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Overseas censorship of Chinese issues refers to censorship outside the People's Republic of China of topics considered sensitive by the ruling Communist Party of China. Censored topics include the political status of Taiwan, human rights in Tibet, Xinjiang re-education camps, the Tiananmen Square Massacre, the 2019 Hong Kong protests, and human rights in China in general.

Censorship is undertaken by foreign companies wishing to do business in China, a growing phenomenon given the country's increasing economic prominence.[1][2][3] Companies seeking to avoid offending Chinese customers have engaged in self-censorship and, if accused of offending PRC government sensibilities, have performed "a 21st century kowtow" by posting apologies or making statements in support of government policy.[4]

Censorship of overseas services is also undertaken by companies based in China, such as WeChat[5][6] and TikTok.[7] Chinese citizens living abroad as well as family residing in China have also been subject to threats to their employment, education, pension, and business opportunities if they engage in expression critical of the Chinese government or its policies.[8] In the absence of pushback by foreign governments and corporations, these issues have led to growing concern about compelled speech and a chilling effect on free speech in other countries.[9][10][11]

Censored topics

The "Three Ts and Two Cs"

Traditionally foreign companies wishing to do business in China needed to avoid references to the "Three Ts and the Two Cs": Tibet, Taiwan, the Tiananmen Square Massacre, "cults" such as Falun Gong, and criticism of the Chinese Communist Party.[12][13][14] This included related topics such as the Dalai Lama who the Chinese government considers a subversive Tibetan "splittist" and opposes any expressions of support from foreign governments or organisations.[15]

In the early 21st century, companies faced potential backlash on a broader range of issues relating to China, such as failing to include Hong Kong or Taiwan as part of China on their websites in violation of the One China Policy.[12] Further sensitive topics include the recognition of the Chinese government's Nine-Dash Line in the South China Sea dispute, treatment of Muslim Uyghurs in Xinjiang re-education camps and the 2019 Hong Kong protests.[16]

Notable examples

Academia

There is growing concern that the Chinese government is trying to silence its critics abroad, particularly in academic settings.[17] Historically censorship in China was contained within the country's borders, but following the ascension of Xi Jinping to General Secretary of the Communist Party of China in 2012, the focus has expanded to silencing dissent and criticism abroad, particularly in academia.[18]

There have been a number of incidents of Chinese students studying abroad in Western universities seeking to censor academics or students who espouse views inconsistent with the official Chinese Communist Party position. This includes intimidation and violence against Auckland University and University of Queensland protesters demonstrating in support of Hong Kong and Uyghurs,[19][20] challenging lecturers whose course materials do not follow the One China Policy by listing Hong Kong and Taiwan as separate countries,[21] and tearing down Lennon Walls in support of the Hong Kong democracy movement.[22] In 2019 the PRC Consul-General in Brisbane, Xu Jie, faced legal proceedings by a student who had organised a demonstration in support of the 2019 Hong Kong protests, alleging that Jie incited death threats by accusing him of "anti-Chinese separatism".[23]

Academics in British universities teaching on Chinese topics were also warned by the Chinese Government to support the Chinese Communist Party or be refused entry to the country.[24] American universities have engaged in self-censorship on Chinese issues, including North Carolina State University cancelling a visit by the Dalai Lama in 2009 and University of Maryland Chinese student Yang Shuping apologising after harsh reaction to her commencement speech praising the "fresh air" of democracy and freedom in the United States.[25]

In November 2019, Columbia University gained attention when it canceled a panel on human rights in China titled "Panopticism with Chinese Characteristics: Human rights violations by the Chinese Communist Party and how they affect the world."[26] Panel organizers criticized the university for allegedly compromising academic freedom by acquiescing to undue influence and threats of disturbances.[27]

Confucius Institutes

See also: Criticism of Confucius Institutes and Braga incident

Concerns have been raised about the activities of Chinese Government-funded Confucius Institutes in western universities, which are subject to Hanban rules preventing the discussion of sensitive topics including Tibet, Tiananmen Square and Taiwan.[28] Human Rights Watch considers the Confucius Institutes to be extensions of the Chinese government that consider political loyalty in their hiring decisions.[28][29]

In 2019 media reports emerged that four of the University of Queensland's courses relating to China had been funded by the local Confucius Institute, with the university's senate ending such deals in May 2019.[30] The university's vice-chancellor, Peter Høj, had previously been a senior consultant to Hanban.[30]

Chinese Students and Scholars Association

Main article: Chinese Students and Scholars Association

The Chinese Students and Scholars Association has branches in various overseas university campuses.[31] The association is partly funded by, and reports back to, the local Chinese Embassy.[31] One of the aims of the Association is to "love the motherland".[31] There is a history of branches pressuring their host university to cancel talks relating to Tibet, the Chinese democracy movement, Uyghurs and the Hong Kong protests.[32]

The McMaster University branch in Canada had its club status revoked in 2019 after coordinating its opposition to a speech by Uyghur activist Rukiye Turdush with the local Chinese consulate, including sending back footage, in violation of student union rules.[32][33] The Adelaide University branch was deregistered for failing to follow democratic procedures.[31]

Airlines

In 2018, the Civil Aviation Administration of China sent letters to 44 international airlines demanding that they cease referring to Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau as separate countries on their websites, or risk being classified as "severely untrustworthy" and subject to sanctions.[34] Despite being criticised by the United States Government as "Orwellian nonsense", all airlines complied.[35]

Airline Date Details
American Airlines July 2018 The American carrier stopped listing Taiwan as a country on its website.[36]
Delta Airlines July 2018 The American carrier stopped listing Taiwan as a country on its website.[36]
Qantas 4 June 2018 The Australian carrier announced it would list Taiwan as a Chinese province rather than a separate country on its website,[37] after earlier stating that listing Taiwan and Hong Kong as countries on its website was a "mistake".[38]
United Airlines July 2018 The American carrier stopped listing Taiwan as a country on its website.[36]

Dalai Lama international meetings

The PRC opposes any meeting by foreign politicians with the Dalai Lama, even in a personal capacity.[39]

Film industry

See also: Film censorship in China

Hollywood producers generally seek to comply with the Chinese government's censorship requirements in a bid to access the country's restricted and lucrative cinema market,[40] with the second-largest box office in the world as of 2016. This includes prioritising sympathetic portrayals of Chinese characters in movies, such as changing the villains in Red Dawn from Chinese to North Korean and making Chinese scientists the saviours of civilisation in the disaster film 2012.[40] In 2016, Marvel Entertainment attracted criticism for its decision to cast Tilda Swinton as "The Ancient One" in the film adaptation Doctor Strange, using a white woman to play a traditionally Tibetan character.[41][42] The film's co-writer, C. Robert Cargill, stated in an interview that this was done to avoid angering China:[43]

The Ancient One was a racist stereotype who comes from a region of the world that is in a very weird political place. He originates from Tibet, so if you acknowledge that Tibet is a place and that he's Tibetan, you risk alienating one billion people who think that that's bullshit and risk the Chinese government going, "Hey, you know one of the biggest film-watching countries in the world? We're not going to show your movie because you decided to get political."

Although Tibet was previously a cause célèbre in Hollywood, featuring in films including Kundun and Seven Years in Tibet, in the 21st century this is no longer the case.[44] Actor and high-profile Tibet supporter Richard Gere stated that he was no longer welcome to participate in mainstream Hollywood films after criticising the PRC Government in 1993, acting in a 1997 film critical of the PRC's legal system (Red Corner), and calling for a boycott of the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing.[44][45]

International organisations

Main article: Chinese Taipei

Although Chinese Taipei was initially agreed under the Nagoya Resolution as the name to be used for the Taiwanese team at the Olympic Games since the 1980s, the PRC Government has now insisted that the term be used to refer to Taiwan in other international organisations including the International Monetary Fund[46] and the World Bank.[47] The PRC government has also pressured international beauty pageants including Miss World, Miss Universe and Miss Earth to only allow Taiwanese contestants competing under the designation "Miss Chinese Taipei" rather than "Miss Taiwan".[48][49]

Publishing

Cambridge University Press drew criticism in 2017 for removing articles from its China Quarterly covering topics such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square massacre, Tibet, Xinjiang, Hong Kong and the Cultural Revolution to avoid having its Chinese operations shut down.[50][51] Springer Nature also acceded to Chinese demands to censor articles relating to Chinese politics, Taiwan, Tibet and human rights.[52][53]

In 2017 the Australian publisher Allen & Unwin refused to publish Clive Hamilton's book Silent Invasion about growing Chinese Communist Party influence in Australia, fearing potential legal action from the Chinese government or its local proxies under the auspices of the United Front Work Department.[54][55]

Publishers using Chinese printers have also been subject to local censorship, including in relation to books not intended for sale in China.[56] Books with maps face particular scrutiny, with one Victoria University Press book Fifteen Million Years in Antarctica required to remove the English term "Mount Everest" in favour of the Chinese equivalent "Mount Qomolangma".[56] This has led publishers to consider printers in alternative countries, such as Vietnam.[56]

Whistleblower Edward Snowden criticised Chinese censors for removing passages in the translated version of his book Permanent Record, in which passages about authoritarianism, democracy, freedom of speech and privacy were removed.[57]

Technology companies

See also: Censorship by Apple § China, Cisco Systems § Censorship in China, Censorship by Google § China, Criticism of Microsoft § Censorship in China, Criticism of Myspace § MySpace China, Skype § Service in the People's Republic of China, and Criticism of Yahoo! § Work in the People's Republic of China

Several American technology companies cooperate with Chinese government policies, including internet censorship, such as helping authorities build the Great Firewall of China to restrict access to sensitive information.[58] The Chinese government is increasingly pressuring overseas individuals and companies to cooperate with its censorship model, including in relation to overseas communications made by foreign people for non-Chinese audiences.[59]

Other instances

The table below includes notable instances outside China where a government, company or other entity has censored a China-related issue.

Entity Date Details
Microsoft 4 January 2006 The company removed the blog of Chinese journalist Zhao Jing from its MSN Spaces website, which was hosted on servers based in the United States.[60]
Nasdaq February 2007 In 2007 Nasdaq's Chinese representative Laurence Pan was detained and interrogated about access to its exchange by New Tang Dynasty Television, a Falun Gong-linked media organisation. That organisation was subsequently denied access by Nasdaq.[61]
Eutelsat 2008 The media company cut New Tang Dynasty Television's signal to "show a good gesture to the Chinese government".[61]
Government of Vietnam 11 November 2011 The country imprisoned two Falun Gong activists who transmitted radio messages into China for "illegal transmission of information on a telecommunications network".[62]
Bing 12 February 2014 The search engine censored simplified Chinese language results for users in the United States for search terms including "Dalai Lama", "June 4 incident", Falun Gong and anti-censorship tool Freegate.[63]
LinkedIn 4 June 2014 The company blocked users outside China from viewing content posted by Chinese users that is restricted by the Chinese government.[64]
Chou Tzu-yu 16 January 2016 The Taiwan-born K-pop singer issued an apology for being pictured with the Taiwanese flag, following sustained online attacks on her and her band Twice by Chinese internet users.[65]
Microsoft 22 November 2016 The company programmed its Chinese language artificial intelligence-based chatbot Xiaobing to avoid discussing sensitive topics such as Tiananmen Square.[66]
Apple Inc. 7 January 2017 The company removed the New York Times app from its Chinese app store following Chinese Government advice that it violated local regulations.[67] This led to the company being accused by online advocates of "globalising Chinese censorship".[68]
Allen & Unwin 12 November 2017 The Australian publisher refused to publish Clive Hamilton's book Silent Invasion about growing Chinese Communist Party influence in Australia on the basis that it feared legal action from the Chinese Government or its proxies.[54]
Marriott International 12 January 2018 The hotel chain issued an apology and was ordered by the Cyberspace Administration of China to shut its Chinese website and booking application for one week after an employee managing its social media "liked" a tweet thanking the company for listing Tibet as a country on a customer questionnaire alongside Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau.[69] After the Shanghai Municipal Tourism Administration ordered the company to "seriously deal with the people responsible", it dismissed the employee.[70][71]
Mercedes Benz 7 February 2018 The German car maker issued an apology on Weibo for "hurting the feelings" of the people of China after quoting the Dalai Lama on Instagram, a service banned in China.[72] The company also sent a formal letter to the Chinese Ambassador in Germany, stating that it had "no intention of questioning or challenging in any manner China's sovereignty or territorial integrity."[73]
Gap Inc. 15 May 2018 The company apologised after photographs circulated of a t-shirt sold in Canada that featured a map of China omitting Taiwan, Tibet and China's South China Sea territorial claim.[74][75]
TikTok 25 September 2019 The Guardian revealed the TikTok app's moderation guidelines prohibiting content mentioning Tiananmen Square, Tibetan independence and Falun Gong.[76] Content criticising the Chinese Government's persecution of ethnic minorities or mentioning the 2019 Hong Kong protests are also removed.[7] ByteDance, the app's Beijing-based owner responded to the media reports by stating that the leaked moderation guidelines were "outdated" and that it had introduced localised guidelines for different countries.[76] Searches relating to Hong Kong on the app found no content referencing the ongoing protests.[77] Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg also criticised the platform for its censorship of Hong Kong protest content, asking "is this the internet we want?"[78]
Apple Inc. 2 October 2019 The company banned the HKmap.live app from its App Store, which allowed for crowd-sourced information about the location of protestors and police in Hong Kong.[79] It did so on the basis that the app "allowed users to evade law enforcement".[80] The same month Apple banned the Quartz app due to its coverage of the 2019 Hong Kong protests.[81]
Sheraton 3 October 2019 The chain's Stockholm hotel cancelled a celebration of Taiwan's Double Ten national holiday after pressure from the Chinese Ambassador; it was moved to a local museum.[82][83]
Tiffany & Co. 7 October 2019 The jewellery company deleted a photo on one of its social media accounts of a woman covering one eye, which a number of Chinese internet users considered to evoke the image of a Hong Kong protestor who had been shot in one eye.[12]
Activision Blizzard 8 October 2019 The company withdrew the prize from the winner of an online game tournament after he wore goggles and a mask and spoke in support of the 2019 Hong Kong protests in a post-game interview.[84] The company is partly owned by Tencent.[12]
ESPN 8 October 2019 Chuck Salituro, the channel's senior news director, sent an internal memo to staff banning any discussion of political issues concerning China or Hong Kong when covering the controversy of Daryl Morey's tweet in support of Hong Kong protestors.[85]
Wells Fargo Center, Philadelphia 9 October 2019 Center staff removed fans shouting "Free Hong Kong" at a pre-season game between the Philadelphia 76ers and Guangzhou Loong Lions.[86]
National Basketball Association 10 October 2019 CNN journalist Christina Macfarlane was shut down and had her microphone removed at an NBA press conference after asking players James Harden and Russell Westbrook if they would feel differently about speaking out in future following the NBA's censorship of comments that are critical of China.[87]
Christian Dior 17 October 2019 Christian Dior issued a public apology on its Weibo account for displaying a map during a university presentation that did not include Taiwan.[88]
Maserati 25 October 2019 Maserati asked a local car dealership to cut all ties with Taiwan's Golden Horse Film Festival and Awards and stated that it "firmly upholds the one-China principle."[89]
DC Comics 27 November 2019 DC Comics removed a promotional Batman poster after it triggered criticism from mainland China netizens that its imagery, featuring Batwoman throwing a molotov cocktail beside the words "The future is young", was sympathetic to Hong Kong protesters.[90][91]
TikTok 28 November 2019 The platform apologised after blocking American user Feroza Aziz following a video which she made drawing attention to the mistreatment of Muslims in the Xinjiang re-education camps, which she disguised as a make-up tutorial to evade censorship.[92]
Condé Nast 6 December 2019 GQ magazine removed Xi Jinping from its "Worst Dressed" list on its website along with the caption: "It is not Hong Kong's courageous freedom fighters that Xi Jinping should have a problem with. It's his tailor. Xi gets totalitarian style cues from his hero, the mass murderer Chairman Mao, who enforced a dour and plain dress code for the Communist Party."[93]
Arsenal F.C. 15 December 2019 Arsenal footballer Mesut Özil posted a poem on his social media account denouncing China's treatment of Uyghurs in Xinjiang re-education camps and the silence of Muslim countries on the issue.[94][95][96] Arsenal later released a statement distancing itself from the comments.[97] China's state broadcaster China Central Television responded two days later by removing the match between Arsenal and Manchester City from its schedule.[98][99]

Opposition and resistance

In 2010 Google opposed China's censorship policies, ultimately leaving the country.[100] By 2017 the company had dropped its opposition, including planning a Chinese Communist Party-approved censored search engine named Project Dragonfly.[101] Work on the project was terminated in 2019.[102]

In 2019 Comedy Central's animated sitcom South Park released the episode "Band in China", which satirised the self-censorship of Hollywood producers to suit Chinese censors and featured one character yelling "Fuck the Chinese Government!".[103][104] This was followed by a mock apology from the show's creators Trey Parker and Matt Stone, which also made light of a recent controversy involving the NBA's alleged appeasement of Chinese government censorship:[103]

Like the NBA, we welcome the Chinese censors into our homes and into our hearts. We too love money more than freedom and democracy. Tune into our 300th episode this Wednesday at 10! Long live the great Communist Party of China. May the autumn's sorghum harvest be bountiful. We good now China?

The show was banned in mainland China following the incident.[103] Protesters in Hong Kong screened the episode on the city's streets.[105]

See also

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