermath led to reports of violence, scavenging, and theft. In response, the French government increased its troop deployment to 2,200 and the Dutch government sent more than 600 military and police personnel.[243][253]

Florida

On September 11, Florida Governor Rick Scott conducted an aerial tour to survey the damage to the Keys. The Overseas Highway remained closed while authorities assessed the integrity of the 42 bridges along the route.[254] Residents returning to the Keys were faced with a police roadblock, to the south of Florida City.[255][256] On the morning of September 12, some residents were allowed to return into the Keys as far as Islamorada. Although road damage blocked entry any further than Islamorada, bridges had been inspected and found safe to Sugarloaf Key.[257]

U.S. Virgin Islands

By September 7, the USS Wasp amphibious assault ship had arrived in the U.S. Virgin Islands to provide supplies, damage assessment, and evacuation assistance. Four additional warships, some of which had already been on their way to Texas to assist with Hurricane Harvey relief, were redirected to the region.[232] Residents and tourists alike were described as being in a state of traumatic shock.[205]

At a September 10 news conference, Governor Kenneth Mapp described Irma as a "horrific disaster" for which "[t]here will be no restorations or solutions in days or weeks." The Federal Emergency Management Agency airlifted in goods for residents, who were subjected to a curfew. Norwegian Cruise Lines and Royal Caribbean Cruise Line agreed to transport tourists to Florida, contingent upon port availability following the state's own experience with Irma.[258]

Environmental factors

Climate change

See also: Tropical cyclone § Climate change

Scientists point out that global warming contributes to warmer ocean waters and more moist air for rain.[259] Because of sea level rise it is assumed that the storm surge of Irma and other storms will cause greater flooding to vulnerable areas.[260][259] Data collected by NASA shows ocean surface temperatures in the path of Irma are above 30 °C (86 °F), capable of sustaining a Category 5 hurricane.[261]

The Atlantic Multi-Decadal Oscillation is a long-term cycle in the Atlantic that affects hurricane-forming conditions and is currently in a state that is associated with good hurricane conditions.[262] The warm sea surface temperatures of the Atlantic, along with weak vertical wind shear have made it more favorable for hurricanes to form and strengthen. Previous years of this occurring include 2005 and 2010, which had very active hurricane seasons.[citation needed]

Records

Most intense landfalling tropical cyclones in the United States
Intensity is measured solely by central pressure
Rank System Season Landfall pressure
1 "Labor Day" 1935 892 mbar (hPa)
2 Camille 1969 900 mbar (hPa)
Yutu 2018
4 Michael 2018 919 mbar (hPa)
5 Katrina 2005 920 mbar (hPa)
Maria 2017
7 Andrew 1992 922 mbar (hPa)
8 "Indianola" 1886 925 mbar (hPa)
9 "Guam" 1900 926 mbar (hPa)
10 "Florida Keys" 1919 927 mbar (hPa)
Source: HURDAT,[263] Hurricane
Research Division[264]

When Irma reached Category 5 intensity with winds of 175 mph (280 km/h) at 11:45 UTC on September 5 at 57.7°W,[22] it became the easternmost Atlantic hurricane of this strength on record, surpassing Hurricane David of 1979.[265] By 00:15 UTC on September 6, Irma reached peak intensity with 185 mph (295 km/h) winds and a minimum pressure of 914 mbar (914 hPa; 27.0 inHg). This ties it as the second-strongest Atlantic hurricane by wind speed, surpassed only by Allen of 1980 which reached wind speeds of 190 mph (305 km/h). Irma sustained these 185 mph (295 km/h) winds for 37 hours, becoming the only tropical cyclone worldwide to have had winds that speed for that long, breaking the previous record of 24 hours set by Typhoon Haiyan of 2013.[266] Its intensity was such as to register on seismographs in Guadeloupe.[267] Only four other Atlantic hurricanes have been recorded with wind speeds of 185 mph (295 km/h) or higher: Wilma of 2005, the 1935 Labor Day hurricane, Hurricane Allen of 1980, and Hurricane Gilbert of 1988.[268] Upon reaching peak intensity, Irma also became the strongest hurricane ever recorded in the Atlantic basin outside the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico,[269] as well as the strongest Atlantic hurricane since Wilma in terms of maximum sustained winds, and the most intense in terms of pressure since Dean in 2007.[270] In addition, Irma achieved one of the longest durations of Category 5 strength winds,[271] and the third-highest Accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) index for a tropical cyclone in the Atlantic basin, with a value of 67.5.[272] Only the 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane and Hurricane Ivan in 2004 achieved higher values.[273]

On September 6, Irma made landfall on the islands of Barbuda, Saint Barthelemy, Saint Martin, Ginger Island, and Tortola at peak strength. This made Irma the third-strongest tropical cyclone to make landfall globally – in terms of sustained winds – along with the 1935 Labor Day hurricane and Typhoon Joan of 1959, trailing only typhoons Haiyan of 2013 and Meranti of 2016, which bore winds of 190 mph (310 km/h) at landfall. Irma is tied with the 1935 Labor Day hurricane as the strongest landfalling cyclone on record in the Atlantic basin, and is the first of Category 5 hurricane to make landfall anywhere in the Atlantic since Felix in 2007.[274] Irma is the first recorded Category 5 hurricane to affect the northern Leeward Islands, and was one of the worst storms to hit the region on record, along with Hurricane Donna in 1960 and Hurricane Luis in 1995. In addition, Irma was only the second hurricane on record to make landfall in Cuba at Category 5 intensity, with the other being a hurricane in 1924.[270]

Irma made landfall in the Florida Keys with winds of 130 mph (215 km/h) and a pressure of 929 mbar (hPa; 27.43 inHg), making it the strongest hurricane to strike Florida in terms of windspeed since Charley in 2004, and the most intense to strike the state in terms of barometric pressure since Andrew in 1992. In the span of two weeks, two Category 4 hurricanes—Harvey and Irma—struck the continental United States, the first time on record two Atlantic tropical cyclones of such strength made landfall on the country in the same hurricane season.[275][276] This also marked only the third occurrence of two consecutive Atlantic storms making landfall in the United States as major hurricanes. The other two instances were the Great Charleston/Cheniere Caminada hurricanes in 1893 and hurricanes Ivan/Jeanne in 2004.[273] Furthermore, Irma's intensity at its U.S. landfall ties it with the aforementioned Harvey as the strongest U.S. landfalling hurricane in terms of windspeed since Charley in 2004, and the most intense U.S. landfalling hurricane in terms of pressure since Katrina in 2005.

See also

  • List of Category 5 Atlantic hurricanes
    • Hurricane Matthew (2016) – Caused damage and deaths in Haiti, before moving to The Bahamas and then skimming the coastline of Florida, before moving up the coast.
    • Hurricane Hugo (1989) – Only other known storm to reach Category 5 intensity east of the Leeward Islands.
    • Hurricane Andrew (1992) – the last Category 5 hurricane to strike Florida
    • "Labor Day" (1935) – Most intense hurricane to make landfall in the United States.
  • Hurricane Harvey (2017) – A Category 4 hurricane (and the first major one to land in the U.S. in 12 years) which devastated Texas two weeks prior to Irma.
  • Hurricane Luis (1995) – very damaging and powerful hurricane that caused severe impacts in the northern Lesser Antilles
  • Hurricane Marilyn (1995) – caused destruction as a rapidly intensifying hurricane in the northern Leeward Islands, which had been affected by Luis shortly beforehand
  • Hurricane Donna (1960) – brushed the Lesser Antilles, before hitting the Florida Keys in early September at Category 4 intensity and travelling up the East Coast of the United States.

Notes

Footnotes

References

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