Bengali Brahmin
Bengali Brahmins |
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বাঙ্গালী ব্রাহ্মণ . |
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The Bengali Brahmins (Bengali: বাঙালি ব্রাহ্মণ) are those Hindu Brahmins who traditionally reside in the Bengal region of the Indian subcontinent, currently comprising the Indian state of West Bengal and Bangladesh. When the British left India in 1947, carving out separate nations (see partition), a number of families moved from the Muslim-majority East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) to be within the borders of the newly defined Republic of India, and continued to migrate for several decades thereafter.
In the 19th (held at Prayag) and 20th (held at Lucknow) national convention of Kanyakubja Brahmins by Kanyakubja Mahati Sabha, in 1926 and 1927 respectively, it appealed for unity among Kanyakubja Brahmins whose different branches included Sanadhya, Pahadi, Bhumihar, Jujhoutia, Saryupareen, Chattisgarhi, and different Bengali Brahmins.[1] Historically, the Bengali Brahmins have been the standard bearers of Madhyadeshiya culture in Bengal (Madhyadesh is the historic-cultural region of the upper Ganges–Yamuna doab which was the seat of Panch-Gauda brahmins).
Bengali Brahmins are categorized as Pancha-Gauda Brahmins (the Brahmins who traditionally lived to the north of the Vindhyas).[2]
History
The earliest historically verifiable presence of brahmins in Bengal can be ascertained from Dhanaidaha copper-plate inscription of Kumargupta 1 of the Gupta Year 113 (433 C.E.) which records the grant of land to a brahmin named Varahasvamin of the Samavedi school.[3] A copper-plate grant from the Gupta period found in the vicinity of Somapura mentions a Brahmin donating land to a Jain vihara at Vatagohali. Literary sources like Ramayana, Mahabharata, Jain and Buddhist works, however record the presence of brahmins in various parts of Bengal during earlier periods.[4] Historical evidence also attests significant presence of Brahmins in Bengal during the Maurya period. The Jain Acharya Bhadrabahu, regarded to be the preceptor of Chandragupta Maurya is said to have been born in Brahmin family of Pundravardhana ( or Puṇḍra, the region north of the Ganges and west of Brahmaputra in Bengal, later known as Vārendra). Such evidences suggest Puṇḍra or Vārendra and regions west of Bhagirathi (called Radha in ancient age) to be seats of brahmins from ancient times; Rādhi and Varendra are still chief branches of Bengali brahmins settled in these regions.[5] Medium to large scale migrations of Brahmins from various parts of India like Mithila, Kanyakubja region, Kolancha, southern India and Pushkar in Rajasthan, among other places, occurred from time to time, especially during Pala and Sena periods.[6]
Traditionally, Bengali brahmins are divided into the following categories:[4][7][8]
- Rādhi from Radh (region south-west of the Ganges)
- Varendra, from Vārendra region (North-East) or Puṇḍra. Vārendra originally meant rain-maker magicians.[9]
- Vaidika (migrants, originally experts of Vedic knowledge)
- Paschatya Vaidika (Vedic brahmins from west of Bengal)
- Dakshinatya Vaidika (Vedic brahmins from south of Bengal)
- Madhya Sreni (brahmins of the midland country)
- Shakdvipi/ Grahavipra (migrant brahmins of Shakdvipa in Central Asia)
- Saptaśati
Traditional accounts
The different brahmin communities of Bengal have their own traditional accounts of origin, which are generally found in various genealogical texts known as kulagranthas or kulapanjikas. Other details may also be obtained from court chronicles of various kings of Bengal. Important writers are Harimishra (13th century C.E), Edu Mishra (13th century C.E), Devivara Ghatak (15th century C.E), Dhruvananda Mishra (post 15th century C.E), Vachaspati Mishra, Rajendralal Mitra among others.[4]
- Radhi and Varendra
The traditional origin of both Radhi and Varendra brahmins has been attributed to a king named Ādiśūra who is said to have invited five Brahmins from Kolancha (as per Edu Mishra and Hari Mishra[10]) and/or from Kanyakubja,[11] (as per Dhruvananda Mishra) so that he could conduct a yajña, because he could not find Vedic experts locally. Some traditional texts mention that Ādiśūra was ancestor of Ballāl Sena from maternal side and five brahmins had been invited in 1077 C.E.[12] Other texts like Varendrakulapanjika, Vachaspati Mishra's account and Edu Mishra's account attribute a date of 732 C.E for the migration. Additionally, other sources like Sambandhanirnaya, Kulanrava and others attribute various dates like 942 C.E, 932 C.E and others.[4]
Historians have located a ruler named Ādiśūra ruling in north Bihar, but not in Bengal [citation needed]. But Ballāl Sena and his predecessors ruled over both Bengal and Mithila (i.e., North Bihar). It is unlikely that the brahmins from Kānyakubja may have been invited to Mithila for performing a yajña, because Mithila was a strong base of brahmins since Vedic age.[13] However some scholars have identified Ādiśūra with Jayanta, a vassal chief of the Gauda king around middle of 8th century C.E.[4] and is also referred to as a contemporary of Jayapida (779 to 812 C.E) of Kashmir (grandson of Lalitaditya) in Kalhana's Rajatarangini.[14]
- Paschatya Vaidikas
Traditionally they are believed to have migrated from Kanyakubja (or Kanauj), the traditional origin of both Radhi and Varendra brahmins, to Bengal via Tirhoot, during the commencement of Muslim rule in India. Most of the vaidikas were invited by Hindu chiefs and rajas who used to rule in various parts of Bengal during the Muslim ascendancy.[15] As per one account, a king called Shyamal Varma, invited five Brahmins from Kānyakubja who became the progenitors of the Paschatya Vaidika Brahmins. They have gotras found in the Brahmin community of Kanyakubj (Bharadwaj, Garga, Gautam, Katatayan, Kaushik, Kashyap, Krishnatreya, Rathitara, Parashar, Sankrityayan, Shandilya, Savarna, Srivats, Shaunak, Vashista, Valmiki, Upmanyu).
- Dakshinatya Vaidikas
Traditionally it is believed that during his reign, Vijaya Sena (1097 to 1160 C.E), brought brahmins from South India to Bengal, who integrated themselves with the varendra barhmins and came to be known as Dakshinatya vaidika barahmins.[16] Other texts say that it was during the Chalukya invasion of Gauda under Vikramaditya VI (1076–1126 CE) that brahmins from south came and settled in Bengal.
Kulin Brahmins are those Brahmins in Bengal who can trace themselves to the five families of Kanauj (Kanyakubja), Uttar Pradesh who migrated to Bengal. The five families were of the five different gotras (Shandilya, Bharadwaj, Kashyap, Vatsya and Saavarna). They are widely believed to be at the apex of Bengal's caste hierarchy.
The kulin families are further divided into two sections:
Barendra : Belonging to those families who settled at the north or north east region of the Ganges or Padma river. Rarhi : Belonging to those families who settled at the south or southwest region of the Ganges or Padma river.
Divisions among Bengali Brahmins
- Varendra, from Varendra region (NE&E Bengal (Bangladesh))
- Rādhi' from Radh (SE Bengal, approximately modern West Bengal SW of the Ganges.
- Vaidika, migrant brahmins from other parts of India.
Other minor divisions are :
- Saptaśati
- Pirāli
- Patita
- Parashor Bipra
It is believed that the Brahmins of Bengal adapted kulinism from a similar hierarchical system used by the Brahmins of Mithilā, although Kānyakubja and more especially Saryupāriya were also highly scrupulous. The five original Brahmins belonged to five gotras : Śāndilya, Kāśyapa, Vatsa, Bhārdvāja, Sāvarṇa Both Brahmins and Kayasthas in Bengal have followed a system that ranks the clans hierarchically. The Kulinas formed the higher ranking clans.
- Rādhi Rādhi (also Rāṭhi in some old texts) is the major branch of Western Bengali brahmins . The descendants of these five Pancyājñika brahmins were hierarchically organised into three categories :
- Śrotriya is the second rank among the descendants of these five brahmins because they were deft in Vedic knowledge but were considered to be somewhat inferior to the Kulina brahmins (possessing 8 out of 9 noble qualities).
- Vamśaja is the third rank which was a result of kulinas marrying outside kulinas.[17]
Major titles adopted by the high Rādhi brahmins :
- Mukhopādhyāya and its adaptation Mukherjee a Kulin brahmin
- Bandyopādhyāya and its adaptation Banerjee a Kulin brahmin
- Chattopādhyāya and its adaptation Chatterjee a Kulin brahmin
- Gangopādhyāya and its adaptation Ganguli / Ganguly a Kulin brahmin
- Goswami and its adaptation Swami of ones own Gow / further Gow stands for 5 Sense of human body, so sanyasins are those who can master their own senses.
Jāti-Bhāṣkar mentions that those who were given grants along the Ganges by Ballāl Sena were called Gangopādhyāya (literally 'the Vedic teachers in the regions around the Ganges').[18]
Mukhopādhyāya means chief Vedic teacher. Bandopādhyāya is a Sanskritized form of 'Banodha + upādhyāya', Banodha being the ancient name of Raebareli-Unnāva whence their ancestors had come from.[19]
Bhattāchārya meant 'expert of Vedic rituals'. This was an honorary title awarded to a Rādhi, Vārendra or Vaidika brahmin who excelled in spiritual and vedic matters. The Bhattāchārya's are generally referred to as the Hindu Priests in Bengal.
Goswami is a typically a title bestowed on people who choose the path of Sannyasa. The sanyasins or disciples of Adi Shankaracharya are also called "Dash Nam" as the Title Goswami is further divided into ten groups viz. Giri, Puri, Bharti, Ban, Aranya, Sagar, Aashram, Saraswati, Tirth, Yogi and Parwat. These all dashnam Goswamis are associated with four Math in four corners of India, established by Adi Shankaracharya. Initially all the disciples were Sanyasins who embraced sanyas either after marriage or without getting married. Since, sanyasins are considered as Brahmin therefore during the course of time, those who embraced married life on the order of their guru and their decedents are considered Brahmins with the surname Goswami. Being a Goswami Sanyasin includes a vow of celibacy. Some religious traditions use the title Swami for those who had never married, and Goswami for those who had been married in that life and vow not to marry again. This is also the source of the surname Gosain. Goswami can also refer to an individual from the Brahmin caste of the Hindu religion.
Vaidikas
These are of two types :
- Dākṣiṇātyas, coming from Orissa & Andhra originally but now part and parcel of Bengali brahmins.
- Pāschātyas, coming from western and northern India originally but now part of Bengali brahmins.
These were experts of Vaidika knowledge who were invited to Bengal in different ages, later than the original five brahmins from which Rādhi brahmins originated.
Saptaśati
Before the coming of Five Brahmins, there were 700 houses of brahmins in Bengal, but now they are few. They were less learned than the migrants and therefore were deprived of patronage[citation needed]. Some of them mixed with the immigrants, which explains their decline in relative population. Many Saptaśatis became priests of lower castes and were labelled as Agradāni and grahavipra[citation needed]. Main titles are Arath, Bālkhāvi, Jagāye, Pikhoori, Mulkajoori, Bhagāye, Gāi, etc.
Others
- Pirāli : literally, boycotted Brahmins. Some kulin Brahmins mixed with Muslims in eating and other activities and were therefore boycotted by the orthodox sections. Prominent among these were Thākurs, anglicised as Tagores. Thākurs literally meant lords and were big landowners.
- Patita : Some Bengali Brahmins were publicly declared to be fallen Brahmins.
- Chakraborty (Chakravarti) is a title suitable for emperors granted to some Bengali Brahmins.
Another peculiar title is Chir Kori or Chir Koḍi.
Genetics
Bengali Brahmins showed positive results for only three Y-Haplogroups R1a1, R2a and H1. Y-Haplogroups and their respective percentages are shown in the following table.
R1a1 | R2a | H1 |
---|---|---|
72.22% | 22.22% | 5.56% |
Haplogroup R1a1, which has originated either in South Asia[22][23][24] or Central Asia[25][26] or Eastern Europe[27] is the most prevalent haplogroup amongst the Bengali Brahmins. The haplogroup is associated with the spread of the Indo-European culture in Indian sub-continent. A very high percentage of 72.22% among Bengali Brahmins which is also one of the highest found frequencies within world groups hints at its presence as a founder lineage for this caste group.[28]
Impact of British occupation
The kulinist system degenerated during the 18-19th century and is no longer popular. The British occupation of Bengal radically transformed the Bengali culture. Bengal has now gone through two centuries of Christian missionary efforts and a quarter century of a Marxist government in the state of West Bengal. Bengal was divided by the British colonial rulers. Eastern Bengal was a Muslim majority region which resulted in the first partition of Bengal in 1905, and then final partition in 1947. Although the interaction with the British resulting in what is termed the Bengal Renaissance (almost wholly Brahmin and Kayastha) it altered the hold of traditional mainstream Hinduism in the region.
Naming conventions
Many Bengali Brahmin family names are written in two different ways. For example, Chattopadhyay (compound of village name "Chaṭṭa" and "upādhyāya" denoting "priest, teacher" originally granted with the village named Chaṭṭa) is the Sanskritized form of the local Prakrit word "chaturjye", anglicized to Chatterjee.
Similar analyses may be performed on Mukhurjye/Mukherjee/Mukhopādhyāya, Banurjye/Banerjee/Bandyopādhyāya, and Ganguli/Ganguly/Ganggopādhyāya. Bhattāchārya which is made by two words Bhatt or Bhatta (Vedic priest) and Achārya which means teacher also called as Bhattāchārjee. Tagore is the anglicized form of Thakur, meaning "lord". Other Bengali Brahmin family names are anglicized in particular ways that have become the standard English spellings over time. Other Bengali Brahmin surnames are Goswami, Chakraborty, Sanyal, Ghoshal etc.
The most famous Bengali Brahmin family which originally belonged to Calcutta (Kolkata) are the Sabarna Roy Choudhury family (originally Ganggopādhyāyas,who later adopted the zamindari title Roy Choudhury and Sabarna, implying their gotra, which is also the gotra of Ganggopādhyāyas), which had transferred the tenancy rights of Sutanuti, Gobindapur and Kolikata to the East India Company at the behest of the Mughal Emperor.
List of Bengali Brahmin Gotras
The bulk of Bengali Brahmin gotras are:[29]
- Bharadwaja
- Vatsya Gotra
- Kashyapa
- Sabarna or Savarna
- Shandilya
Besides the above mentioned, other gotras can also be found at low frequencies within the Bengali Brahmin community.
Notable Bengali Brahmins
Pre-1757
- Jimutavahana (12th century), a celebrated authority on smriti.
- Krittibas Ojha (1381-1461) composer of the Bengali Ramayan.
- Nityananda Ojha (b 1474 CE), was a Vaishnava saint
- Raghunatha Siromani (1477–1547) a noted Nyaya philosopher.
- Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1534) Hindu religious teacher of the cult of Bhakti yoga, ascetic, social reformer, humanist, supporter of universal brotherhood, rejected caste-system, founder of Gaudiya Vaishnavism.
- Nityananda (1478-1532), companion and disciple of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu
- Advaita Acharya (1434–1539), companion and disciple of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu
- Lakshmikanta Roychoudhury (1570–1649), Founder of Sabarna Roy Choudhury clan and first family of Kolkata who leased it to East India Company.
- Ratneshwar Roychoudhury (1670–1720), Founder of Uttarpara town and member of Sabarna Roy Choudhury clan of Kolkata.
1757-1947
- Lokenath Brahmachari (1730-1890) Hindu religious teacher.
- Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1774-1833) socio-religious reformer (mostly remembered for the abolition of sati), educationist, founder of the Brahmo Samaj.
- Dwarkanath Tagore (1794-1846) one of the first Indian industrialists and enterprueners.
- Kisari Mohan Ganguli first translator of the Mahabharata to English in prose form.
- Ramtanu Lahiri (1813-1898) Young Bengal leader, renowned teacher and social reformer.
- Debendranath Tagore (1817-1905) socio-religious reformer, leader of the Brahmo Samaj, educationist.
- Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (1820–1891) polymath, writer, social reformer (mostly remembered for the introduction of widow remarriage) and educationist.
- Harish Chandra Mukherjee (1824-1861) journalist, associated with the Hindu Patriot , supported the Indigo Revolt and fought aginst the indigo planters for the rights of the peasants.
- Ramakrishna (Gadadhar Chattopadhyay) (1836–1886) Hindu religious teacher and saint, humanist, one of the earliest advocaters of universal brotherhood and equality of world religions, responsible for Hindu revival through the efforts of his disciple Swami Vivekananda.
- Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay (1838–1894), writer, novelist and coined Vande Mataram which became the war-cry of the Indian revolutionaries.
- Dwijendranath Tagore (1840-1926) poet, lyricist, philosopher, mathematician, and a pioneer in Bengali shorthand and musical notations.
- Satyendranath Tagore (1842-1923) author, lyricist, linguist social reformer, made significant contribution towards the emancipation of women in India.
- Dwarkanath Ganguly (1844-1898) social reformer, writer.
- Womesh Chandra Bonerjee (1844-1908) politician, one of the founders of the Indian National Congress.
- Sivanath Sastri (1847-1919) scholar, writer, historian, educationist and socio-religious reformer.
- Troilokyanath Mukhopadhyay (1847-1919) author.
- Surendranath Banerjee (1848-1925) one of the founders of the Indian National Congress.
- Jyotirindranath Tagore (1849-1925) playwright, lyricist, musician, editor and painter.
- Sarada Devi (1853–1920) "Holy Mother", Revered religious leader, wife of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa.
- Haraprasad Shastri (1853-1931) writer, historian, archivist and famous for the discovery of Charyapada, the earliest known examples of Bengali literature.
- Swarnakumari Devi (1855-1932) writer, poet, novelist, musician and social-worker.
- Nabin Chattopadhyay (?-1930) philosopher saint, advocater of an amalgamation of Advaita Vedanta and Mahayana doctrines.
- Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941) polymath, writer, poet, novelist, lyricist, musician, painter, playwright, educationist, social-reformer, the first Nobel Laureate of Asia.
- Dwijendralal Ray (1863-1913) writer, poet, lyricist and playwright.
- Ramendra Sundar Tribedi (1864-1919) writer, mainly known for his essays on science and philosophy.
- Sir Ashutosh Mukherjee (1864–1924) educationist, vice-chancellor of the University of Calcutta (1906–1924),and referred commonly as 'Bengal Tiger'.
- Gaganendranath Tagore (1867-1938) artist, painter and cartoonist, one of the founders of the Bengal School of Art.
- Abanindranath Tagore (1871-1951) artist, painter, one of the founders of the Bengal School of Art, writer, novelist.
- Provatkumar Mukhopadhyay (1873-1932) writer and novelist.
- Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay (1876–1938) writer, novelist, his writings became very popular all over India.
- Bagha Jatin (Jatindra Nath Mukherjee) (1879–1915) freedom fighter and revolutionary leader.
- Sarojini Chattopadhyay (1879-1949) writer, poet, social and political activist.
- Rakhaldas Bandyopadhyay (1885–1930) archaeologist, credited with finding and excavating the Mohenjo-daro (Indus Valley Civilization).
- Bipin Behari Ganguli, (1887-1952) noted freedom fighter.
- Bibhutibhushan Bandopadhyay (1894-1950) writer, novelist (most famous as the author of Pather Panchali).
- Tarashankar Bandopadhyay (1898-1971) writer, novelist.
- Sharadindu Bandyopadhyay (1899-1970) writer, novelist.
- Bonophul (Balai Chand Mukhopadhyay) (1899-1979) writer, novelist.
- Shibram Chakraborty (1903-1980) writer, humorist and revolutionary.
- Satinath Bhaduri (1906-1950) writer, novelist and politician.
- Manik Bandopadhyay (1908-1956) writer, novelist.
- Mohan Maitra (1917-1981) Musician, Sarod Player.
- Narayan Gangopadhyay (1918-1970) writer, dramatist and novelist.
- Narayan Sanyal (1924-2005) writer, novelist, dramatist.
- Sukanta Bhattacharya (1926-1947) poet.
- Mahasweta Devi (1926-present) writer, novelist and social activist.
Post-1947
- Shyama Prasad Mukherjee, founder president, the Bharatiya Jana Sangh
- Subroto Mukerjee First Chief of Staff of post-independence Indian Air Force
- Kishore Kumar Ganguly, celebrated singer and actor
- Ashok Kumar Ganguly, actor
- Admiral Adhar Kumar Chatterji, first four star Admiral of the Indian Navy
- Chuni Goswami, football player
- Ravi Shankar, sitar player
- Buddhadeb Bhattacharya Former Chief Minister of West Bengal 2000-2011
- Pranab Mukherjee, President of India
- Mamata Banerjee, current Chief Minister of West Bengal Since 2011
- Somnath Chatterjee, speaker of the Lok Sabha (2004-9)
- Shirshendu Mukhopadhyay, author
- Sunil Gangopadhyay, poet and novelist
- Sourav Ganguly,former Indian cricketer and captain of the Indian national team
- Suchitra Bhattacharya, novelist
- Bharati Mukherjee, author
- Subhash Mukhopadhyay, poet
- Harindranath Chattopadhyay, noted poet and actor
- Keshto Mukherjee, noted comedian/actor
- Joy Mukherjee, actor
- Joy Goswami, poet
- Soumitra Chatterjee, actor
- Uttam Kumar (Arun Kumar Chatterjee), actor
- Victor Banerjee, actor
- Madhabi Mukherjee, actress
- Kajol Devgn, actress, a bengali-marathi brahmin
- Rani Mukherjee, actress
- Benode Behari Mukherjee, painter
- Budhaditya Mukherjee, painter
- Hemanta Mukhopadhyay, singer and music director
- Kumar Sanu, singer
- Amit Kumar Ganguly, singer
- Shaan, popular singer
- Madhushree, singer
- Abhijeet Bhattacharya, singer
- Shreya Ghoshal, singer
- Richa Gangopadhyay, actress
- Rachana Banerjee, actress
- Sayantika Banerjee, actress
- Jenni Banerjee, actress
- Bikash Ranjan Bhattacharya, Former mayor of Kolkata
- Hrishikesh Mukherjee, film director
- Basu Chatterjee, film director
- Basu Bhattacharya, director
- Mithun Chakraborty, actor
- Nikhil Banerjee, sitar player
- Prasun Mukherjee, Police Commissioner
- Jaideep Mukherjea, Tennis Player
- Pritam Chakraborty, music director
- Sourav Ganguly, former captain of Indian cricket team
- Jhulan Goswami, all round cricketer who plays for the India national women's cricket team
- Upamanyu Chatterjee, Indian Civil Servant and author of 'English, August'
- Moushumi Chatterjee, actress
- Bibhas Chakraborty, Theatre Practitioner and Cultural Icon
- Kanika Bandopadhyay, noted Rabindrasangeet exponent.
See also
Notes
- ^ Saraswati, Swami Sahajanand (2003). Swami Sahajanand Saraswati Rachnawali in Six volumes (in Volume 1). Delhi: Prakashan Sansthan. pp. 519 (at p 68–69) (Volume 1). ISBN 81-7714-097-3.
- ^ A History of Brahmin Clans, p.288
- ^ cf. Some Historical Aspects of the Inscription of Bengal, page xii
- ^ a b c d e cf. Banger Jatiya Itihash, Brahman Kanda, Vol 1
- ^ cf. History of Brahmin Clans,page 281
- ^ cf. Banger Jatiya Itihash, Brahman Kanda, Vol 3, Chapter 1
- ^ cf. Hindu Castes and Sects, Jogendranath Bhattacharya, Part III, Chap 1, Pg 35
- ^ cf. Samaj Biplab ba Brahman Andalon, Dinabandhu Acharya Vedashastri
- ^ Vāri+indra, Vāri meant water : cf.A History of Brahmin Clans , page 283.
- ^ cf. Harimishra, कोलांचदेशतः पंचविपरा ज्ञानतपोयुताः । महाराजादिशूरेण समानीताः सपत्नीकाः ॥
- ^ cf. History of Brahmin Clans,page 281-283
- ^ cf. History of Brahmin Clans,page 281 : this book quotes Krishna-Charita by Vidyāsāgar for dating.
- ^ cf. D.D. kosambi, p. 123.
- ^ cf. Rajatarangini, Tarang 4, Verse 421
- ^ cf. Hindu Castes and Sects, Jogendranath Bhattacharya, Part III, Chap 1, Pg 36
- ^ Samaj Biplab ba Brahman Andalon, Dinabandhu Acharya Vedashastri
- ^ Kuladīpīkā quoted in History of Brahmin Clans,page 283
- ^ Jāti-Bhāṣkar quoted in History of Brahmin Clans,page 285
- ^ History of Brahmin Clans,page 287
- ^ Sengupta et al. (2005)
- ^ Sharma et al. (2009)
- ^ European Journal of Human Genetics. "European Journal of Human Genetics - Separating the post-Glacial coancestry of European and Asian Y chromosomes within haplogroup R1a". Nature.com. Retrieved 2012-07-13.
- ^ http://www.nature.com/jhg/journal/v54/n1/full/jhg20082a.html
- ^ European Journal of Human Genetics (2009-03-04). "European Journal of Human Genetics - Y-Chromosome distribution within the geo-linguistic landscape of northwestern Russia". Nature.com. Retrieved 2012-07-13.
- ^ "BMC Genetics | Full text | Genetic affinities among the lower castes and tribal groups of India: inference from Y chromosome and mitochondrial DNA". Biomedcentral.com. Retrieved 2012-07-13.
- ^ "Presence of three different paternal li - PubMed Mobile". Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. 2012-05-24. Retrieved 2012-07-13.
- ^ "Abstract/Presentation". Ichg2011.org. 2011-10-14. Retrieved 2012-07-13.
- ^ Sharma et al. (2007)
- ^ cf. Hindu Castes and Sects, Jogendranath Bhattacharya
References
- Swami Sahajanand Saraswati Rachnawali (Selected works of Swami Sahajanand Saraswati), Prakashan Sansthan, Delhi, 2003.
- Kalhana's Rajatarangini: A Chronicle of the Kings of Kashmir; 3 Volumes > M.A.Stein (translator), (Introduction by Mohammad Ishaq Khan),published by Saujanya Books at Srinagar,2007, (First Edition pub. in 1900),ISBN 81-8339-043-9 / 8183390439.
- A History of Brahmin Clans (Brāhmaṇa Vaṃshõ kā Itihāsa) in Hindi, by Dorilāl Śarmā,published by Rāśtriya Brāhamana Mahāsabhā, Vimal Building, Jamirābād, Mitranagar, Masūdābād,Aligarh-1, 2nd ed-1998. (This Hindi book contains the most exhaustive list of Brahmana gotras and pravaras together their real and mythological histories).
- Jāti-Bhāṣkara by Pt. Jwālā Prasād Misra, published by Khemaraj Shrikrishnadas, (1914).
- An Introduction to the Study of Indian History, by Damodar Dharmanand Kosāmbi, Popular Prakasan,35c Tadeo Road, Popular Press Building, Bombay-400034, First Edition: 1956, Revised Second Edition: 1975.
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