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Hello all,

I wanted to comment on the quoatation from S. Vernon McCasland, Grace E. Cairns and David C. Yu, that was used in the Wikipedia Artice on Jainism, especially the use of the word "evil". As far as I know, there the there is no word or concept equivalent to the western word/concept "evil" in Jainism. There is negativity, violence, and alienation from that which is considered to be more a more enlightened understanding, but nothing that is thoroughly evil. Secondly, the declining aspects of the universe are considered natural and inevitable, and tirthankars do not voluntarily choose their timing to arrive in order to help people during that epochs. Teh quotation does not state that tirthankara's choose their time of arrival, but the statement can seems to imply this, or at least one may easily construe it this way. Tirthankaras are thought to manifest at a certain time in the universal cycle as part of a natural progression of the "physicis of the universe/karma/souls", rather than any voluntary choosing.

Many thanks. This article on Jainism is excellent overal and I was very happy to come accross it.

Dr. Tushar Mehta MD


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Revision as of 00:51, 1 May 2006

Hello all,

I wanted to comment on the quoatation from S. Vernon McCasland, Grace E. Cairns and David C. Yu, that was used in the Wikipedia Artice on Jainism, especially the use of the word "evil". As far as I know, there the there is no word or concept equivalent to the western word/concept "evil" in Jainism. There is negativity, violence, and alienation from that which is considered to be more a more enlightened understanding, but nothing that is thoroughly evil. Secondly, the declining aspects of the universe are considered natural and inevitable, and tirthankars do not voluntarily choose their timing to arrive in order to help people during that epochs. Teh quotation does not state that tirthankara's choose their time of arrival, but the statement can seems to imply this, or at least one may easily construe it this way. Tirthankaras are thought to manifest at a certain time in the universal cycle as part of a natural progression of the "physicis of the universe/karma/souls", rather than any voluntary choosing.

Many thanks. This article on Jainism is excellent overal and I was very happy to come accross it.

Dr. Tushar Mehta MD


Template:IndicText

"Jaina" redirects here. For other uses, see Jaina (disambiguation).
File:Mathura ayagapatta3.jpg
Pre-Kushana Ayagapatta from Mathura

Jainism (pronounced in English as /ˈdʒeɪ.nɪzm̩/), traditionally known as Jain Dharma (जैन धर्म), is a religion and philosophy originating in the prehistory of South Asia. Now a minority in modern India with growing communities in the United States, Western Europe, Africa, the Far East and elsewhere, Jains have continued to sustain the ancient Shraman (श्रमण) or ascetic tradition.

Jainism has significantly influenced the religious, ethical, political and economic spheres in India for well over two millennia. Jainism stresses the spiritual independence and equality of all life with a particular emphasis on non-violence. Self-control (व्रत, vrata) is the means by which Jains attain moksha, Keval Gnan, or realization of the soul's true nature.

A lay Jain is termed a shravaka (श्रावक) i.e. a listener. The Jain Sangha (संघ), or order, has four components: monks (साधु), nuns, lay men and women.

Overview of Jain Dharma

For followers of the Jain religion, Jain philosophy is considered to be a codification of eternal universal truths, which lapse among humanity over a period of time. These truths reappear through the teachings of human beings, who have gained enlightenment or omniscience (Keval Gnan). According to tradition, Lord Rishabha (ऋषभ, sometimes pronounced as रिषभ) was the first to realize those truths in this place and time cycle. More recently were Lord Parshva (877-777 BCE) and Lord Vardhaman Mahavira (महावीर) (599-527 BCE).

Jainism teaches that every single living thing is an individual and eternal soul, called jīva, which is responsible for its own actions. Jains see this faith as teaching the individual to live, think and act in ways that respect and honor the spiritual nature of every living being to the best of one's human abilities. Jains view God as the unchanging traits of the pure soul of each living being, chief among them being Infinite Knowledge, Perception, Consciousness, and Happiness (Ananta Jnän, Ananta Darshan, Ananta Chäritra, and Ananta Sukh). Jainism does not include a belief in an omnipotent supreme being or creator, but rather in a universe regarded as eternal and governed by natural laws based on the interplay of the attributes (gunas) of the substances (dravyas) that make up the cosmos.

The primary figures of Jainism are the Tirthankaras. Jainism has two main variants: Digambar and Shvetambar. Jains believe in ahimsa (or ahinsā), asceticism, karma, samsara, and the jiva. Jain philosophy has many scriptures written over a long period of time. One of the most cited scripture among all Jains is Tattvartha Sutra, or Book of Realities written over 18 centuries ago by the monk-scholar Umasvati (also known as Umasvami).

Compassion to all fellow living beings (along with humans) is central to Jain belief. Jainism is the only religion wherein all followers, both monks and practicing lay persons of all sects and traditions, are required to be vegetarian. In regions of India with strong Jain influence, often the majority of the population is vegetarian. In many towns, the Jains run animal shelters. In Delhi, there is a bird hospital run by a Jain temple. Many historians believe that various strains of Hinduism adopted vegetarianism due to the strong influence of Jainism and Buddhism.

Jain layman worshipping at the temple at Rankapur. The mouth covering is to prevent him from inhaling any insects, a practice stemming from the Jain value of nonviolence.

As part of its stance on nonviolence, Jainism goes even beyond vegetarianism, in that the Jain diet also excludes most root vegetables, as Jains believe such vegetables have an infinite number of individual souls, invisible to the naked eye. Jains also do not eat certain other foods believed to be unnecessarily injurious. Many Jains are also vegan, due to the cruelty and violence inherent in modern dairy farms. Observant Jains do not eat, drink, or travel after sunset, and always rise before sunrise.

Anekantavada is one of the foundation pillars of Jain philosophy. Literally meaning "Non-one-endedness" or "Nonsingular Conclusivity", Anekantavada is a set of tools for overcoming the inherent bias in any one perspective on a given subject, object, process, state, or reality in general. One of these tools is known as The Doctrine of Postulation, i.e., Syādvāda. Anekantavada is also defined as multiplicity of views, and stresses looking at things from the other person's perspective.

Jains can be remarkably welcoming and friendly toward other faiths. For example, several non-Jain temples in India are administered by Jain individuals. The Jain Heggade family has run the institutions of Dharmasthala including the Sri.Manjunatha Temple for eight centuries. There are examples of Jains donating money for building churches and mosques. In India, Jains have often helped organize multi-religious discussions and functions, and Jain monastic leaders such as the late Acharya Tulsi and Acharya Sushil Kumar have also promoted harmony among followers of rival faiths to help defuse communal tensions.

Jains have been an important presence in Indian culture, contributing to Indian philosophy, art, architecture, sciences, and the politics of Mohandas Gandhi, which led to Indian independence.

Universal History and Jain Cosmology

According to Jain beliefs, the universe was never created, nor will it ever cease to exist. It is eternal but not unchangeable, because it passes through an endless series of cycles. Each of these upward or downward cycles is divided into six world ages (yugas). The present world age is the fifth age of one of these "cycles", which is in a downward movement. These ages are known as "Aaro" as in "Pehela Aara" or First Age, "Doosra Aara" or Second Age and so on. The last one is the "Chhatha Aara" or Sixth Age. All these ages have fixed time durations of thousands of years.

When this reaches its lowest level, even Jainism itself will be lost in its entirety. Then, in the course of the next upswing, the Jain religion will be rediscovered and reintroduced by new leaders called Tirthankaras (literally "Crossing Makers" or "Ford Finders"), only to be lost again at the end of the next downswing, and so on.

In each of these enormously long alternations of time there are always twenty-four Tirthankaras. In the current world age, the twenty-third Tirthankar was Parshva, an ascetic and teacher, whose traditional dates are 877-777 BC, i.e., 250 years before the passing of the last Tirthankar Lord Mahavira in 527 BC. Jains regard him and all Tirthankars as a reformer who called for a return to beliefs and practices in line with the eternal universal philosophy upon which the faith is said to be based. Hence the title Bhagavan ("Lord") is applied to Mahavira and all other Tirathankaras in the sense of the Venerable One.

File:Bhavajale.jpg
Bhaktamara Stotra: Tirthankara is shelter from ocean of rebirths

The twenty-fourth and final Tirthankar of this age is known by his title, Mahāvīr, the Great Hero (599-527 BC). He too was a wandering ascetic teacher who attempted to recall the Jains to the rigorous practice of their ancient faith.

Jains believe that reality is made up of two eternal principles, jiva and ajiva. Jiva consists of an infinite number of identical spiritual units; ajiva (that is, non-jiva) is matter in all its forms and the conditions under which matter exists: time, space, and movement.

Both jiva and ajiva are eternal; they never came into existence for the first time and will never cease to exist. The whole world is made up of jivas trapped in ajiva; there are jivas in rocks, plants, insects, animals, human beings, spirits, et cetera.

Any contact whatsoever of the jiva with the ajiva causes the former to suffer. Thus the Jains believed that existence in this world inevitably means suffering. Neither social reform nor the reform of individuals themselves can ever stop suffering. In every human being, a jiva is trapped, and the jiva suffers because of its contact with ajiva. The only way to escape from suffering is, for the jiva to completely escape from the four ghatis (stage) of Human, Heavenly bodies, Plants/Animals/Insects/Fish/ etc life, and Hell, by practising the teaching of jainism continuously, to attain liberation, salvation, and finally neverletgo of the ultimate aim.

Karma and transmigration keep the jiva trapped in ajiva. Achieving release from the human condition is difficult. The Jains believe that the jiva continues to suffer during all its lives or reincarnations, which are of an indefinite number. They believe that every action that a person performs, be it good or evil, opens up channels of the senses (sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell), through which an invisible substance, karma, filters in and adheres to the jiva within, weighing it down and determining the conditions of the next reincarnation.

The consequence of evil actions is a heavy karma, which weighs the jiva down, forcing it to enter its new life at a lower level in the scale of existence. The consequence of good deeds, on the other hand, is a light karma, which allows the jiva to rise in its next life to a higher level in the scale of existence, where there is less suffering to be endured. However, good deeds alone can never lead to release.

The fylfot (a.k.a. swastika) is one of the holiest Jain symbols. Worshippers often use rice grains to create fylfot symbols around the temple altar.

The way to moksha (release or liberation) is withdrawal from the world. Karma is the cause-and-effect mechanism by virtue of which all actions have inescapable consequences. Karma operates to keep the jiva chained in an unending series of lifetimes in which the jiva suffers to a greater or lesser extent. Thus the way of escape must involve an escape from karma, the destruction of all karma and the avoidance of new karma.

Then, at death, with no karma to weigh it down, the jiva will float free of all ajiva, free of the human condition, free of all future embodiments. It will rise to the top of the universe to a place or state called Siddhashila, where the jiva, identical with all other pure jivas, will experience its own true nature in eternal stillness, isolation and noninvolvement. It will be totally free. The way to burn up old karma is to withdraw from all involvement in the world as much as possible, and close the channel of the senses and the mind to prevent karmic matter from entering and adhering to the jiva. Such kind of an eternal liberation from the unbinding of the Jiva and the Pudgala (ajiva), such that no new reincarnation occurs into the material world, is called as Moksha. Ignorance (ajñāna) is the cause of binding, and true knowledge (kevala jñāna) is the cause of liberation.

S. Vernon McCasland, Grace E. Cairns and David C. Yu describe Jain cosmology after the following manner:

"In Jain tradition, the first teacher of the religion, Rishabha, lived in the third period of Avasarpini, during which half of the world cycle things are getting worse. Since evil had begun to be found, a teacher called a Tirthankara was needed in order for people to cope with the problems of life. In the fourth period, evils proliferated such that twenty-three more Tirthankaras came into the world to teach people how to defeat evil and achieve mokasha. The present time, part of the fifth period, is 'wholly evil.' Now, men live no longer than 125 years, but the sixth epoch will be even worse. 'Man's life span will be only sixteen to twenty years and his height will be reduced to the size of a dwarf. . . . But then the slow upward movement of the first half of the world cycle, Utsarpini, will begin. There will be steady improvement until, in the first era, man's needs will be fulfilled by wishing trees, and man's height will be six miles, and evil will be unknown.' However, eventually things will degenerate again, with a repeat of Avasarpini; Usarpini will come again afterwards, in a neverending cycle, according to Jain cosmology." (McCasland, Cairns, and Yu, Religions of the World, New York: Random House, 1969: pages 485-486)

Beliefs and practices

File:Jainism logo.png
The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes the Jain Vow of Ahinsa, meaning non-injury and non-violence. The word in the middle of the wheel reads "ahimsa." The wheel represents the dharma-chakra. This logo represents halting the cycle of reincarnation through relentless pursuit of truth.

On one hand, there are the monks, who practice severe asceticism and strive to make this birth their last. On the other hand, there are the lay people, who pursue less rigorous practices, striving to attain rational faith and do good deeds in this birth. Due to the strict ethics embedded in Jainism, the laity must choose a profession and livelihood that does not involve violence to self and other living beings.

In their effort to attain their highest and most exalted state of being a Siddha, which is the permanent release of the jiva from all involvement in worldly existence, the Jains believe that no spirit or divine being can assist them in any way. The Jains consider that the devas (angels or celestial beings) cannot help the jiva to obtain release. This has to be achieved by individuals through their own efforts. In fact, the devas cannot even gain their own release until they are reincarnated as humans and undertake the difficult actions of removing the karmas.

The ethical code of Jainism is taken very seriously. Summarized in the Five Vows, they are followed by both lay people and monastics. These are:

  1. Nonviolence (ahinsa, or ahimsa)
  2. Truth (satya)
  3. Non-stealing (asteya)
  4. Chastity (brahma-charya)
  5. Non-possession or Non-possessiveness (aparigrah)

For lay people, 'chastity' means confining sexual experience to the marriage relationship. For monks/nuns, it means complete celibacy. Nonviolence involves being strictly vegetarian. The Jain is expected to follow the principle of non-violence in all his/her thoughts, words and deeds, not only towards fellow human beings, but also towards all living creatures. There are some Jains who wear masks over their mouths and noses to avoid any possibility of breathing in tiny insects.

Along with the above Five Vows, JAINS also believe in forgiving others and harboring no harmful feelings against others in their hearts. They also believe that AATMA can lead one to become PARMATMA but that the voice has to come from one's inner-self; no one can lead another on any path but can only show the way to the path. Jains also believe that anger toward another person becomes one's own biggest enemy, they trust in the belief “JEEYO AUR JEENE DO” (live and let others live).

Mahatma Gandhi was deeply influenced by the Jain emphasis on a peaceful, non-harming way of life which is common to the Jain philosophy and made it an integral part of his own philosophy.

Jain symbols

Jains have few core symbols. One Jain symbol incorporates a wheel on the palm of the hand. The holiest one is a simple unadorned swastika or svastika.

Major Jains symbols include:

Jain fasting

Fasting is very common in Jain spirituality. Most Jains will fast at special times during the year. Although a Jain may take it upon him or herself to fast at anytime, most Jains will fast at special times during the year, at festivals and holy days. The monsoon period (in India) is a time of fasting, and fasting is a feature of Jain festivals.

The aim of fasting

Jain fasts may be done as a penance, especially for monks and nuns. Fasting also purifies body and mind, and reminds the practitioner of Mahavira's emphasis on renunciation and asceticism, because Mahavira spent a great deal of time fasting. It is not sufficient for a Jain simply to not eat when fasting, they must also stop wanting to eat. If they continue to desire food the fast is pointless.

Types of fast

There are several types of fasting:

  • Complete fasting: giving up food and water completely for a period.
  • Partial fasting: eating less than you need to avoid hunger.
  • Vruti Sankshepa: limiting the number of items of food eaten.
  • Rasa Parityaga: giving up favourite foods.
  • Great fasts: Some Jain monks fast for months at a time, following the example of Mahavira, who is said to have fasted for over 6 months.

Different types of fast

  • Choviharo Upavasa - To give up food and water for the whole day.
  • Upavasa - To give up only food for the whole day.

Digamber Upvas: One can only drink water once a day and it has to be consumed before sunset. Shwetamber Upvas: One can consume as many glasses of water as one wishes, however these also have to be consumed before sunset.

  • Ekasana - To eat one meal a day at one sitting and drink water as many times as one wishes inbetween sunrise and sunset.
  • Beasana - To eat two meals a day which requires to eat one meal per sitting and also drink water as many times inbetween sunrise and sunset.
  • Ayambil: Taking food only once in one sitting. The food should not have any taste and spices and should be boiled or cooked. Also, one shall not take milk, curds, ghee, oil, and green or raw vegetables.
  • Chaththa - To give up food and water or only food continuously for two whole days.
  • Aththama - To give up food and water or to give up only food continuously for three whole days.
  • Aththai - To give up food and water or only food continuously for eight days.
  • Masaksamana - To give up food and water or only food continuously for one whole month.
  • Navkarsi: One must take food and water forty minutes after sunrise. Even the brushing of one's teeth and rinsing of once mouth must be done after sunrise.
  • Porsi: Taking food and water three hours after sunrise.
  • Sadh-porsi: Taking food and water four hours and thirty minutes after sunrise.
  • Purimuddh: Taking food and water six hours after sunrise.
  • Avadhdh: Taking food and water eight hours after sunrise.
  • Tivihar (Many Jains follow this type of fasting on daily basis): After sunset no food or juice shall be taken, but one may

take only water until sunrise the next day.

  • Navapad oli During every year for 9 days starting from the 6/7th day in the bright fortnight until the full moon day in Ashwin and Chaitra months, one does Ayambil. This is repeated for the next four and half years. These ayambils can also be restricted to only one kind of food grain per day.

Other austerities are varshitap, Vardhaman, and visasthanak tap, etc.

Jain literature

The oldest Jain literature is in Shauraseni and Ardha-Magadhi Prakrit (Agamas, Agama-tulya, Siddhanta texts, etc). Many classical texts are in Sanskrit (Tatvartha Sutra, Puranas, Koshas, Shravakacharas, Mathematics, Nighantus etc). Later Jain literature was written in Apabhramsha (Kahas, rasas, grammars, etc), Hindi (Chhahdhala, Mokshamarga Prakashaka, etc), Tamil (Jivakacintamani, Kural, etc), Kannada (Vaddaradhane, etc.). See Jain literature for more details.

Jain worship and rituals

Jains have built temples where images of their Tirthankaras are venerated. Jain rituals can be elaborate and include offerings of symbolic objects, with the Tirthankaras being praised in chant. In some Jain sects, temples and images are not required.

Every day Jains bow their heads and say their universal prayer, the Namaskara Sutra. All good work and events start with this prayer of salutation and worship.

Jain worship may or may not involve temples. The sadhumargi Shvetambar Jains such as The Terapanthi Jains do not believe in idol worship hence do not have temples.

Jain rituals include:

  • Pancha-kalyanaka Pratishtha
  • Pratikramana
  • Guru-vandan, Chaitya vandan etc.

The Jain rituals for marriage and other family rites are distinct and uniquely Indian, usually minor variants of those in orthodox Hinduism.

Digambar and Shvetambar traditions

It is generally believed that the Jain sangha became divided two major sects, Digambar and Shvetambar, about 200 years after the nirvana of Mahāvīr. Bhadrabahu, chief of the Jain monks, foresaw a period of famine and led about 12,000 people, to southern India. Twelve years later, they returned to find that the Svetambar sect had arisen. The followers of Bhadrabahu became known as the Digambar sect.

The Digambar monks do not wear any clothes because they believe clothes are like all other possessions thereby increasing desire which needs to be get rid off. The Svetambar monks wear white clothes because they believe there is nothing in Jain religious books to condemn the wearing of clothes. The different points of view are caused by different interpretations of similar holy books. The sadhvis (lady religious persons) of both sects wear white clothes. There are also minor differences in the enumeration and validity of each sect's Agama (sacred) literature.

There are also many other differences between Digambar and Shvetambar traditions. The former believe that women cannot attain moksha,while Shvetambars believe that women can attain liberation.

Some historians believe that there was no clear division until the 5th century. The Valabhi council of 453 resulted in editing and compilation of scriptures of the Svetambar tradition.

Excavations at Mathura have revealed many Kushana period Jain idols. In all of them the Tirthankaras are represented without clothes. Some of them show monks with only one piece of cloth which is wrapped around the left arm. They are identified as belonging to the ardha-phalaka sect mentioned in some texts. The Yapaniaya sect is believed to have originated from the Ardha-phalakas. They followed Digambara practice of nudity, but held several beliefs like the Shvetambaras.

Both traditions are further subdivided into several sects, such as Sthanakvasi, Terapanth, Deravasi, and Bisapantha. Some of these can be divided into murtipujak (idol worshipper) and not murtipujak. In recent decades, attempts have been made to bring the sects together. In 1974, a new religious text Samana Suttam was compiled by a committee consisting of representatives of all the sects.

Geographical spread and influence

File:RanakpurJainTem.jpg
Jain temple in Ranakpur

It has been advanced that the pervasive influence of Jain culture and philosophy in ancient Bihar gave rise to Buddhism.

The Buddhists always maintained that by the time Buddha and Mahavira were alive, Jainism was already an ancient and deeply entrenched faith and culture in the region. For a discussion about the connections between Jainism and Buddhism see Jainism and Buddhism.

At 4 to 5 million adherents, Jainism is among the smallest of the major world religions, but in India its influence is much more significant than the numbers would suggest. The Jains live throughout India; Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Gujarat have the largest Jain population among Indian states. Other states of India with relatively large Jain populations among its residents are Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh.

Jainism has a large following in the Indian region of Punjab, especially the town of Ludhiana and Patiala. There were many Jains in Lahore (Punjab's historic capital) and other cities before the Partition of 1947. Many then fled to the Indian section of Punjab.

It is practiced by adherents in all the metropolitan cities such as Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai as well as Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Hyderabad.

There are 85 Jain communities in different parts of India and around the world. They speak local languages and sometimes follow different rituals. However they all follow essentially the same principles.

Outside of India, the United States, United Kingdom, Canada and East Africa (Kenya, Tanzania & Uganda) have large Jain communities. Smaller Jain communities exist in Nepal, Japan, Singapore, Australia etc. Jainism as a religion was at various times found all over South Asia including Sri Lanka and what are now Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma and Afghanistan.

Jain philosophy and culture have been a major cultural, philosophical, social and political force since the dawn of civilization in South Asia, and its ancient influence has been traced beyond the borders of modern India into the Middle Eastern and Mediterranean regions. Jainism is presently a growing faith in the United States as well, where several Jain temples have been built. American Jainism tends to accommodate all the sects in its institutions.

Over several thousand years, Jain influence on Hindu philosophy and religion have been considerable, while Hindu influence on Jain temple worship and rituals can be observed in certain Jain sects. For a detailed discussion see Jainism and Hinduism.

Jain contributions to Indian culture

While the Jains are only 0.4% of the Indian population, their contributions to culture and society in India have been considerable.

The Jains are among the wealthiest of the Indians. They are also among the most philanthropic, they run numerous schools, colleges and hospitals. They have been the most important patrons of the Somapuras, the traditional temple architects in Gujarat.

Jains have greatly influenced the cuisine of Gujarat. Gujarat is dominantly vegetarian, and its dishes all have pleasing and soothing aromas due to the lack of foods with pungent odors, such as onions and garlic.

According to the 2001 census, the Jains are the most literate community in India. India's oldest libraries at Patan and Jaisalmer have been preserved by Jain institutions.

Literature The Jains have contributed writings in many of the India's classical and popular languages.

  • In Kannada almost the entire early literature is of Jain origin.
  • Some of the oldest known books in Hindi and Gujarati were written by Jain scholars.
  • Several of the Tamil classics are written by Jain authors or have Jain beliefs and values as the core subject.
  • Practically all of the known texts of the Apabhramsha language are Jain works.

Jainism and Indian archaeology

Archaeological evidence such as various seals and other artifacts from the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3000–1500 BC) has been cited by some scholars as attesting to the faith's roots in pre-Indo-Aryan migration India. (Refer to the discussion page as well as the 'specialized sources', below.)

Decipherment of Brahmi by James Princep in 1788, permitted reading of ancient inscriptions in India, which established the antiquity of Jainism. Discovery of Jain manuscripts, a process that continues today, has added significantly to retracing the history of Jainism.

Jain archaeological findings are from Maurya, Sunga, Kushana, Rashtrakuta, Chalukya, and Rajput and later periods.

Several western and Indian scholars have contributed to the reconstruction of Jain history. They include western historians like Bühler, Jacobi, and Indian scholars like Iravatham Mahadevan who has worked on Tamil Brahmi inscriptions.

Holy sites

Palitana Tirtha

There are many Jain tirthas (pilgrimage sites) throughout India.

There is also one temple in the United States that is considered to be a pilgrimage place. Siddhachalam is located in New Jersey.

Jain temples in the West

Find more links at http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/jainsoc.html

Holy days

The Jain Calendar gives the dates for major Jain festivals, vratas and fairs.

Jainism and other religions

South Asia has a rich history of diverse philosophies. Connections among these are discussed at:

Even though Jainism is of Indian origin, it shared some principles with the Hellenic tradition, specially with Stoic and Pythagorean philosophies of Europe. A comparison with modern western religions can be found at:

See also

References

Introductory:

  • Jain, Duli C. (Editor), Studies In Jainism: Primer, Jain Study Circle, 1997.
  • Parik, Vastupal Jainism and the New Spirituality, Peace Publications, 2002.

Detailed Introduction:

  • Shah, Natubhai, Jainism : The World of Conquerors, Motilal Banarsidass, 2004.
  • Jaini, Padmanabh S., Jaina Path of Purification, Motilal Banarsidass, 2001.
  • Titze, Kurt, Jainism : A Pictorial Guide to the Religion of Non-Violence, Mohtilal Banarsidass, 1998.
  • Wiley, Kristi, Historical Dictionary of Jainism, Scarecrow Press, 2004.
  • Mishra, Mamta, Bharatiya Darshan, Kala Prakashan, Varanasi, 2000.
  • Lawrence A. Babb, Absent Lord, University of California Press, 1996.
  • Vallely, Anne, Guardians of the Transcendent, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002. (Jain nuns)
  • Kelting, Whitney, Singing to the Jinas, New York: Oxford, 2001. (Jain laywomen)
  • The Assembly of Listeners, edited by Michael Carrithers and Caroline Humphrey, 5-14. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.

Specialized sources:

  • Mary Pat Fisher, Living Religions (5th Edition), 2003, p.130
  • Bhaskar, Bhagchandra Jain, Jainism in Buddhist Literature. Alok Prakashan: Nagpur, 1972.
  • Campbell, Joseph, Oriental Mythology, 1962.
  • Nakamura, Hajime, Gotama Buddha: A Biography Based on the Most Reliable Texts. Kosei Publishing: Tokyo, 2000.
  • Ramachandran, T.N., Harrappa and Jainism 1987.
  • Subramaniyam, Ka Naa, Tiruvalluvar and his Tirukkural. Bharatiya Jnanpith: New Delhi 1987.
  • Thomas, Edward, Jainism, or the Early Faith of Asoka. Asian Educational Services: New Delhi, 1995 (reprint of the original by Trubner: London, 1877).
  • Cort, John, Jains in the World: Religious Values and Ideology in India', New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
  • Jain Philosophy, Webb, Mark Owen
  • Vallely, Anne, Gaurdians of the Transcendent, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002.
  • Kelting, Whitney, Singing to the Jinas, New York: Oxford, 2001.
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