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{{main|erucic acid}}
{{main|erucic acid}}
Though wild rapeseed oil contains significant amounts of erucic acid,<ref>{{broken doi|10.1007/BF02672436}}</ref> a known toxin,<ref name=Hayes>{{cite book | last = Hayes | first = AW | title = Principles and methods of toxicology (5th ed.) | publisher = [[Taylor & Francis]] | location = Boston, MA | year = 2007 | isbn = 1560328142}}</ref> the [[cultivar]] used to produce commercial, food-grade canola oil was [[plant breeding|bred]] to contain less than than 5% erucic acid, levels that are not believed to cause harm in humans<ref name=CFR21/><ref>{{cite journal | author = The Commission of the European Communities | url = http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31980L0891:EN:HTML | title = Commission Directive 80/891/EEC of 25 July 1980 relating to the Community method of analysis for determining the erucic acid content in oils and fats intended to be used as such for human consumption and foodstuffs containing added oils or fats| journal = EurLex Official Journal | volume = 254 | year = 1980 }}</ref> and no health effects have been associated with its consumption by humans.<ref name=Hayes/> Though an e-mail hoax has been circulated alleging canola oil can cause dangerous health problems, there is no reason to believe canola oil poses unusual health risks and its consumption in food-grade forms is [[generally recognized as safe]] by the [[United States Food and Drug Administration]].<ref name=Mayo>{{Cite web| last = Zeratsky| first = Katherine| authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 2009| url = http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/canola-oil/AN01281 | title = Canola Oil: Does it Contain Toxins? | work = | publisher = Mayo Clinic| accessdate =2010-02-19}}</ref><ref name=CFR21>U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, [http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=184.1555 CFR - Code of Federal Regulations Title 21] April 1, 2010,</ref><ref>{{Cite web| last = Mikkleson | first = Barbara and David P. | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 2005 | url = http://www.snopes.com/medical/toxins/canola.asp | title = Urban Legends Reference Pages: Canola Oil and Rape Seed | work = | publisher = [[Snopes]] | accessdate = 2007-10-20}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web| last = Edell | first = Dean | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 1999 | url = http://www.healthcentral.com/drdean/408/16307.html | title = Canola Oil: Latest Internet Hoax Victim | work = | publisher = Healthcentral.com| accessdate = 2007-10-20}}</ref>
Though wild rapeseed oil contains significant amounts of erucic acid,<ref>{{broken doi|10.1007/BF02672436}}</ref> a known toxin,<ref name=Hayes>{{cite book | last = Hayes | first = AW | title = Principles and methods of toxicology (5th ed.) | publisher = [[Taylor & Francis]] | location = Boston, MA | year = 2007 | isbn = 1560328142}}</ref> the [[cultivar]] used to produce commercial, food-grade canola oil was [[plant breeding|bred]] to contain less than than 5% erucic acid, levels that are not believed to cause harm in humans<ref name=CFR21/><ref>{{cite journal | author = The Commission of the European Communities | url = http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31980L0891:EN:HTML | title = Commission Directive 80/891/EEC of 25 July 1980 relating to the Community method of analysis for determining the erucic acid content in oils and fats intended to be used as such for human consumption and foodstuffs containing added oils or fats| journal = EurLex Official Journal | volume = 254 | year = 1980 }}</ref> and no health effects have been associated with its consumption by humans.<ref name=Hayes/> Though an e-mail hoax has been circulated alleging canola oil can cause dangerous health problems, there is no reason to believe canola oil poses unusual health risks and its consumption in food-grade forms is [[generally recognized as safe]] by the [[United States Food and Drug Administration]].<ref name=Mayo>{{Cite web| last = Zeratsky| first = Katherine| authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 2009| url = http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/canola-oil/AN01281 | title = Canola Oil: Does it Contain Toxins? | work = | publisher = Mayo Clinic| accessdate =2010-02-19}}</ref><ref name=CFR21>U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, [http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=184.1555 CFR - Code of Federal Regulations Title 21] April 1, 2010,</ref><ref>{{Cite web| last = Mikkleson | first = Barbara and David P. | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 2005 | url = http://www.snopes.com/medical/toxins/canola.asp | title = Urban Legends Reference Pages: Canola Oil and Rape Seed | work = | publisher = [[Snopes]] | accessdate = 2007-10-20}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web| last = Edell | first = Dean | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 1999 | url = http://www.healthcentral.com/drdean/408/16307.html | title = Canola Oil: Latest Internet Hoax Victim | work = | publisher = Healthcentral.com| accessdate = 2007-10-20}}</ref>

==Health Reasearch==
{{POV-section|date=November 2010}}
[[Erucic acid]] (cis-1,3-docosanoic acid) is predominantly a component of rape ([[Brassica napus]] and B. camestris) and mustard (B. hirta and B. juncea) seeds.<ref name=Hayes>Andrew Wallace Hayes, "Principles and methods of toxicology", Fifth edition. Taylor and Francis: Boston, MA, 2007. ISBN 1560328142.</ref> Rapeseed oil contains up to 45% [[erucic acid]].<ref>M. R. Sahasrabudhe."Crismer values and erucic acid contents of rapeseed oils ", Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society,54:8,p323-324, DOI=10.1007/BF02672436</ref> Food grade rapeseed oil (also known as canola oil, rapeseed 00 oil, low [[erucic acid]] rapeseed oil, LEAR oil, and rapeseed canola-equivalent oil) is limited by government regulation to a maximum of 2% [[erucic acid]] by weight in the USA<ref name=CFR21/> and 5% in the EU,<ref>The Commission of the European Communities, [http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31980L0891:EN:HTML Commission Directive 80/891/EEC of 25 July 1980 relating to the Community method of analysis for determining the erucic acid content in oils and fats intended to be used as such for human consumption and foodstuffs containing added oils or fats] "EurLex Official Journal", 254 , 27/09/1980 P. 0035 - 0041</ref> with special regulations for infant food.

Commercial [[canola]] oil (low erucic acid content rapeseed oil) has been shown to contain unlabeled [[Cooking oil#Trans fats|trans fats]].<ref>Sean O'Keefe, Sarah Gaskins-Wright, Virginia Wiley, I-Chen Chen. "Levels of trans geometrical isomers of essential fatty acids in some hydrogentated U.S. vegetable oils", 1994, Journal of Food Lipids, 1(3),165,170,.</ref> "Trans isomers of α-linolenic acid, which are formed by deodorization of refined vegetable oils, can be found in significant amounts in edible oils."<ref name=TransLineE>Susanne H. F. Vermunt, Bernard Beaufrere, Rudolph A. Riemersma, Jean-Louis Sebedio, Jean-Michel Chardigny, Ronald P. Mensink and the TransLinE investigators. "Dietary trans α-linolenic acid from deodorised rapeseed oil and plasma lipids and lipoproteins in healthy men: the TransLinE Study", British Journal of Nutrition (2001), 85, 387-392.</ref> The type and amount of trans fatty acids is affected by different degrees of heating during deodorization.<ref name=OKeffe166>Sean O'Keefe, Sarah Gaskins-Wright, Virginia Wiley, I-Chen Chen. "Levels of trans geometrical isomers of essential fatty acids in some hydrogentated U.S. vegetable oils", 1994, Journal of Food Lipids, 1(3),166.</ref> Types and levels of trans fatty acids similar to those that have been found in processed canola have been shown to raise LDL cholesterol levels in humans in just six weeks.<ref name="TransLineE"/> In 1994, seven samples of canola oil sold to consumers in the USA, from six different companies,<ref name=OKeffe166/> had from 0.75% to 4.16% unlabeled trans-fats with an average of 2.08%<ref name=OKeefeTable>Sean O'Keefe, Sarah Gaskins-Wright, Virginia Wiley, I-Chen Chen. "Levels of trans geometrical isomers of essential fatty acids in some hydrogentated U.S. vegetable oils", 1994, Journal of Food Lipids, 1(3),170.</ref> Soybean oil samples ranged from 0.56% to 2.82% with an average of 1.68% trans fats.<ref name=OKeefeTable/> Canola oil contains trans a-linolenic acid from deodorization, and the health effects of that were unknown in 2000.<ref name="TransLineE"/> A study was therefore performed to determine possible health effects.<ref name="TransLineE"/> "In conclusion, our present study suggests that a high, but not unrealistic intake of trans a-linolenic acid, which is formed during oil processing, may influence the total cholesterol:HDL-cholesterol ratio in an unfavourable way by elevating LDL-cholesterol levels."<ref name="TransLineE"/> These effects were noted after only three weeks of the study.<ref name="TransLineE"/> However, total plasma cholesterol and and HDL-cholesterol were not effected unfavorably.<ref name="TransLineE"/> The study did not establish that the elevation in LDL-cholesterol actually increases the risk of coronary heart disease.<ref name="TransLineE"/>

A possible connection has been found between [[erucic acid]] (found in canola oil) and [[autism]]. "The main findings include increased levels of ... [[erucic acid]] ... Our results .... suggest some metabolic or dietary abnormalities in the regressive form of autism." <ref>Bu B, Ashwood P, Harvey D, King IB, Water JV, Jin LW. "Fatty acid compositions of red blood cell phospholipids in children with autism." Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2006 Apr;74(4):215-21.</ref>

In 1981, over 25,000 people got sick, and hundreds died, of Toxic Oil Syndrome (TOS) from eating illegally sold low erucic acid rapeseed oil with traces of aniline or oleoanilides.<ref name=AmHeJo>Thomas N. James MD, Manuel Posada-de la Paz MD, Ignacio Abaitua-Borda MD, M. Angel Gomez-Sanchez MD, Francisco J. Martinez-Tello MD and Luis B. Soldevilla MD. "Histologic abnormalities of large and small coronary arteries, neural structures, and the conduction system of the heart found in postmortem studies of individuals dying from the toxic oil syndrome". American Heart Journal, March 1991, 121:3:1, p. 803-815</ref><ref name=ClinCard>T. N. James. "The toxic oil syndrome". Clinical Cardiology, 17, p. 463-470</ref> 18 years later, a study of those who had eaten the oil found neurological disorders.<ref name=EnHePe>"Neurologic Outcomes of Toxic Oil Syndrome Patients 18 Years after the Epidemic". Environmental Health Perspectives. 2003, August; 111(10), p. 1326-1334</ref> Dr. Thomas M. James MD, president of the International Society and Federation of Cardiology,<ref name=obit>T.J. Aulds. "Galveston: Former UTMB president Dr. Thomas James dies". [[http://www.khou.com/news/health/Galveston-Former-UTMB-president-Dr-James-dies-102769859.html KHOU.com Health News: Galveston: Former UTMB president Dr. Thomas James dies]] The Galveston County Daily News, September 13, 2010.</ref> and others<ref name=AmHeJo/> argued in both the American Heart Journal<ref name=AmHeJo/> and in Clinical Cardiology<ref name=ClinCard/> that TOS was caused primarily by rapeseed oil, in combination with unknown factors, possibly the traces of aniline.<ref name=AmHeJo/><ref name=ClinCard/> He notes that cardiac lesions and other symptoms found in toxic oil syndrome have been caused by low erucic acid rapeseed oil in experimental animals.<ref name=ClinCard/> He also points out that aniline and related compounds are often found in medicines, and some people eating rapeseed / canola oil are likely to combine these substances by chance.<ref name=ClinCard/> These researchers conclude: "Based upon observations by others with experimental feeding of rapeseed oil containing either high or low erucic acid, we suggest that this oil must remain a major suspected cause of the toxic oil syndrome, particularly in conjunction with some as yet unexplained facilitative influence by oleoanilids. If this is so, it is important to reconsider the widely recommended use of any rapeseed oil product as a suitable food for man or other animals."<ref name=AmHeJo/><ref name=ClinCard/> However, the role of rapeseed oil itself in toxic oil syndrome is unproven and controversial.<ref name=ClinCard466>T. N. James. "The toxic oil syndrome". Clinical Cardiology, 17, p. 463-470, p. 466</ref> Researchers now strongly suspect that Toxic Oil Syndrome is an autoimmune disease triggered by some byproduct of oil refining whose identity is not certain.<ref>Emilio Gelpí, Manuel Posada de la Paz, Benedetto Terracini, Ignacio Abaitua, Agustín Gómez de la Cámara, Edwin M. Kilbourne, Carlos Lahoz, Bénoit Nemery, Rossanne M. Philen,Luis Soldevilla, Stanislaw Tarkowski. "The Spanish Toxic Oil Syndrome 20 Years after Its Onset: A Multidisciplinary Review of Scientific Knowledge". Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol. 110, No. 5 (May, 2002), pp. 457-464</ref><ref>Julia R. Barrett. "Toxic Oil Timeline Diagnosing Effects Decades Later". Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol. 111, No. 10 (Aug., 2003), p. A538</ref>

Rats fed both [[erucic acid]] (both 0.5% and 5%) and the cancer drug [[doxorubicin]] had a significant death rate, but rats did not die from either erucic acid or doxorubicin alone.<ref name=ClinExpMed>Evin Bozcali Öner Süzer, Hatice Nilüfer Gürsoy, Pinar Atukeren, Koray M Gümüstas. "Effects of erucic acid supplemented feeding on chronic doxorubucin toxicity in rats". Int J Clin Exp Med. 2009, 2, p. 337-347, p. 341</ref> The authors could not assign the cause of the deaths to cardiotoxicity of erucic acid; although there was severe cardiac injury<ref name=ClinExpMed342>Evin Bozcali Öner Süzer, Hatice Nilüfer Gürsoy, Pinar Atukeren, Koray M Gümüstas. "Effects of erucic acid supplemented feeding on chronic doxorubucin toxicity in rats". Int J Clin Exp Med. 2009, 2, p. 337-347, p. 342</ref> other possibilities were [[renal]] toxicity of erucic acid interacting with renal toxicity of doxorubicin<ref name=ClinExpMed342/> and [[Hematology|hemotological toxicity]] of erucic acid as demonstrated in the feeding of canola oil to piglets.<ref name=ClinExpMed344>Evin Bozcali Öner Süzer, Hatice Nilüfer Gürsoy, Pinar Atukeren, Koray M Gümüstas. "Effects of erucic acid supplemented feeding on chronic doxorubucin toxicity in rats". Int J Clin Exp Med. 2009, 2, p. 337-347, p. 344</ref>


==Genetic modification==
==Genetic modification==

Revision as of 23:53, 5 November 2010

For other uses, see Canola oil (disambiguation).
Bottle of canola cooking oil

Canola is one of two cultivars of rapeseed or Brassica campestris (Brassica napus L. and B. campestris L.).[1] Their seeds are used to produce edible oil that is fit for human consumption because it has lower levels of erucic acid than traditional rapeseed oils and to produce livestock feed because it has reduced levels of the toxic glucosinolates.[2] Canola was originally naturally bred from rapeseed in Canada by Keith Downey and Baldur R. Stefansson in the early 1970s,[3][4] but it has a very different nutritional profile in addition to much less erucic acid.[5] The name "canola" was derived from "Canadian oil, low acid" in 1978.[6][7] A product known as LEAR (for low erucic acid rapeseed) derived from cross-breeding of multiple lines of Brassica juncea is also referred to as canola oil and is considered safe for consumption.[8]

History

Close up of canola blooms.
Canola field in Temora, New South Wales

Once considered a specialty crop in Canada, canola has become a major North American cash crop. Canada and the United States produce between 7 and 10 million tonnes of canola seed per year. Annual Canadian exports total 3 to 4 million tonnes of the seed, 800,000 tonnes of canola oil and 1 million tonnes of canola meal. The United States is a net consumer of canola oil. The major customers of canola seed are Japan, Mexico, China and Pakistan, while the bulk of canola oil and meal goes to the United States, with smaller amounts shipped to Mexico, China, and Europe. World production of rapeseed oil in the 2002–2003 season was about 14 million metric tons.[9]

Canola was developed through conventional plant breeding from rapeseed, an oilseed plant already used in ancient civilization. The word "rape" in rapeseed comes from the Latin word "rapum," meaning turnip. Turnip, rutabaga, cabbage, Brussels sprouts, mustard and many other vegetables are related to the two canola varieties commonly grown, which are cultivars of Brassica napus and Brassica rapa. The negative associations due to the homophone "rape" resulted in creation of the more marketing-friendly name "Canola". The change in name also serves to distinguish it from regular rapeseed oil, which has much higher erucic acid content.

Hundreds of years ago, Asians and Europeans used rapeseed oil in lamps. The Chinese and Indians used a form of canola oil that was unrefined (natural).[10] As time progressed, people employed it as a cooking oil and added it to foods. Its use was limited until the development of steam power, when machinists found rapeseed oil clung to water- or steam-washed metal surfaces better than other lubricants. World War II saw high demand for the oil as a lubricant for the rapidly increasing number of steam engines in naval and merchant ships. When the war blocked European and Asian sources of rapeseed oil, a critical shortage developed and Canada began to expand its limited rapeseed production.

After the war, demand declined sharply and farmers began to look for other uses for the plant and its products. Edible rapeseed oil extracts were first put on the market in 1956–1957, but these suffered from several unacceptable characteristics. Rapeseed oil had a distinctive taste and a disagreeable greenish colour due to the presence of chlorophyll. It also contained a high concentration of erucic acid. Experiments on animals have pointed to the possibility that erucic acid, consumed in large quantities, may cause heart damage, though Indian researchers have published findings that call into question these conclusions and the implication that the consumption of mustard or rapeseed oil is dangerous.[11][12][13][14][15] Feed meal from the rapeseed plant was not particularly appealing to livestock, due to high levels of sharp-tasting compounds called glucosinolates.

Plant breeders in Canada, where rapeseed had been grown (mainly in Saskatchewan) since 1936, worked to improve the quality of the plant. In 1968 Dr. Baldur Stefansson of the University of Manitoba used selective breeding to develop a variety of rapeseed low in erucic acid. In 1974 another variety was produced low in both erucic acid and glucosinolates; it was named Canola, from Canadian oil, low acid.

A variety developed in 1998 is considered to be the most disease- and drought-resistant variety of Canola to date. This and other recent varieties have been produced by using genetic engineering.

An Oregon State University researcher has determined that growing winter canola for hybrid seed appears possible in central Oregon, USA. Canola is the highest-producing oil-seed crop, but the state prohibits it from being grown in Deschutes, Jefferson and Crook counties because it may attract bees away from specialty seed crops such as carrots, which require bees for pollination.

Canola was originally a trademark but is now a generic term for this variety of oil. In Canada, an official definition of canola is codified in Canadian law.[16]

Canola oil

Canola oil is made at a processing facility by crushing the rapeseed. Approximately 42% of a seed is oil. What remains is rapeseed meal, a high quality animal feed. 22.68 kilograms (50 pounds) of rapeseed makes approximately 10 liters (2.64 US gallons) of canola oil.

Canola is a key ingredient in many of the foods we eat. Its reputation as a healthy oil has created high demand in markets around the world. Canola oil has many non-food uses, and often replaces non-renewable resources in products including candles, lipsticks, newspaper inks, industrial lubricants and biofuels.

The average density of canola oil is 0.92 g/ml.[17]

Health benefits

Compound Family % of total
Oleic acid
ω-9
61%[18]
Linoleic acid
ω-6
21%[18]
Alpha-linolenic acid
ω-3
11%[18] 9%[19]
Saturated fatty acids
7%[18]
Palmitic acid
4%[19]
Stearic acid
2%[19]
Trans fat
0.4%[20]

Canola oil is low in saturated fat, is high in monounsaturated fat, and has a beneficial omega-3 fatty acid profile; it has well established heart health benefits[21] and is recognized by many health professional organizations including the American Dietetic Association, and American Heart Association, among others.[22][23][24][25] Canola oil has been authorized a qualified health claim from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration[26] based on its ability to reduce the risk of coronary heart disease due to its unsaturated fat content.

Erucic acid

Main article: erucic acid

Though wild rapeseed oil contains significant amounts of erucic acid,[27] a known toxin,[28] the cultivar used to produce commercial, food-grade canola oil was bred to contain less than than 5% erucic acid, levels that are not believed to cause harm in humans[29][30] and no health effects have been associated with its consumption by humans.[28] Though an e-mail hoax has been circulated alleging canola oil can cause dangerous health problems, there is no reason to believe canola oil poses unusual health risks and its consumption in food-grade forms is generally recognized as safe by the United States Food and Drug Administration.[31][29][32][33]

Genetic modification

Canola field in Saskatchewan

Genetically engineered canola which is tolerant to herbicide was first introduced to Canada in 1995. Today 80% of the acres sown are genetically modified canola.[34] A 2010 study found transgenes in 80% of wild or "feral" varieties in North Dakota, meaning 80% of those were of "genetically modified" or genetically engineered varieties. The researchers stated that "we found the highest densities of [such transgene-containing] plants near agricultural fields and along major freeways, but we were also finding plants in the middle of nowhere" adding that "over time,..the build-up of different types of herbicide resistance in feral [natural] canola and closely related weeds,..could make it more difficult to manage these plants using herbicides."[35]

Genetically modified canola has become a point of controversy and contentious legal battles. In one high-profile case (Monsanto Canada Inc. v. Schmeiser) the Monsanto Company sued Percy Schmeiser for patent infringement after his field was contaminated with Monsanto's patented Roundup Ready glyphosate-tolerant canola. The supreme court ruled that Percy was in violation of Monsanto's patent because he had intentionally grown the crops land, but he was not required to pay Monsanto damages since he did not benefit financially from its presence.[36] On March 19, 2008, Schmeiser and Monsanto Canada Inc. came to an out-of-court settlement whereby Monsanto would pay for the clean-up costs of the contamination which came to a total of $660 Canadian.[37]

The introduction of the genetically modified crop to Australia is generating considerable controversy.[38] Canola is Australia's third biggest crop, and is often used by wheat farmers as a break crop to improve soil quality. As of 2008 the only genetically modified crops in Australia were non-food crops: carnations and cotton. In 2003, Australia's gene technology regulator approved the release of canola altered to make it resistant to the herbicide Glufosinate ammonium.[39]

Other facts

See also

References

  1. ^ Brown, J (1996). "Gene transfer between canola (Brassica napus L.) and related weed species". Annals of Applied Biology. 129 (3): 513–22. doi:10.1111/j.1744-7348.1996.tb05773.x. Retrieved 2008-12-29. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help) [dead link]
  2. ^ "Canola". infoplease.com. Retrieved 2008-12-29.
  3. ^ "Richard Keith Downey: Genetics". science.ca. 2007. Retrieved 2008-12-29.
  4. ^ Storgaard, AK (2008). "Stefansson, Baldur Rosmund". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2008-12-29.
  5. ^ Barthet, V. "Canola". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2008-12-29.
  6. ^ "What is canola?". A problem with weeds – the canola story. Biotechnology Australia (Australian Government). Retrieved 2007-10-20.
  7. ^ Klahorst, Suanne J. (1998). "Dreaming of the Perfect Fat". Food Product Design (Virgo Publishing). Archived from the original on 2007-10-30. Retrieved 2007-10-20. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  8. ^ "Low Erucic Acid Rapeseed (Lear) Oil Derived From Canola-quality Brassica juncea (L.) CZERN. Lines PC 97-03, PC98-44 AND PC98-45". Health Canada. Retrieved 2008-12-29. {{cite web}}: Text "2003-03-27" ignored (help)
  9. ^ USDA. "Agricultural Statistics 2005" (pdf).
  10. ^ Fats that Heal, Fats that Killby Udo Erasmus.
  11. ^ Ghafoorunissa (1996). "Fats in Indian Diets and Their Nutritional and health Implications". Lipids. 31: S287–S291. doi:10.1007/BF02637093. PMID 8729136.
  12. ^ Shenolikar, I (1980). "Fatty Acid Profile of Myocardial Lipid in Populations Consuming Different Dietary Fats". Lipids. 15 (11): 980–982. doi:10.1007/BF02534427.
  13. ^ Bellenand, JF; Baloutch, G; Ong, N; Lecerf, J (1980). "Effects of Coconut Oil on Heart Lipids and on Fatty Acid Utilization in Rapeseed Oil". Lipids. 15 (11): 938–943. doi:10.1007/BF02534418.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  14. ^ Achaya, KT (1987). "Fat Status of Indians - A Review". Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research. 46: 112–126.
  15. ^ Indu, M; Ghafoorunissa (1992). "n-3 Fatty Acids in Indian Diets - Comparison of the Effects of Precursor (Alpha-Linolenic Acid) Vs Product (Long chain n-3 Poly Unsaturated Fatty Acids)". Nutrition Research. 12: 569–582. doi:10.1016/S0271-5317(05)80027-2.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  16. ^ "Canola Varieties". Canola Growers Manual. Canola Council of Canada. Retrieved 2008-04-12.
  17. ^ Section 3.1 in: Leaking Tank Experiments with Orimulsion™ and Canola Oil NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS OR&R 6. Ocean Service of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. December 2001.
  18. ^ a b c d "Comparison of Dietary Fats Chart". Canola Council of Canada. Retrieved 2008-09-03.
  19. ^ a b c USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 21 (2008)
  20. ^ USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 22 (2009)
  21. ^ de Lorgeril, M (2006-02-09). "The Mediterranean-style diet for the Prevention of Cardiovascular Diseases". Public Health Nutr: 118–23. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  22. ^ "Canola Oil: Good for Every Body" (PDF). American Dietetic Association. 2006. Retrieved 2008-09-03. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help) [dead link]
  23. ^ "Know Your Fats". American Heart Association. 2008. Retrieved 2008-09-03. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  24. ^ "Protect Your Heart: Choose Fats Wisely" (PDF). American Diabetes Association. 2004. Retrieved 2008-09-03. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  25. ^ "AAFP 2006-Changing the Landscape of Chronic Disease Care". American Association of Family Physicians 2006 Scientific Assembly. 2006. Retrieved 2008-09-03. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  26. ^ "Qualified Health Claims, Letter of Enforcement Discretion U.S. Food and Drug Administration". 2006. Archived from the original on 2008-06-17. Retrieved 2008-09-03. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  27. ^ Template:Broken doi
  28. ^ a b Hayes, AW (2007). Principles and methods of toxicology (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 1560328142.
  29. ^ a b U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, CFR - Code of Federal Regulations Title 21 April 1, 2010,
  30. ^ The Commission of the European Communities (1980). "Commission Directive 80/891/EEC of 25 July 1980 relating to the Community method of analysis for determining the erucic acid content in oils and fats intended to be used as such for human consumption and foodstuffs containing added oils or fats". EurLex Official Journal. 254.
  31. ^ Zeratsky, Katherine (2009). "Canola Oil: Does it Contain Toxins?". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2010-02-19. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  32. ^ Mikkleson, Barbara and David P. (2005). "Urban Legends Reference Pages: Canola Oil and Rape Seed". Snopes. Retrieved 2007-10-20. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  33. ^ Edell, Dean (1999). "Canola Oil: Latest Internet Hoax Victim". Healthcentral.com. Retrieved 2007-10-20. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  34. ^ "Canola Facts: Why Growers Choose GM Canola". Canola Quick Facts. Canola Council of Canada. Archived from the original on 2007-10-26. Retrieved 2007-10-20. GM or transgenic canola varieties have been modified to be resistant to specific herbicides. They are called herbicide-resistant varieties. The plants are modified, but the oil is not modified. It is identical[citation needed] to canola oil from non-modified or conventional canola. Herbicide-resistant GM canola is grown on about 80% of the area in western Canada. GM canola was first introduced in 1995.
  35. ^ GM plants 'established in the wild'
  36. ^ Federal Court of Appeal of Canada. Monsanto Canada Inc. v. Schmeiser (C.A.) [2003] 2 F.C. 165. Retrieved 25-Mar-2006.
  37. ^ "Monsanto vs Schmeiser: In the Spotlight..." Retrieved 2009-03-05.
  38. ^ for example Price, Libby (2005-09-06). "Network of concerned farmers demands tests from Bayer". ABC Rural: Victoria. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 2007-10-10. and "Greenpeace has the last laugh on genetic grains talks". Rural news. Australian Broadcaasting Corporation. 2003-03-13. Retrieved 2007-10-20. also Cauchi, Stephen (2003-10-25). "GM: food for thought". Science article. The Age. Retrieved 2007-10-20.
  39. ^ "GM canola gets the green light". National News. Sydney Morning Herald. 2003-04-01. Retrieved 2007-10-20.
  40. ^ Canola Council of Canada - Canola Facts: Why Growers Choose GM Canola
  41. ^ http://www.nass.usda.gov/nd/marrank.txt
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